History of women in Puerto Rico
Mulattos |
The recorded history of Puerto Rican women can trace its roots back to the era of the Taíno, the indigenous people of the Caribbean, who inhabited the island that they called Boriken before the arrival of Spaniards. During the Spanish colonization the cultures and customs of the Taíno, Spanish, African and women from non-Hispanic European countries blended into what became the culture and customs of Puerto Rico.
In the early part of the 19th century the women in Puerto Rico were Spanish subjects and had few individual rights. Those who belonged to the upper class of the Spanish ruling society had better educational opportunities than those who did not. However, there were many women who were already active participants in the labor movement and in the agricultural economy of the island.[2]
After Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States in 1898 as a result of the Spanish–American War, women once again played an integral role in
During
According to the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, women who are born to Puerto Rican parents in the United States or elsewhere, are considered to be Puerto Rican citizens. On November 18, 1997, the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, through its ruling in Miriam J. Ramirez de Ferrer v. Juan Mari Brás, reaffirmed the standing existence of the Puerto Rican citizenship.[3] Since 2007, the Government of Puerto Rico has been issuing "Certificates of Puerto Rican Citizenship" to anyone born in Puerto Rico or to anyone born outside of Puerto Rico with at least one parent who was born in Puerto Rico.[4]
Currently, women in Puerto Rico and outside of Puerto Rico have become active participants in the political and social landscape in both, their homeland and in the continental United States. Many of them are involved in the fields that were once limited to the male population and have thus, become influential leaders in their fields.
Pre-Columbian era (up to 1493)
Puerto Rico was originally called "Boriken" by the
The Taíno women
The Taíno women cooked, tended to the needs of the family, their farms and harvested crops. According to Ivonne Figueroa, editor of the El Boricua cultural magazine, women who were mothers carried their babies on their backs on a padded board that was secured to the baby's forehead.[6] Women did not dedicate themselves solely to cooking and the art of motherhood; many were also talented artists and made pots, grills, and griddles from river clay by rolling the clay into rope and then layering it to form or shape. Taíno women also carved drawings (petroglyphs) into stone or wood. The Taína's were also warriors and could join the men in battle against the Caribs. According to the Spanish conquistadores, the Carib Indians were cannibals who regularly ate roasted human flesh. Archaeological evidence indicates that they limited the consumption of humans to ceremonial occasions.[7] Even though the men were allowed to have more than one wife, most of them didn't. The cacique (tribal chief) was the only person who could afford to sustain multiple wives. It was a great honor for a woman to be married to a cacique. Not only did she enjoy a materially superior lifestyle, but her children were held in high esteem.[8][9] According to an observation made by doctor Diego Alvarez Chanca, who accompanied Columbus on his second voyage:
The Taina women made blankets,
The naguas were a long cotton skirt that the woman made. The native women and girls wore the naguas without a top. They were representative of each woman's status, the longer the skirt, the higher the woman's status.
Spanish colonial era (1493–1898)
The Spanish Conquistadores were soldiers who arrived on the island without women. This contributed to many of them marrying the native Taína. The peace between the Spaniards and the Taínos was short-lived. The Spaniards took advantage of the Taínos' good faith and enslaved them, forcing them to work in the gold mines and in the construction of forts. Many Taínos died as a result either of the cruel treatment that they had received or of
Women from Spain
Spain encouraged the settlement of Puerto Rico by offering and making certain concessions to families who were willing to settle the new colony. Many farmers moved to the island with their families and together with the help of their wives developed the land's agriculture. High ranking government and military officials also settled the island and made Puerto Rico their home. The women in Puerto Rico were commonly known for their roles as mothers and housekeepers. They contributed to the household income by sewing and selling the clothes that they created. Women's rights were unheard of and their contributions to the island's society were limited.
The island, which depended on an agricultural economy, had an illiteracy rate of over 80% at the beginning of the 19th century. Most women were home educated. The first library in Puerto Rico was established in 1642, in the Convent of San Francisco, access to its books was limited to those who belonged to the religious order.[15] The only women who had access to the libraries and who could afford books were the wives and daughters of Spanish government officials or wealthy land owners. Those who were poor had to resort to oral story-telling in what are traditionally known in Puerto Rico as Coplas and Decimas.[16]
Despite these limitations the women of Puerto Rico were proud of their homeland and helped defend it against foreign invaders. According to a popular Puerto Rican legend, when the British troops lay siege to San Juan, Puerto Rico, the night of April 30, 1797, the townswomen, led by a bishop, formed a rogativa (prayer procession) and marched throughout the streets of the city singing hymns, carrying torches, and praying for the deliverance of the city. Outside the walls, particularly from the sea, the British navy mistook this torch-lit religious parade for the arrival of Spanish reinforcements. When morning arrived, the British were gone from the island, and the city was saved from a possible invasion.[17]
Women from Africa
The Spanish colonists, feared the loss of their Taino labor force due to the protests of Friar Bartolomé de las Casas at the council of Burgos at the Spanish Court. The friar was outraged at the Spanish treatment of the Taíno and was able to secure their rights and freedom.[18] The colonists protested before the Spanish courts. They complained that they needed manpower to work in the mines, the fortifications and the thriving sugar industry. As an alternative, the friar suggested the importation and use of black slaves from Africa. In 1517, the Spanish Crown permitted its subjects to import twelve slaves each, thereby beginning the slave trade in their colonies.[19]
According to historian Luis M. Diaz, the largest contingent of African slaves came from the Gold Coast, Nigeria, and Dahomey, and the region known as the area of Guineas, the Slave Coast. However, the vast majority were Yorubas and Igbos, ethnic groups from Nigeria, and Bantus from the Guineas.[16]
Most African women were forced to work in the fields picking fruits and/or cotton. Those who worked in the master's house did so as maids or nannies. In 1789, the Spanish Crown issued the "Royal Decree of Graces of 1789", also known as "El Código Negro" (The Black code). In accordance to "El Código Negro" the slave could buy his freedom. Those who did became known as "freeman" or "freewoman".[20] On March 22, 1873, the Spanish National Assembly finally abolished slavery in Puerto Rico. The owners were compensated with 35 million pesetas per slave, and the former slaves were required to work for their former masters for three more years.[20][21]
The influence of the African culture began to make itself felt on the island. They introduced a mixture of Portuguese, Spanish, and the language spoken in the Congo in what is known as "Bozal" Spanish. They also introduced what became the typical dances of Puerto Rico such as the Bomba and the Plena, which are likewise rooted in Africa. African women also contributed to the development of Puerto Rican cuisine that has a strong African influence. The melange of flavors that make up the typical Puerto Rican cuisine counts with the African touch. Pasteles, small bundles of meat stuffed into a dough made of grated green banana (sometimes combined with pumpkin, potatoes, plantains, or yautía) and wrapped in plantain leaves, were devised by African women on the island and based upon food products that originated in Africa.[22][23]
One of the first Afro-Puerto Rican women to gain notability was Celestina Cordero, a "freewoman", who in 1820, founded the first school for girls in San Juan. Despite the fact that she was subject to racial discrimination for being a black free women, she continued to pursue her goal to teach others regardless of their race and or social standing. After several years of struggling her school was officially recognized by the Spanish government as an educational institution. By the second half of the 19th century the Committee of Ladies of Honor of the Economical Society of Friends of Puerto Rico (Junta de Damas de Honor de la Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País) or the Association of Ladies for the Instruction of Women (Asociacion de Damas para la instruccion de la Mujer) were established.[24]
Women from non-Hispanic Europe
In the early 1800s, the
Hundreds of women from
A good example of their contributions to the culture of Puerto Rico is Edna Coll, a Puerto Rican of Irish descent. She was an educator, author and one of the founders of the Academy of Fine Arts in Puerto Rico.[28] The cultural customs and traditions of the women who immigrated to Puerto Rico from non-Hispanic nations blended in with those of the Taino, Spanish and African to become what is now the culture, customs and traditions of Puerto Rico.[29][30][31]
Early literary, civil, and political leaders
During the 19th century, women in Puerto Rico began to express themselves through their literary work. Among them was
Puerto Rican women also expressed themselves against the political injustices practiced in the island against the people of Puerto Rico by the Spanish Crown. The critical state of the economy, together with the growing repression imposed by the Spaniards, served as catalysts for rebellion. Submission and dependence were key ingredients in the colonial formula. In order to guarantee colonial order, it was made sure that women obeyed the laws of the church and the state. Elite women were not allowed to actively participate in politics under colonial rule.[38]
Some women embraced the revolutionary cause of Puerto Rican independence. There was also an emergence of women's organizations in an attempt to face the island's economic uncertainty. Laundresses organized on several occasions to demand proper working conditions, which presented a potential threat to the colonial establishment. Literary discussion groups for women emerged, convening in the homes of intellectual women, Tensions rose in 1857 when there was a dispute between the laundresses and the mayor of the now defunct town of San Mateo de Cangrejos [note 1][38]
In the 19th century, the number of magazines and publications published and distributed by, about, and for elite and professional women increased in San Juan. These publications included La Guirnalda Puertorriqueña (1856), Las Brisas de Borinquén (1864), and La Azucena (1870). These publications were the origin of the relationship between elite women, bourgeois feminism, and journalism.[38]
After the abolition of slavery, the recently freed women of African heritage moved to urban areas with little tolerance for social and labor control.
In 1868, many Puerto Rican women participated in the uprising known as
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You may listen to Rodríguez de Tió's version of the "La Borinqueña" on YouTube interpreted by Puerto Rican singer Danny Rivera . |
Lola Rodríguez de Tio believed in equal rights for women, the abolition of slavery and actively participated in the
American colonial era (1898–present)
Puerto Rico became an unincorporated territory of the United States or an American colony as defined by the
Soon after the U.S. assumed control of the island, the United States government believed that overpopulation of the island would lead to disastrous social and economic conditions, and instituted public policies aimed at controlling the rapid growth of the population.[47] To deal with this situation, in 1907 the U.S. instituted a public policy that gave the state the right "to sterilize unwilling and unwitting people". The passage of Puerto Rico Law 116 in 1937, codified the island government's population control program. This program was designed by the Eugenics Board and both U.S. government funds and contributions from private individuals supported the initiative. However, instead of providing Puerto Rican women with access to alternative forms of safe, legal and reversible contraception, the U.S. policy promoted the use of permanent sterilization. The US-driven Puerto Rican measure was so overly charged that women of childbearing age in Puerto Rico were more than 10 times more likely to be sterilized than were women from the U.S.[48]
From 1898 to 1917, many Puerto Rican women who wished to travel to the United States suffered discrimination. Such was the case of
The Americanization process of Puerto Rico also hindered the educational opportunities for the women of Puerto Rico since teachers were imported from the United States and schools were not allowed to conduct their instruction using the Spanish language. Women who belonged to the wealthier families were able to attend private schools either in Spain or the United States, but those who were less fortunate worked as housewives, in domestic jobs, or in the so-called needle industry. Women such as Nilita Vientós Gastón, defended the use of the Spanish language in schools and in the courts of Puerto Rico, before the Supreme Court, and won.[50] Nilita Vientós Gaston was an educator, writer, journalist and later became the first female lawyer to work for the Department of Justice of Puerto Rico.[50]
Suffrage and women's rights
Women such as
As in most countries, women were not allowed to vote in public elections. The University of Puerto Rico graduated many women who became interested in improving female influence in civic and political areas. This resulted in a significant increase in women who became teachers and educators but also in the emergence of female leaders in the suffragist and women's rights movements. Among the women who became educators and made notable contributions to the educational system of the island were Dr.
Women's rights, in the early 1900s, opened the doors of opportunity for the women of Puerto Rico making it possible for them to work in positions and professions which were traditionally occupied by men, including the medical profession. The first female medical practitioners in the island were Drs.
Many women also worked as nurses, bearing the burden of improving public health on the island. In 1914, Rosa A. González earned a degree in nursing, established various health clinics throughout Puerto Rico and was the founder of The Association of Registered Nurses of Puerto Rico. González authored two books related to her field in which she denounced the discrimination against women and nurses in Puerto Rico. In her books she quoted the following:[59]
In our country any man who is active in a political party, will be considered capable of handling an administrative position, regardless of how inept he is.
To this day the "Medical Class" has not accepted nurses who have the same goal as doctors: the well-being of the patient. Both professions need each other in order to be successful.
In her book Los hechos desconocidos (The unknown facts) she denounced the corruption, abuses and unhealthy practices in the municipal hospital of San Juan. Gonzale's publication convinced
In the early 1900s, women also became involved in the labor movement. During a farm workers' strike in 1905,
When World War I ended Victoria Hernández, the sister of composer Rafael Hernández, moved to New York City to join both of her brothers who were recently discharged from the Army. She found a job as a seamstress in a factory and in her spare time she taught embroidery. In 1927, Victoria established a music store called "Almacenes Hernández" in El Barrio at 1735 Madison Avenue. She thus, became the first female Puerto Rican to own a music store in New York City. Her business continued to grow and this placed her in a position where she could act as a liaison between the major record companies and the Latino community and as such serve as a booking agent for many Puerto Rican musicians. Hernández began her own record label, however she was forced to close her business because of the Great Depression in 1929. She moved to Mexico, but returned to New York in 1941. She established another record store that she named Casa Hernández at 786 Prospect Ave. in the South Bronx. There she also sold clothes and gave piano lessons. She lost interest in the music business after the death of her brother Rafael, in 1965, and in 1969, sold her business to Mike Amadeo, a fellow Puerto Rican. The building, now known as Casa Amadeo, antigua Casa Hernandez, houses the oldest, continuously occupied Latin music store in the Bronx. It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on March 23, 2001 (reference #01000244).[63][64]
The two sisters of
On January 29, 1925, Rufa "Concha" Concepción Fernández, arrived in New York City. She married Jesús Colón a political activist and acted as his secretary. She then became politically active and assisted in the founding of various community organizations. According to the Colón papers, she became the secretary of "la Liga Puertorriqueña e Hispana" (The Puerto Rican and Hispanic League), which fostered mutual aid in the collective struggle and solidarity with all Hispanics in New York City. Her work contributed to the growth and acculturation of the New York Puerto Rican community.[67]
In 1929, Puerto Rico's legislature granted women the right to vote, pushed by the United States Congress to do so. Only women who could read and write were enfranchised; however, in 1935, all adult women were enfranchised regardless of their level of literacy. Puerto Rico was the second Latin American country to recognize a woman's right to vote.[24] Both Dr. María Cadilla de Martinez and Ana María O'Neill were early advocates of women's rights. Cadilla de Martinez was also one of the first women in Puerto Rico to earn a doctoral (PhD) college degree.[68]
Early birth control
Dr.
Puerto Rican women in the U.S. military
In 1944, the
Among the women recruited was PFC Carmen García Rosado, who in 2006, authored and published a book titled LAS WACS-Participacion de la Mujer Boricua en la Segunda Guerra Mundial (The WACs: The participation of the Puerto Rican women in the Second World War), the first book to document the experiences of the first 200 Puerto Rican women who participated in said conflict. In 1989, she was named consultant to the director of Veterans Affairs in Puerto Rico. In her position she became an activist and worked for the rights of the Puerto Rican women veterans.[71]
That same year the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) decided to accept Puerto Rican nurses so that Army hospitals would not have to deal with the language barriers.[72] Thirteen women submitted applications, were interviewed, underwent physical examinations, and were accepted into the ANC. Eight of these nurses were assigned to the Army Post at San Juan, where they were valued for their bilingual abilities. Five nurses were assigned to work at the hospital at Camp Tortuguero, Puerto Rico. Among the nurses was Second Lieutenant Carmen Lozano Dumler, who became one of the first Puerto Rican female United States Army officers.[70][73]
Not all the women served as nurses. Some of the women served in administrative duties in the mainland or near combat zones. Such was the case of Technician Fourth Grade (T/4)
Another was Lieutenant Junior Grade (LTJG) María Rodríguez Denton, the first woman from Puerto Rico who became an officer in the United States Navy as a member of the WAVES. The Navy assigned LTJG Denton as a library assistant at the Cable and Censorship Office in New York City. It was LTJG Denton who forwarded the news (through channels) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended.[72]
Some Puerto Rican women who served in the military went on to become notable in fields outside of the military. Among them are
Sylvia Rexach, dropped out of the University of Puerto Rico in 1942 and joined the United States Army as a member of the WACS where she served as an office clerk. She served until 1945, when she was honorably discharged.[75] Marie Teresa Rios was a Puerto Rican writer who also served in World War II. Rios, mother of Medal of Honor recipient, Capt. Humbert Roque Versace and author of The Fifteenth Pelican, which was the basis for the popular 1960s television sitcom "The Flying Nun", drove Army trucks and buses. She also served as a pilot for the Civil Air Patrol. Rios Versace wrote and edited for various newspapers around the world, including places such as Guam, Germany, Wisconsin, and South Dakota, and publications such the Armed Forces Star & Stripes and Gannett. During World War II, Julita Ross entertained the troops with her voice in "USO shows" (United Service Organizations).[76]
Puerto Rican women in the revolt against United States rule
In the 1930s, the
Various confrontations took place in the 1930s in which Nationalist Party partisans were involved and that led to a call for an uprising against the United States and the eventual attack of the United States House of Representatives in 1954. One of the most violent incidents was the 1937 Ponce massacre, in which police officers fired upon Nationalists who were participating in a peaceful demonstration against American abuse of authority. About 100 civilians were wounded and 19 were killed, among them, a woman, Maria Hernández del Rosario, and a seven-year-old child, Georgina Maldonado.[79]
On October 30, 1950, the Nationalist Party called for a revolt against the United States. Known as the
The military intervened and the revolts came to an end after three days on September 2. Two of the most notable women, who bore arms against the United States, were Blanca Canales and Lolita Lebrón.
Lolita Lebrón was the leader of a group of nationalists who attacked the United States House of Representatives in 1954. She presented her attack plan to the New York branch of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party where Rosa Collazo served as treasurer. Lebrón's mission was to bring world attention to Puerto Rico's independence cause. When Lebrón's group reached the visitor's gallery above the chamber in the House, she stood up and shouted "¡Viva Puerto Rico Libre!" ("Long live a Free Puerto Rico!") and unfurled a Puerto Rican flag. Then the group opened fire with automatic pistols. A popular legend claims that Lebrón fired her shots at the ceiling and missed. In 1979, under international pressure, President Jimmy Carter pardoned Lolita Lebrón and two members of her group, Irvin Flores and Rafael Cancel Miranda.[82]
The Great Migration
The 1950s saw a phenomenon that became known as "The Great Migration", where thousands of Puerto Ricans, including entire families of men, women and their children, left the Island and moved to the states, the bulk of them to New York City. Several factors led to the migration, among them the Great Depression of the 1930s, World War II in the 1940s, and the advent of commercial air travel in the 1950s.[84]
The Great Depression, which spread throughout the world, was also felt in Puerto Rico. Since the island's economy has been dependent on the economy of the United States, when American banks and industries began to fail the effect was also felt in the island. Unemployment was on the rise as a consequence and many families fled to the mainland U.S. in search of jobs.[85]
The outbreak of World War II opened the doors to many of the migrants who were searching for jobs. Since a large portion of the male population of the U.S. was sent to war, there was a sudden need of manpower to fulfill the jobs left behind. Puerto Ricans, both male and female, found themselves employed in factories and ship docks, producing both domestic and warfare goods. The new migrants gained the knowledge and working skills that became useful even after the war had ended. For the first time the military also provided a steady source of income for women.[70][86]
The advent of air travel provided Puerto Ricans with an affordable and faster way of travel to New York and other cities in the U.S. One of the things that most of the migrants had in common was that they wanted a better way of life than was available in Puerto Rico and although each held personal reasons for migrating their decision generally was rooted in the island's impoverished conditions as well as the public policies that sanctioned migration.
Impact in the U.S. educational system
Many Puerto Rican women have made important contributions to the educational system in the United States. Some contributed in the field of education, another was responsible in ending de jure segregation in the United States. Yet, another educator made the ultimate sacrifice and gave her life for her students.
One of the migrants was Dr.
Another Puerto Rican woman whose actions had an impact on the educational system of the United States was
The three women were honored by the Government of the United States. Dr. Pantoja was awarded the
In 2005, Ingrid Montes, a professor in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras, founded the "Festival de Quimica" (Chemistry Festival). The "Festival de Quimica" is a community outreach program which she created to engage the general public through chemistry demonstrations and its relation to daily life.[99] Since 2013, Montes has been the Director-at-large at the American Chemical Society (ACS).[100][101][102] The "Festival de Quimica" program, which she founded, was adopted by the ACS in 2010 and in 2016, the ACS festival training was launched around the world.[103]
Women in the fine arts
Visual arts
Dr. Edna Coll is known in the Latin American literary world for having consecrated more than twenty years to unravel the sense of fiction creation in Spanish-speaking America, and to organize this sense in synthesis and perspectives which surpass the nations where each one of these authors write.[106]
Opera
Before the introduction of the cinema and television in Puerto Rico, there was opera. Opera was one of the main artistic menus in which Puerto Rican women have excelled. One of the earliest opera sopranos on the island was
The operatic soprano
Other women who have excelled as opera sopranos are:
- Melliangee Pérez, who was awarded the "Soprano of the Year" award by UNESCO,[115]
- Irem Poventud, the first Puerto Rican to perform in the San Francisco Opera House;[116]
- Margarita Castro Alberty, recipient of the Chicago Opera Guide and Metropolitan Opera Guild awards.[117]and
- Darysabel Isales Canas was a Puerto Rican opera singer and actress. She was a soprano. As a singer, Isales performed in the United States and in Austria.[118]
Literary arts
There is a steep tradition of Puerto Rican women writers, especially lyrical poetry and fiction.
Women in popular culture
Television
As a result of this exposure, Miranda soon emerged in a series of performances on radio networks in New York City. By 1946, she appeared on such network broadcasts as
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You may listen to Elsa Miranda in the first "Chiquita Banana" commercial here |
Puerto Rican women also played an important role as pioneers of Puerto Rico's television industry.
In 1954, Puerto Rican television pioneer and producer
Cinema
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You may watch Marquita Rivera in "Luba Malina Cuban Pete" here |
In the cinema industry Marquita Rivera was the first Puerto Rican actress to appear in a major Hollywood motion picture when she was cast in the 1947, film Road to Rio.[140] Other women from Puerto Rico who have succeeded in the United States as actresses include Míriam Colón and Rita Moreno. Rosie Perez, whose parents were from Puerto Rico, has also had a successful career in the cinema industry.
Miriam Colon is the founder of The
Rita Moreno played the role of "Anita" in the 1961, adaptation of
Rosie Perez, whose parents are from
Puerto Rican women in the cinema industry have expanded their horizons beyond the field of acting. Such is the case of Ivonne Belén who is a documentary movie director and producer. Belén's first experience of doing a documentary film was in 1992 when she was the Co-Producer and Art Director of "Rafael Hernández, Jibarito del Mundo". She then worked on two other documentaries, "Adome, la presencia Africana en Puerto Rico" (Adome, the African presence in Puerto Rico) (1992) and "Reseña de una Vida Util" (Review of a Useful Life) (1995). The experience gained from these documentaries inspired her to form her own film company called The Paradiso Film Company, in which she is the executive producer. In 1996, she produced, directed and wrote the screenplay for the documentary she titled "A Passion named Clara Lair".[148][149]
Music
The decade of the 1950s witnessed a rise of composers and singers of typical Puerto Rican music and the Bolero genre. Women such as
Nedra Talley, who has Puerto Rican blood flowing in her veins (Puerto Rican father), is a founding member of "The Ronettes" a 1960s girl Rock n Roll group whose hits included "Be My Baby", "Baby, I Love You", "(The Best Part of) Breakin' Up", and "Walking in the Rain". She was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2007, together with the other two original members of the group.[157]
Another example is Irene Cara, born to a Puerto Rican father. In 1980, Cara played the role of Coco Hernandez in the film Fame, and recorded the film's title song "Fame". She received Grammy nominations for "Best New Female Artist" and "Best New Pop Artist", as well as a Golden Globe nomination for "Best Motion Picture Actress in a Musical". Prior to her success with Fame Cara sang and co-wrote the song "Flashdance... What a Feeling" (from the film Flashdance), for which she won an Academy Award for Best Original Song[158] and a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance.
