Kipchaks
The Kipchaks or Qipchaks, also known as Kipchak Turks or Polovtsians, were Turkic nomads and then a confederation that existed in the Middle Ages inhabiting parts of the Eurasian Steppe.
First mentioned in the eighth century as part of the Second Turkic Khaganate, they most likely inhabited the Altai region from where they expanded over the following centuries, first as part of the Kimek–Kipchak confederation and later as part of a confederation with the Cumans. There were groups of Kipchaks in the Pontic–Caspian steppe, China, Syr Darya and Siberia. Cumania was conquered by the Mongol Empire in the early 13th century.
Terminology
The Kipchaks interpreted their name as meaning "hollow tree" (cf.
History
On the
Chinese histories only mentioned the Kipchaks a few times: for example, Yuan general Tutuha's origin from Kipchak tribe Ölberli,[8] or some information about the Kipchaks' homeland, horses, and the Kipchaks' physiognomy and psychology.[9][10][11]
The Kipchaks were first unambiguously mentioned in Persian geographer
While part of the Turkic Khaganate, they most likely inhabited the
- Kipchaks of the Pontic–Caspian steppe.
- Kipchaks of the Syr Darya, associated with the Khwarazmian dynasty.
- Kipchaks of Siberia, later composing the Siberian Tatars.
The early 11th century saw a massive Turkic nomadic migration towards the Islamic world.[26] The first waves were recorded in the Kara-Khanid Khanate in 1017–18.[26] It is unknown whether the Cumans conquered the Kipchaks or were simply the leaders of the confederacy of the Kipchak–Turkic tribes.[26] What is certain is that the two peoples gradually mingled politically and that, from the second half of the 12th century onwards, the names Cumans and Kipchaks became interchangeable to refer to the whole confederacy.[27]
The Mongols defeated the
The nomadic Kipchaks were the main targets of the Mongols when they crossed the Volga in 1236.
After their fall, Kipchaks and Cumans were known to have become mercenaries in Europe and taken as slave warriors. In
In 1239-1240, a large group of Kipchaks fleeing from the
Another Kipchak migration in Anatolia dates back to the period of the
Language
The Kipchak–Cuman confederation spoke a
When members of the
The literary form of the Cuman language became extinct in the 18th century in the region of Cumania in Hungary. Cuman in Crimea, however, became the ancestor of the central dialect of Crimean Tatar.[46]
Mongolian linguistic elements in the Kipchak–Kimek confederation remain "unproven";[26] though that confederation's constituent Tatar tribe possibly had been Mongolic speakers who later underwent Turkification.[47]
Religion
The Kipchaks practiced Tengrism.[48] Muslim conversion occurred near Islamic centres.[48] Some Kipchaks and Cumans were known to have converted to Christianity around the 11th century, at the suggestion of the Georgians, as they allied in their conflicts against the Muslims. A great number were baptized at the request of Georgian King David IV, who also married a daughter of Kipchak Khan Otrok. From 1120, there was a Kipchak national Christian church and an important clergy.[49] Following the Mongol conquest, Islam rose in popularity among the Kipchaks of the Golden Horde.[50]
Culture
Kurgan stelae
Confederations
Kimek
The confederation or tribal union which Kipchaks entered in the 8th- or beginning of 9th century as one of seven original tribes is known in historiography as that of the Kimek (or Kimäk).[24] