Hurricane Donna
IBTrACS | |
Part of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season |
Hurricane Donna, known in Puerto Rico as Hurricane San Lorenzo, was the strongest hurricane of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season, and caused severe damage to the Lesser Antilles, the Greater Antilles, and the East Coast of the United States, especially Florida, in August–September. The fifth tropical cyclone, third hurricane, and first major hurricane of the season, Donna developed south of Cape Verde on August 29, spawned by a tropical wave to which 63 deaths from a plane crash in Senegal were attributed. The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Donna by the following day. Donna moved west-northwestward at roughly 20 mph (32 km/h) and by September 1, it reached hurricane status. Over the next three days, Donna deepened significantly and reached maximum sustained winds of 130 mph (210 km/h) on September 4. Thereafter, it maintained intensity as it struck the Lesser Antilles later that day. On Sint Maarten, the storm left a quarter of the island's population homeless and killed seven people. An additional five deaths were reported in Anguilla, and there were seven other fatalities throughout the Virgin Islands. In Puerto Rico, severe flash flooding led to 107 fatalities, 85 of them in Humacao alone.
Donna further intensified to a Category 4 hurricane early on September 6, and attained peak winds of 145 mph (233 km/h) twenty-four hours later. The storm then weakened over the next few days, making multiple landfalls in The Bahamas as a Category 3 hurricane. Donna generated severe wind gusts of up to 173 mph (278 km/h) over southern portions of the archipelago nation, and prolific rains affected the country and the nearby Turks and Caicos Islands. Several small island communities in the southern regions of The Bahamas were leveled, but no damage total or fatalities were reported.
As it neared the United States, Donna encountered weaker steering currents, turned northwestward, and re-intensified. Early on September 10, Donna made landfall on the
Donna weakened over Florida and was a Category 1 hurricane when it re-emerged into the Atlantic from
Meteorological history
On August 29, a
Continuing to the west-northwest, Donna strengthened further, attaining
While passing through the
At 0800 UTC on September 11, Donna exited
Preparations
At noon on September 3, a hurricane watch was issued for the
Beginning on September 7, hurricane watches were put in place for the Florida coast from Key West to Melbourne. The next day, the watches were upgraded to hurricane warnings from Key West to Key Largo, with hurricane watches raised on the west coast northward to Fort Myers, and gale warnings issued from Key Largo to Vero Beach. By September 11, hurricane warnings were in effect for southern Florida from Daytona Beach on the east coast to Cedar Key on the west coast, including Lake Okeechobee. Gale warnings were in place northward from Cedar Key to St. Marks, as well as from Daytona Beach northward to Savannah, Georgia.[8] Evacuations in the Florida Keys disrupted traffic along the Overseas Highway.[11] The Air Force evacuated 90 Boeing B-47 Stratojets from Homestead Air Reserve Base (At that time Homestead AFB). At Cape Canaveral, the threat of the storm caused the launching of two missiles to be postponed.[13] Most flights out of Miami International Airport were canceled during the storm's approach. Officials closed schools in Miami and the Florida Keys,[12] and recommended residents in low-lying areas of the Florida Keys and southwestern Florida to evacuate. Ultimately, about 12,000 people in southern Florida sought refuge in storm shelters, two of which were damaged during the storm.[14] In Miami-Dade County alone, there were 77 storm shelters housing 10,000 people.[15]
At 5 p.m. on September 10, gale warnings were extended northward to Myrtle Beach. At 11 p.m., hurricane warnings were lowered in the Florida Keys but extended northward from Daytona Beach to Savannah, Georgia.[8] At 11 a.m. on September 11, all warnings were lowered south of Vero Beach and along the Florida west coast, while hurricane warnings were extended northward from Savannah to Myrtle Beach. At 5 p.m., hurricane warnings were lowered south of Fernandina Beach, while they were extended northward to include the entire North Carolina coast. Gale warnings were issued northward to Cape May. At 9 p.m., hurricane warnings were extended northward to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, while gale warnings and a hurricane watch were issued northward to Eastport, Maine.[16] Ships at dock in Newport, Rhode Island were towed out into the bay to weather the storm.[17] On September 12 at 5 a.m., hurricane warnings were extended northward to Eastport, and dropped south of Cape Hatteras. At 7 a.m., hurricane warnings were lowered south of Cape Charles. At 2 p.m., hurricane warnings were dropped south of Cape May. At 5 p.m., hurricane warnings were discontinued south of Manasquan, New Jersey. At 8 p.m., hurricane warnings expired south of Block Island. By 11 p.m. on September 12, all hurricane warnings had been lowered.[16]
Impact
Hurricane Donna was a very destructive hurricane that caused extensive damage from the Lesser Antilles to New England. At least 364 people were killed by the hurricane and property damage was estimated at $900 million (1960 USD).[18]
West Africa
The precursor to Hurricane Donna brought severe weather to the Dakar area of Senegal.[19] Air France Flight 343, which was flying from Paris, France to Abidjan, Ivory Coast, attempted to land at the Léopold Sédar Senghor International Airport as a layover. However, due to squally weather, the plane instead crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, killing all 63 people on board.[20] Heavy rainfall was also reported in Cape Verde on August 30.[1]
Caribbean
Hurricane Donna caused very extensive damage on Saint-Martin, killed 7 and left at least a quarter of the island's population homeless. A weather station in Sint Maarten reported sustained wind gusts of 125 mph (201 km/h) and a 952 mbar (28.1 inHg) pressure reading in the main airport.[1] Donna killed two people on Antigua.[21] During the passing of Hurricane Donna, Anguilla recorded five deaths, including a woman who died when the roof of her house collapsed.
Despite passing only 35 mi (56 km) north of the island, Donna caused only minor damage on St. Thomas in the United States Virgin Islands. A station there reported a wind gust of 60 mph (97 km/h).[1] Some fences were toppled, while several houses were reported to have been damaged or destroyed. Electrical and telephone services were also disrupted. The highest daily rainfall total on the island was 8.78 inches (223 mm), causing minor local flooding. On Saint John, several small boats capsized.
While passing to the north of Puerto Rico, Donna produced winds of 38 mph (61 km/h) in San Juan. Along the north coast of the island, high tides of around 6 ft (1.8 m) and strong waves caused coastal flooding.[1] The hurricane dropped torrential rainfall, peaking at 16.23 in (412 mm) at Naguabo in the central portion of the island. Large areas of eastern Puerto Rico received over 10 in (250 mm) of precipitation.[22] The hurricane left about 2,500 people homeless on the island.[13] Despite advanced warning of the floods, the hurricane killed 107 people on the island, of which 84 were in Humacao.[1]
In Haiti, the southern periphery of the hurricane killed three people in
Turks and Caicos and Bahamas
On
In the Bahamas, the anemometer at Ragged Island blew away after registering a 150 mph (240 km/h) wind gust. At Mayaguana, where residents evacuated to a missile tracking base, hurricane-force winds raged for 13 hours.[1] The winds largely destroyed the village of Abraham's Bay on the island.[23] Andros experienced hurricane-force winds for a few hours, and winds on Fortune Island were estimated at 173 mph (278 km/h) before the anemometer blew away. The strongest winds remained south of the northwestern Bahamas, which limited damage there.[1] Donna cut communications between several islands.[13]
Several small island communities in the southern Bahamas were leveled. North Caicos reported 20 inches (510 mm) of rainfall in 24 hours.[24]
United States
There were 50 people reported dead in the United States, with damages totaling to $3.35 billion.[25] Donna crossed directly over United States Air Force radar station Texas Tower 4, causing severe damage to the structure and leading to its eventual loss in January 1961.[26]
Donna was the only hurricane to affect every state along the East Coast with hurricane-force winds.[27]
Florida
The U.S. state of Florida received the most damage from Hurricane Donna. Portions of southern and western Florida received over 10 in (250 mm) of rainfall from the hurricane, peaking at 13.24 in (336 mm).[22] Strong winds were observed in the state, with a sustained wind speed of 120 mph (190 km/h) in Tavernier and a gusts up to 150 mph (240 km/h) at Sombrero Key Light.[28] In Miami, winds reached 97 mph (156 km/h). Southeast of the city, high waves washed a 104-foot (32 m) freighter onshore an island.[14] The highest observed storm surge of 13 ft (4.0 m) was reported at Marathon. The hurricane also lashed Southwest Florida, where tides were 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m) above normal.[28]
In the Florida Keys, some areas experienced "almost complete destruction".
In Miami-Dade County (then Dade County), thousands of low-lying homes in the Homestead area were flooded.[31] The storm also overturned 25 mobile homes and caused one death in the city. While telephone service remained mostly uninterrupted, approximately 152,000 people lost electricity.[32] Donna was the first hurricane to affect Miami, Florida, since Hurricane King in October 1950.[31] Although structural damage in and around Miami was generally light, winds shattered windows and uprooted trees. Heavy precipitation inundated streets.[32] Overall, 857 houses in Dade County were destroyed, while about 2,317 others suffered damage. Significant agricultural losses were also reported.[31] About 100 homes in Broward County reported minor damage.[33] In Boca Raton and Delray Beach, damage was mostly limited to downed billboard signs and shattered windows.[34]: 6 Boynton Beach observed wind gusts up to 70 mph (110 km/h) at the inlet.[34]: 1 Storm surge covered State Road A1A with mud and sand.[34]: 6 In North Palm Beach, winds shattered a few windows and destroyed a shopping center sign.[34]: 1 A fire destroyed a cocktail lounge in Juno Beach after response teams were unable to extinguish the blaze due to high winds.[35]
Large tracts of mangrove forest were lost in the western portion of Everglades National Park, while at least 35% of the white heron population in the park were killed.[36] The lodge and marina at Flamingo, as well as a ranger's way station near Cape Sable, were virtually destroyed.[30] Tides from Fort Myers Beach southward ranged between 4 and 7 ft (1.2 and 2.1 m) above normal. In Everglades City, about 50% of buildings were destroyed due to strong winds and coastal flooding, and roofs were blown off or damaged.[28] Floodwaters reached about 7 ft (2.1 m) in height inside the historic Collier County Courthouse, forcing refugees taking shelter in the building to evacuate to the second floor.[37] The city briefly became inaccessible due to inundated roads. Thousands of trees were toppled,[28] blocking portions of the Tamiami Trail.[14] Approximately half of the homes in Chokoloskee were destroyed, while floodwaters entered a number of homes in Ochopee. The community of Immokalee reported about $3 million in damage. In Naples, storm surge entered many high-priced homes, while the 900 ft (270 m) fishing pier was wrecked. A total of 19 cottages and 12 mobile homes at Gordon Pass were damaged beyond repairs. Throughout Naples, Donna demolished 87 homes and damaged 614 others in Everglades City. The Miami News described Vanderbilt Beach as being reduced to "another welter of splintered homes."[37] Throughout Collier County, strong winds and coastal flooding combined destroyed 153 homes, severely damaged 409 others, and caused minor damage to 1,049 dwellings.[33]
Donna left about $3 million in property damage and two deaths in Fort Myers. A new church in Bradenton was destroyed, while much of the city was left without power.[32] In Winter Haven, 13 homes were destroyed, 100 others suffered major damage, and 2,400 dwellings experienced minor damage. One person was killed in the city.[33] The turn into southern Florida lessened damage in the Tampa area.[38] High winds deroofed in armory building in Dade City sheltering 150 people.[32] In Volusia County, Donna destroyed 10 homes, severely damaged 112 homes, and caused minor damage to 1,100 others, while 25 buildings were demolished, 400 substantially damaged, and inflicted minor damage to 750 others. One fatality occurred in the county.[33][39]
Throughout the state of Florida, the storm destroyed 2,156 homes and trailers, severely damaged 3,903, and inflicted minor impact on 30,524 others. Approximately 391 farm buildings were destroyed, an additional 989 suffered extensive impact, and 2,499 others received minor damage. Roughly 174 buildings were demolished, 1,029 received major impact, and 4,254 suffered minor damage. Additionally, 281 boats were destroyed or severely damaged. A total of 50% of grapefruit crop was lost, 10% of the orange and tangerine crops were ruined, and the avocado crop was almost destroyed. With at least $350 million in damage in Florida alone, Donna was the costliest hurricane to impact the state, at the time. Additionally, there were 14 confirmed fatalities: six from drowning, four from heart attacks, two from automobile accidents, and two from electrocution. About 1,188 others were injured.[40]
Southeastern United States and Mid-Atlantic
The storm brought minor impact to