Jennifer Lopez a.k.a. "J-Lo" is an entertainer, businesswoman, philanthropist and producer who was born in New York. She is proud of her Puerto Rican heritage and is regarded by Time magazine as the most influential Hispanic performer in the United States and one of the 25 most influential Hispanics in America.[159][160] As a philanthropist she launched a telemedicine center in San Juan, Puerto Rico, at the San Jorge Children's Hospital and has plans to launch a second one at the University Pediatric Hospital at the Centro Medico.[161]
Women's empowerment
In the 1950s and '60s, with the industrialization of Puerto Rico, women's jobs shifted from factory workers to that of professionals or office workers. Among the factors that influenced the role that women played in the industrial development of Puerto Rico was that the divorce rate was high and some women became the sole economic income source of their families. The feminist and women's rights movements have also contributed to the empowerment of women in the fields of business, the military, and politics. They have also held positions of great importance in NASA, as administrators and as scientists in the field of aerospace.[162]
In the 1960s, Puerto Rican women led a radical movement in Harlem that was originally led by only the male members of the
Business
Among those who have triumphed as businesswoman are
Military leadership
Changes within the policy and military structure of the U.S. armed forces helped expand the participation and roles for women in the military, among these the establishment of the All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s. Puerto Rican women and women of Puerto Rican descent have continued to join the Armed Forces, and some have even made the military a career. Among the Puerto Rican women who have or had high ranking positions are the following:
Lieutenant Colonel
Major Sonia Roca was the first Hispanic female officer to attend the Command and General Staff Officer Course at the Army's School of the Americas.
Colonel
In July 2015, Puerto Rico Governor Alejandro Garcia Padilla nominated Colonel Marta Carcana for the position of Adjutant General of the Puerto Rican National Guard, a position that she unofficially held since 2014. On September 4, 2015, she was confirmed as the first Puerto Rican woman to lead the Puerto Rican National Guard and promoted to Major General.[178][179]
Irene M. Zoppi also known as "RAMBA", was deployed to Kuwait, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia with the 3rd Armored Division as a Military Intelligence Officer. She was one of few Latino women, who served during Desert Shield/Storm War in a Tank Division. In 2018, Zoppi became the first Puerto Rican woman to reach the rank of Brigadier General in the United States Army. She is currently the Deputy Commanding General – Support under the 200th Military Police Command at Fort Meade, Maryland. Zoppi is a Bronze Star Medal recipient.[180][181]
Ultimate sacrifice
Puerto Rican servicewomen were among the 41,000 women who participated in
- SPC Frances M. Vega, the first female soldier of Puerto Rican descent to die in a combat zone[182]
- SPC Aleina Ramirez Gonzalez died in Tikrit, Iraq, when a mortar struck her forward operating base.[183]
- SPC Lizbeth Robles, was the first female soldier born in Puerto Rico to die in the War on Terrorism[184]
- Captain Viet Nam War.
The names of the four women are engraved in El Monumento de la Recordación (The Monument of Remembrance), which is dedicated to Puerto Rico's fallen soldiers and situated in front of the Capitol Building in San Juan, Puerto Rico.[185]
The first female soldier of Puerto Rican descent to die of a non-combat related accident was Spec.
Politics
Among the notable women involved in politics in Puerto Rico are
Their empowerment was not only limited to Puerto Rico. They also became participants in the political arena of the United States. Olga A. Méndez was the first Puerto Rican woman elected to a state legislature in the United States mainland, when, in 1978, she became a member of the New York State Senate.[191] In 1993, Nydia Velázquez became the first Puerto Rican Congresswoman and Chair of House Small Business Committee in the United States[192] and in 1994, Carmen E. Arroyo became the first Hispanic woman elected to the New York State Assembly. She is also the first Puerto Rican woman to serve as housing developer in the State of New York. Arroyo's 84th Assembly District covers the Mott Haven, Port Morris, Melrose, The Hub, Longwood, Concourse, and Hunts Point sections of the South Bronx. In November 2018, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, who represents parts of The Bronx and Queens, became the youngest woman ever to be elected to Congress.[193]
In May 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Sonia Sotomayor to the Supreme Court following the retirement of Justice David Souter. Her nomination was confirmed by the Senate in August 2009 by a vote of 68–31. Sotomayor has supported, while on the court, the informal liberal bloc of justices when they divide along the commonly perceived ideological lines. During her tenure on the Supreme Court, Sotomayor has been identified with concern for the rights of defendants, calls for reform of the criminal justice system, and making impassioned dissents on issues of race, gender and ethnic identity.[194]
Aerospace
With the advances in medical technologies and the coming of the Space Age of the 20th century, Puerto Rican women have expanded their horizons and have made many contributions in various scientific fields, among them the fields of aerospace and medicine.
Puerto Rican women, have reached top positions in
In 2006, Genoveva Negrón, a native of Mayaquez, was a member of the 53rd crew of the Spaceward Bound program at the Mars Desert Research Station in Utah. The program was designed to train astronauts to travel to the Moon between 2018 and 2020. The program also serves to train astronauts for the exploration of the planet Mars in future missions. She had to spend two weeks (15 days) in an environment in Utah that NASA scientists believe to be similar to that of Mars and work up to 15 hours a day. Negron is also an educator and author who in 2015, began to conduct research on digital simulation with virtual reality.[196][197][198]
Dr.
The lead electrical engineer for the Space Experiment Module program at the
Medicine
Dr. Antonia Coello Novello is a pediatrician who served as the 14th Surgeon General of the United States from 1990 to 1993.
In 1978, Dr. Novello joined and received a commission in the
Dr. Milagros (Mili) J. Cordero is a licensed, registered occupational therapist with board certification in Pediatrics. She is the founder and President of ITT'S for Children, a professional group that assists and empowers parents to develop a better understanding of the strengths and needs of their children and to enhance their children's development to the full extent of their capability.[203] Dr. Cordero is certified in the use of SAMONAS and Tomatis sound therapies. She is a member of the national DIR Institute faculty and serves as vice-chair to Georgia 's State Interagency Coordinating Council for the Babies Can't Wait Program, the professional advisory council of the National Cornelia De Lange Association, and the board of the Frazer Center in
Dr.
Puerto Rican women have also excelled in the fields of Physics and Physiology. Among them Prof. Mayda Velasco and Dr. María Cordero Hardy.
Dr. María Cordero Hardy, is a physiologist. Physiology is the study of life, specifically, how cells, tissues, and organisms function. She is a scientist who did her research on vitamin E. Her work helped other scientists understand about how vitamin E works in the human body. She is now a professor at Louisiana State University and teaches students how to be medical technologists. A medical technologist is a person who studies your blood and other body fluids in the human body.[206]
Puerto Rican women in other fields
Not only have Puerto Rican women excelled in many fields, such as business, politics, and science, they have also represented their country in other international venues such as beauty contests and sports. Some have been honored by the United States government for their contributions to society. Some of these contributions are described in the following paragraphs.
Beauty pageants and modeling
Five Puerto Rican women have won the title of Miss Universe and two the title of Miss World.
Miss Universe is an annual international beauty contest that is run by the
(2006).Madison Anderson Berrios won the Miss Universe Puerto Rico title in 2019. After a couple of months on the 8th of December 2019, she won the spot of the first runner-up of Miss Universe 2019.In 2023, she participated as a contestant representing Puerto Rico in a reality show called "La CASA De Los Famosos" (The house of the famous) aired by Telemundo and won the grand prize of 200 thousand dollars.[209]
Miss World, created in the United Kingdom in 1951, is the oldest surviving major international Beauty pageant.[210][211] Alongside with its rival, the Miss Universe and Miss Earth contests, Miss World pageant is one of the three most publicised beauty contests in the world.[212][213][214][215] Wilnelia Merced became the first Puerto Rican Miss World in 1975. On December 18, 2016, Stephanie Del Valle became the second Puerto Rican to be crowned Miss World.[216]
Modeling, Sofía Jirau made history in February 2022, by becoming the first model for Victoria's Secret with Down syndrome, after joining 17 other women in launching the brand's new campaign. The 24 year old model also launched a campaign of her own called "No Limits" in Spanish. The aim of her campaign is to show that people with Down syndrome have the capacity to achieve their personal goal regardless of their medical condition.[217]
Historians
Historians, such as Dra.
Another author, Teresita A. Levy, has researched and written a book about the tobacco industry in Puerto Rico that covers the era of 1898 to 1940. In her book "Puerto Ricans in the Empire" Levy describes how small-scale, politically involved, independent landowners grew most of the tobacco in Puerto Rico during the military and civilian occupation of the island. Levy is also an associate professor in the "Latin American and Puerto Rican Studies" faculty of Lehman College. She teaches History of Puerto Rico, History of Latin America and the Caribbean I and II, and History of the Dominican Republic.[219]
Inventors
Olga D. González-Sanabria, a member of the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame, contributed to the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries", which helps enable the International Space Station power system.[220]
Ileana Sánchez, a graphic designer, invented a book for the blind that brings together art and braille. Ms. Sanchez used a new technique called TechnoPrint and TechnoBraille. Rather than punch through heavy paper to create the raised dots of the Braille alphabet for the blind, these techniques apply an epoxy to the page to create not only raised dots, but raised images with texture. The epoxy melds with the page, becoming part of it, so that you can't scrape it off with your fingernail. The images are raised so that a blind person can feel the artwork and in color, not just to attract the sighted family who will read the book with blind siblings or children, but also for the blind themselves. The book "Art & the Alphabet, A Tactile Experience" is co-written with Rebecca McGinnis of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Met has already incorporated the book into their Access program.[221]
Maria Aponte, of
Journalists
Various Puerto Rican women have excelled in the field of journalism in Puerto Rico and in the United States, among them
- Al Rojo Vivo.[223]
Religion
Among the Puerto Rican women who became notable religious leaders in Puerto Rico are Juanita Garcia Peraza, a.k.a. "Mita", Sor Isolina Ferré Aguayo, Edna "Nedi" Rivera and Reverend Nilda Ernestina Lucca Oliveras.
Sor
Bavi Edna "Nedi" Rivera is a bishop of the Episcopal Church who has held appointments in the Diocese of Olympia and the Diocese of Eastern Oregon. She is the first Hispanic woman to become a bishop in the Episcopal Church.[227]
On August 15, 1982, Reverend Nilda Ernestina Lucca Oliveras became the first Puerto Rican woman to be ordained as a priest in the Episcopal Church of Puerto Rico, and the first in Latin America.[228]
Sports
Among the women who have represented Puerto Rico in international sports competitions is
In the Central American Games of 1959 in Caracas, the Puerto Rican female participation was limited to two tennis players and six in swimming, in what marked Puerto Rico's female team debut. The Puerto Rican tennis player Cindy Colbert won two silver medals, as she came in second in the doubles for ladies with Grace Valdés and she also participated in a mixedtennis partnership with Carlos Pasarell. In the games of 1962, the women who represented Puerto Rico won three gold medals, six silver and two bronze. The swimming team won two third places, as well as two first places and another four in second places. The gold medals were won by Julia Milotz (she also won three silver medals) and Vivian Carrión. Cindy Colbert won gold and silver in tennis doubles. Marta Torrós won bronze in singles. Cindy Colbert, Grace Valdéz and Martita Torros were inducted into the "Pabellón de La Fama Del Deporte Puertorriqueño" (The Puerto Rican Sports Pavilion of Fame).[230]
Angelita Lind, a track and field athlete, participated in three Central American and Caribbean Games (CAC) and won two gold medals, three silver medals, and one bronze medal. She also participated in three Pan American Games and in the 1984 Olympics.[231][232] Anita Lallande, a former Olympic swimmer, holds the island record for most medals won at CAC Games with a total of 17 medals, 10 of them being gold medals.[233]
Isabel Bustamante is a Puerto Rican paralympic athlete.[234] At the 1988 Summer Paralympics, she became the first Puerto Rican athlete to win a gold medal at an Olympic or Paralympic Games competition while competing for Puerto Rico. Bustamante won the gold medal at the Women's shot put 1B competition. She also won two silver medals at the same games, at the Women's discus throw 1B and the Women's javelin throw 1B competitions.[235]
Women inducted into the "Pabellón de La Fama Del Deporte Puertorriqueño" (The Puerto Rican Sports Pavilion of Fame) [230] |
Name | Year inducted | Sport |
---|---|---|
Rebekah Colberg | 1952 | Athletics
|
Ciqui Faberllé | 1955 | Athletics
|
Sara Correa | 1989 | Athletics
|
Marie Lande Mathieu | 1992 | Athletics
|
Diana Rodríguez | 1996 | Athletics
|
Angelita Lind | 2000 | Athletics
|
Naydi Nazario | 2000 | Athletics
|
Vilma París | 2011 | Athletics
|
Aida L. "Ashie" González | 2008 | Bowling
|
María del Pilar Cerra | 1952 | Fencing
|
Gloria Colón | 1995 | Fencing
|
Nilmarie Santini | 2000 | Judo
|
Lisa Boscarino | 2005 | Judo
|
Carmina Méndez | 1994 | Fishing
|
Anita Lallande | 1976 | Swimming
|
Margaret Harding | 1991 | Swimming
|
Cristina Moir | 1992 | Swimming
|
Nilsa Lisa De Jesús | 1994 | Swimming
|
Rita Garay | 2003 | Swimming
|
Sonia Álvarez Fonseca | 2010 | Swimming
|
Donna Terry | 1992 | Softball
|
Carmen Aguayo | 1995 | Softball
|
Wanda Maldonado | 2001 | Softball
|
Idel Vázquez | 2001 | Softball
|
Ivelisse Echevarría | 2003 | Softball
|
Betty Segarra | 2004 | Softball
|
Clara Vázquez | 2005 | Softball
|
Lissette "Kiki" Gaetan | 2009 | Table Tennis
|
Grace Valdéz | 1968 | Tennis
|
Mady Romeu | 1975 | Tennis
|
Martita Torros | 1984 | Tennis
|
Josefina Cabrera | 1985 | Tennis
|
Cindy Colbert | 1990 | Tennis
|
Crissy González | 1994 | Tennis
|
Marilda Julia | 2000 | Tennis
|
Beatríz (Gigi) Fernández | 2007 | Tennis
|
Emilie Viqueira | 2011 | Tennis
|
Flor Zengotita | 1979 | Volleyball
|
Iris Toro | 1985 | Volleyball
|
Carole Díaz | 1986 | Volleyball
|
Bessie Figueroa | 1994 | Volleyball
|
Betty García | 1973 | Sports Promoter
|
Rosarito López Cepero | 1998 | Sports Promoter
|
Laura Daniela Lloreda is a Puerto Rican who represented Mexico at various international women's volleyball competitions and played professional volleyball both in Mexico and in Puerto Rico, and Ada Vélez is a Puerto Rican former boxer who became the country's first professional women's world boxing champion.[236]
In 1999,
Puerto Rico has participated in the Olympics, since the
At the
The following table has a list of the Puerto Rican women, including women of Puerto Rican ancestry, who won Olympic medals.