In North Carolina, Donna brought two tornadoes to the state. An F1 tornado damaged several small buildings in Bladen County. An F2 tornado in Sampson County destroyed a dwelling with eight occupants, all of whom were hospitalized.[41] Along the coast, wind gusts as high as 100 mph (160 km/h) damaged or destroyed several buildings. Additionally crops were damaged as far as 50 miles (80 km) inland. Storm tides ranging from 4 to 8 feet (1.2 to 2.4 m) above normal caused significant beach erosion and structural damage at Wilmington and Nags Head.[28] Additionally, Topsail Beach was reported to have been 50% destroyed. In Southport, the town docks were almost completely demolished.[43] There were eight deaths, including three from drowning, two from falling trees, two from weather-related traffic accidents, and one from electrocution. At least 100 people were injured enough to require hospitalization.[28] Damage in North Carolina exceeded $5 million, with the worst impact occurring in New Hanover County.[43]
In Virginia, the east coast of the state reported hurricane-force winds, while gusts reached up to 89 mph (143 km/h) in Virginia Beach.[19] Strong winds toppled trees and electrical wires, which blocked streets. Additionally, buildings suffered roof damage and broken windows; some structures were completely destroyed. Offshore, rough seas sank or destroyed numerous small crafts, while a 12,000 tonnes (26,000,000 lb) vessel was driven aground. The storm killed three people in Virginia; two of the deaths occurred when a barge collided with a freighter and later sank, and another after a man attempted to safeguard his boat. Strong winds and heavy rains were observed in eastern Maryland. Ocean City suffered the worst impact, with over $300,000 in property damage. The storm also damaged crops in the area, especially corn and apples. Effects from the storm in Delaware were similar, with property damage and considerable losses to corn and apple crops. In Pennsylvania, wind gusts up to 59 mph (95 km/h) in the southeastern portions of the state toppled many trees and utility wires. Heavy rains and poor drainage in some areas flooded basements, lawns, and streets. Low-lying areas in Bucks and Montgomery counties were inundated with up to 3 feet (0.91 m) of water after many streams and creeks nearby overflowed. One death in the state was reported after a boy was swept into a swollen creek behind his home in Sharon Hill.[28]
Winds as strong as 100 mph (160 km/h) were observed along the coast of New Jersey. Rainfall in the state was generally between 5 and 6 inches (130 and 150 mm),[28] with a peak of 8.99 inches (228 mm) near Hammonton.[44] Damage from the storm was most severe in Atlantic, Cape May, Monmouth, and Ocean counties, where numerous boats, docks, boardwalks, and cottages were damaged or destroyed.[28] A resort area in Cliffwood Beach, New Jersey saw its boardwalk and tourist attractions destroyed by the hurricane, and the area has never recovered. Losses to agriculture were significant, with damage to apple and peach trees "considerable", the former of which lost about one-third of its crops. Wind damage to corn, Sudan grass, and sorghum resulted in a delay in their harvest. Nine deaths were reported in the state of New Jersey. In southeastern New York, the eye of Donna crossed 10 miles to the eastern tip of Long Island. Heavy rains, hurricane-force winds, and "unprecedented" high tides were observed. Severe small stream flooding caused significant damage, especially on Long Island, the waterfront of New York City, and further north in Greene County. The storm caused three fatalities in the state, two from drowning and another from a person crushed by a falling tree.[28]
The eye of Hurricane Donna crossed near the Connecticut and Rhode Island state line, thus much of the damage in Connecticut was in far eastern sections. Strong winds left 15,000 people without telephone service, while 88,000 homes lost electricity. Along the coast, tides caused beach erosion, inundated streets, and weakened foundations. Four seaside cottages were destroyed. Crop damage was isolated and mainly limited to apples and corn. In Rhode Island, the storm brought a wind gust as strong as 130 mph (210 km/h) to Block Island. Telephone and electrical services were severely disrupted. Along the coast, high tides significantly damaged or destroyed about 200 homes at Narragansett Bay and Warwick cove. Damage to these vessels collectively totaled to over $2 million. Agriculture also suffered impact, particularly to fruit, timber, and poultry, especially in Newport and Portsmouth.[28]
Elsewhere in North America
Strong winds were also observed in
In Vermont, winds damaged trees, tree branches, and power lines, causing telephone and electrical service outages in a few communities. Rainfall totals ranged 2–5 inches (51–127 mm), resulting in washouts in some areas. Damage to apple orchards totaled $50,000. Along the coast of New Hampshire, many boats were smashed or damaged in some way. Strong winds felled trees and power lines, causing residents in the southern portions of the state to lose telephone service and electricity. Additionally, apple orchards suffered $200,000 in damage. Rainfall in the state peaked at 7.25 inches (184 mm) near Peterborough, resulting in local flooding and washouts.[28]