Puerto Rican Women Olympic Medallists |
Number | Name | Medal/s | Sport | Year and place | Country represented |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Gigi Fernández | Gold (2)
|
Women's Doubles Tennis
|
1992 Barcelona, Spain 1996 Atlanta, United States |
United States |
2 | Lisa Fernandez | Gold (3)
|
Softball
|
1996 Atlanta, United States 2000 Sydney, Australia 2004 Athens, Greece |
United States |
3 | Julie Chu | Silver (3), Bronze
|
Women's Ice Hockey
|
2002 Salt Lake City, United States 2006 Turin, Italy 2010 Vancouver, Canada 2014 Sochi, Russia |
United States |
4 | Maritza Correia | Silver
|
Swimming 4 × 100 m Freestyle
|
2004 Athens, Greece | United States |
5 | Kyla Ross | Gold
|
400m Women's Gymnastics
|
2012 London, United Kingdom | United States |
6 | Jessica Steffens | Silver, Gold
|
Water Polo
|
2008 Beijing, China 2012 London, United Kingdom |
United States |
7 | Maggie Steffens | Gold (2)
|
Water Polo
|
2012 London, United Kingdom 2016 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil |
United States |
8 | Laurie Hernandez | Gold, Silver
|
Women's Gymnastics (G)
Balance Beam (S) |
2016 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil | United States |
9 | Monica Puig | Gold
|
Women's Singles Tennis
|
2016 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil | Puerto Rico |
10 | Jasmine Camacho-Quinn | Gold
|
Women's 100m Hurdles
|
2021 Tokyo, Japan | Puerto Rico |
Total Olympic medals |
Total of medals for Puerto Rico | Gold | Silver | Bronze |
---|---|---|---|
2
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Total of medals for the United States | Gold | Silver | Bronze |
17
|
10
|
6
|
1
|
Total of medals | Gold | Silver | Bronze |
19
|
12
|
6
|
1
|
Puerto Rican women rebuilding Puerto Rico
After Hurricane Maria, many women were the driving force to starting up the rebuilding of the island. They have "waded into flooded neighborhoods to extricate the abandoned, and put together soup kitchens to feed the hungry. They've canvassed their communities in order to diagnose the most critical needs – street by street, mountain by mountain, house by house, family by family – and have returned when they said they would with supplies and support."[242] Small, female-led organizations were the creating fundraisers and even went out on foot to retrieve supplies for suffering families. They were also the driving emotional force for the victims of the disaster, offering some sort of peace to their devastated communities. These same women have been calling out unfair leadership and ignorance in the United States and have empowered the island when their leaders could not.
Governmental recognition
Women's week in Puerto Rico
On June 2, 1976, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico approved law number 102 that declared every March 2 "Día Internacional de la Mujer" (International Women's Day) as a tribute to the Puerto Rican women. However, the government of Puerto Rico decided that it would only be proper that a week instead of a day be dedicated in tribute to the accomplishments and contributions of the Puerto Rican women. Therefore, on September 16, 2004, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico passed law number 327, which declares the second week of the month of March the "Semana de la Mujer en Puerto Rico" (Women's week in Puerto Rico).[243][244]
In 2002, the
The dedicatory plaque on the monument has an inscription that reads (Note: English translation is not part of the inscription, and it is given here to the right):
Spanish (original version) |
English translation |
---|---|
A LA MUJER |
TO THE WOMEN |
On May 29, 2014, The Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico honored 12 illustrious women with plaques in the "La Plaza en Honor a la Mujer Puertorriqueña" (Plaza in Honor of Puerto Rican Women) in San Juan. They were the first to be honored. According to the plaques the following 12 women, who by virtue of their merits and legacies, stand out in the history of Puerto Rico. They are:[248]
Name | Noted for | Year honored |
---|---|---|
Lola Rodríguez de Tió | First Puerto Rican-born woman poet to establish herself a reputation as a great poet, a believer in women's rights, committed to the abolition of slavery and the independence of Puerto Rico. | 2014
|
Luisa Capetillo | Writer, labor organizer and an anarchist who fought for workers and women's rights. | 2014
|
Felisa Rincón de Gautier | The first woman to be elected as the Mayor of a capital city in The Americas. | 2014
|
Sor Isolina Ferré | Known as the "Mother Teresa of Puerto Rico", she received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of her humanitarian work. | 2014
|
Rebekah Colberg | Known as the "Mother of Women's Sports in Puerto Rico" | 2014
|
Josefina Barceló Bird de Romero | Civic leader and politician, leader of the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico. | 2014
|
María Libertad Gómez Garriga | Educator, community leader, and politician. She was the only woman member of the constituent Assembly of Puerto Rico. | 2014
|
María Luisa Arcelay de la Rosa | Educator, businesswoman and politician. She was first woman in Puerto Rico to be elected to a government legislative body. | 2014
|
María Martínez Acosta de Pérez Almiroty |
Educator, clubwoman and the first woman to be elected senator in Puerto Rico. | 2014
|
Julia de Burgos | Poet, advocate of Puerto Rican independence, and civil rights activist for women and African/Afro-Caribbean writers. | 2014
|
Sylvia Rexach | Comedy scriptwriter, poet, singer and composer of boleros. | 2014
|
Gigi Fernández | Professional tennis player, the first Puerto-Rican-born athlete to win an Olympic gold medal and the first to be inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame. | 2014
|
In 2015, the following women were also honored:[249]
Name | Noted for | Year honored |
---|---|---|
Rosario Ferré Ramírez de Arellano | Writer, poet, and essayist. | 2015
|
Ileana Colón Carlo | The first woman to be named Comptroller of Puerto Rico. | 2015
|
Celeste Benítez | Educator, journalist and politician. | 2015
|
Velda González | Actress, dancer, comedian, politician and former senator. | 2015
|
Miriam Naveira de Merly | She was the first woman to serve on the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico as well as the first female Chief Justice | 2015
|
Presidential Medal of Freedom
Five Puerto Rican women have been awarded the
- Antonia Pantojas– educator, social worker, feminist, civil rights leader. Awarded in 1996.
- Isolina Ferré – nun. Awarded in 1999.
- EGOTrecipient. Awarded in 2004.
- Chita Rivera – actress, dancer, and singer. Awarded in 2009.
- Sylvia Mendez – civil rights activist. Awarded in 2011.
Presidential Citizens Medal
Two Puerto Rican women have been awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal, an award bestowed by the President of the United States that is considered the second highest civilian award in the United States, second only to the Presidential Medal of Freedom mentioned before. The medal recognizes individuals "who have performed exemplary deeds or services for his or her country or fellow citizens".[96][failed verification] The following Puerto Rican women have been awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal:
- Helen Rodriguez-Trias– pediatrician, educator, and leader in public health. Awarded in 2001.
- Victoria Leigh Soto – educator who was murdered in the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. while protecting the lives of her students. Posthumously awarded in 2013.[252]
U.S. Postal Service commemorative stamps
Two women have been honored by the U.S. Postal Service Commemorative Stamp Program. On April 14, 2007, the
Gallery of notable Puerto Rican women
-
Puerto Rican independence movement
-
Carmen García Rosado
PFC WACs, author -
Carmen Lozano Dumler (1921–2015)
Lieutenant in the WACS -
María Bibiana Benítez (1783–1873)
Puerto Rico's first female poet and playwrights -
Alejandrina Benítez de Gautier (1819–1879)
Poet -
Mariana Bracetti (1825–1903)
Patriot and leader of the Puerto Rican independence revolt, El Grito de Lares in 1868 -
Lola Rodríguez de Tió (1843–1924)
Independence advocate and author of the revolutionary version of "La Boriqueña" -
María de Pérez Almiroty(1883–1973)
First woman elected to the Senate of Puerto Rico (1936) -
Juanita García Peraza (1897–1970)
Founder the Mita Congregation, a religion of Puerto Rican origin -
Lolita Lebrón (1919–2010)
Puerto Rican Nationalist leader -
Lissette Martinez
NASA rocket scientist -
Olga Tañón
5 times Grammy winner -
EGOT and the Presidential Medal of Freedom
-
Sila María Calderón
Governor of Puerto Rico from 2001 to 2005 -
Monserrate Román
The Chief Microbiologist for the Environmental Control and Life Support System project in NASA -
Olga D. González-Sanabria
Scientist and inventor -
Delma S. Arrigoitia
Educator, author and historian -
Teresita A. Levy
Educator, author and historian -
Hila Levy
Rhodes Scholar
See also
- Puerto Rican women in the military
- List of Puerto Rican military personnel
- Puerto Ricans in World War II
- Sports in Puerto Rico
Notes
- ^ The town of San Mateo de Cangrejos was annexed by the City of San Juan in 1862
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Further reading
Part of a series on |
Women in society |
---|
- Carmen Garcia Rosado, LAS WACS-Participacion de la Mujer Boricua en la Seginda Guerra Mundial 1ra. Edicion publicada en Octubre de 2006; 2da Edicion revisada 2007; Registro Propiedad Intectual ELA (Government of Puerto Rico) #06-13P-)1A-399; Library of Congress TXY 1–312–685.
- María de Fátima Barceló Miller, La lucha por el sufragio femenino en Puerto Rico, 1896–1935, 1997, Centro de Investigaciones Sociales, Ediciones Huracán in San Juan, P.R, Río Piedras, P.R.; ISBN 0-929157-45-1.
- La Mujer Puertorriqueña, su vida y evolucion a través de la historia, 1972, Plus Ultra Educational Publishers in New York; Open Library: OL16223237M.
- Marie Ramos Rosado, La Mujer Negra En La Literatura Puertorriquena/ The Black Women In Puerto Rican Literature: Cuentistica De Los Setenta/ Storytellers Of The Seventies, University of Puerto Rico Press, ISBN 978-0-8477-0366-1.
- Delma S. Arrigoitia, Introduccion a la Historia de la Moda en Puerto Rico, Editorial Plaza Mayor (2012); ISBN 978-1-56328-376-5
- Aurora Levins Morales, Remedios: Stories of Earth and Iron from the History of Puertorriquenas, South End Press, ISBN 978-0-89608-644-9
- Magali Roy-Féquière, Juan Flores, Emilio Pantojas-García, Women, Creole Identity, and Intellectual Life in Early Twentieth-Century Puerto Rico, Temple University Press, 2004;
- Laura Briggs, Further reading: Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico, University of California Press; ISBN 0520232585, 978-0520232587
External links
- Puerto Rican Women's History: New Perspectives (review) by Anne S. Macpherson
- Puerto Rican Women's History: New Perspectives by Félix V. Matos Rodríguez and Linda C. Delgado
- Re-visioning History: Puerto Rican Women, Activism & Sexuality by Heather Montes Ireland
- Famous Puerto Ricans