Along the coast, large waves damaged 15 to 20 boats in Falmouth, Maine harbor. Total boat damage was estimated at $250,000. Coastal residents in low-lying beach areas of Cumberland and York counties were evacuated in Maine. Several counties lost power during the storm. In Southwest Harbor, lightning struck the Dirigo Hotel, causing a fire that resulted in $100,000 in damages. Winds caused a loss of telephone and electrical services in the Auburn-Lewiston area due to falling trees or tree branches. Television antennas were damaged, as were several signs, including a Sears sign. In addition, 25% to 40% of the apple crop was destroyed.[46]
After becoming extratropical, the remnants of Donna continued northeastward into New Brunswick, Quebec, and then Labrador. Wind gusts of 53 mph (85 km/h) in Quebec snapped electrical poles and trees. One death occurred when a man suffered a heart attack when his home was threatened by a fire. Additionally, weather-related traffic accidents in the province resulted in two injuries.[47]
Aftermath and retirement
Following the storm, President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower issued a disaster declaration for Florida and North Carolina, allowing residents of those states to be eligible for public assistance.[48][49]
The United States military sent a plane carrying doctors and food from
Coral reefs were damaged in the Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary by the hurricane.[51] Donna caused a significant negative impact on aquatic life in north Florida Bay. Marine life was either stranded by retreating salt water which had been driven inland or killed by muddied waters in its wake. Oxygen depletion due to animals perishing in the hurricane caused additional mortality. Although salinity levels returned to normal within six weeks, dissolved oxygen concentrations remained quite low for a longer time frame. Marine life was scarce for several months in areas of greatest oxygen depletion. Sports fishing in the area took a few months to recover. Juvenile pink shrimp moved from their estuarine nursery grounds into deeper water about 60 miles (97 km) offshore, where they were subsequently captured by fishermen.[52] A Caspian tern was swept up the North American coast well to the north of its traditional breeding grounds, to Nova Scotia, which was witnessed four hours after the storm went by Digby Neck.[53]
Because of storm's devastating impact, the name Donna was retired following the 1960 season, and will never again be used for another Atlantic hurricane. The name was replaced with Dora for the 1964 season.[54][55]
Depictions in popular culture
The winds of Donna can be seen in the feature film Blast of Silence (1961); the final scenes on Long Island had been previously scheduled, and the filmmakers decided to go ahead and shoot the exterior scene despite the hurricane.[57]
See also
- List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes
- List of Delaware hurricanes
- List of disasters in the United States by death toll
- List of Florida hurricanes (1950–74)
- List of New England hurricanes
- List of New York hurricanes
- List of North Carolina hurricanes (1950–79)
- List of wettest tropical cyclones in Massachusetts
- Hurricane Luis (1995) – similarly strong hurricane that struck the northeastern Caribbean Sea, but subsequently turned out to sea
- Hurricane Charley (2004) – similar track across I-4 corridor
- Hurricane Wilma (2005) – also caused major damage in southern Florida along a southwest to northeast track
- Hurricane Irma (2017) – another intense hurricane with a similar track in Florida
- Hurricane Isaias (2020) – similarly affected the entire east coast of the United States
- Hurricane Ian (2022) - a storm with a similar track, particularly through the Florida Peninsula
References
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ignored (help) - ^ Special Storm and Flood Report by the American Red Cross for U.S. Weather Bureau (Report). United States Weather Bureau. October 20, 1960. p. 2. Archived from the original on September 21, 2013. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
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ignored (help) - ^ a b Luther Evans (September 11, 1960). "Misery Conquers Islands". Miami Herald. p. 1A. Archived from the original on October 29, 2021. Retrieved October 12, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b c "Climatological Data: Florida". Climatological Data. 64 (9). National Climatic Data Center: 2. September 1960. Archived from the original on August 8, 2020. Retrieved October 11, 2021.
- ^ a b c d "Donna: Storm at A Glance". Miami Herald. September 11, 1960. p. 1A. Archived from the original on October 29, 2021. Retrieved October 11, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b c d Special Storm and Flood Report by the American Red Cross for U.S. Weather Bureau (Report). United States Weather Bureau. October 20, 1960. p. 1. Archived from the original on August 8, 2020. Retrieved October 12, 2021.
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ignored (help) - ^ a b c d "Little Damage From Donna In Local Area". The Palm Beach Post. West Palm Beach, Florida. September 11, 1960. pp. 1D and 8D. Archived from the original on October 29, 2021. Retrieved April 7, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
- "Little Damage From Donna In Local Area", p. 1
- "Little Damage", p. 6 Archived October 29, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Fire Destroys Cocktail Lounge In Juno Beach". The Palm Beach Post. September 11, 1960. p. 1. Archived from the original on October 29, 2021. Retrieved October 12, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
- (PDF) from the original on October 15, 2008. Retrieved October 11, 2021.
- ^ a b Howard Van Smith (September 12, 1960). "Collier County – A Lost Civilization". The Miami News. p. 4A. Archived from the original on October 29, 2021. Retrieved October 13, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ Dick Bothwell (September 11, 1960). "Back to Normal By Friday". St. Petersburg Times. United Press International. p. 8-A. Archived from the original on November 6, 2021. Retrieved October 11, 2021.
- ^ Special Storm and Flood Report by the American Red Cross for U.S. Weather Bureau (Report). United States Weather Bureau. October 20, 1960. p. 4. Archived from the original on August 1, 2017. Retrieved October 12, 2021.
{{cite report}}
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ignored (help) - ^ "Here's What Donna Did". National Hurricane Center. 1960. Archived from the original on September 21, 2013. Retrieved September 18, 2013.
- ^ a b "Tornado History Project: September 11, 1960". Archived from the original on August 2, 2020. Retrieved June 16, 2020.
- ^ "Losses Heavy As Donna Rips Through County" (PDF). Beaufort County Community College. 1960. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 29, 2013. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
- ^ a b Scott Nunn (September 15, 2010). "Back Then - Hurricane Donna rushes ashore in 1960". Star-News. p. 2. Archived from the original on May 2, 2015. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
- ^ Roth, David M (May 12, 2022). "Tropical Cyclone Rainfall in the Mid-Atlantic United States". Tropical Cyclone Rainfall. United States Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved January 6, 2023. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Arnold Arboretum (September 8, 1961). "Hurricane "Donna" and its After Effects to a Chatham, Massachusetts, Garden" (PDF). Harvard University. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved June 25, 2014.
- ^ Wayne Cotterly (October 21, 2002). Hurricane Donna-(1960) (Report). Archived from the original on October 4, 2015. Retrieved June 25, 2014.
- Environment Canada. November 5, 2009. Archivedfrom the original on October 6, 2013. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
- ^ Florida Hurricane Donna (DR-106). fema.gov (Report). Washington, D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency. Archived from the original on August 8, 2014. Retrieved June 25, 2014.
- ^ North Carolina Hurricane Donna (DR-107). fema.gov (Report). Washington, D.C.: Federal Emergency Management Agency. Archived from the original on April 23, 2015. Retrieved June 25, 2014.
- ^ Larry Solloway (December 25, 1960). "Face-Lifting Erases Scar Donna Left in Keys". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 20, 2018. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
- ^ "The Effects of African Dust on Coral Reefs and Human Health". er.usgs.gov. United States Geological Survey. June 14, 2010. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
- .
- ^ "Caspian Tern". Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History. February 20, 1998. Archived from the original on June 10, 2011. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
- ^ "Tropical Cyclone Naming History and Retired Names". Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved March 28, 2024.
- ^ "Roll of Hurricanes Starts with Abby". Reading Eagle. Associated Press. June 24, 1964. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
- ISBN 1101615168. Archivedfrom the original on November 6, 2021. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
- ^ "Trivia for Blast of Silence (1961)". tcm.com/tcmdb. Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved February 21, 2011.
External links
- Images of Donna, Naples Daily News, Naples, Fla.
- Historic Images of Florida Hurricanes, Florida State Archives
- Donna, NOAA Hurricane Research Division
- Donna, HPC Rainfall Page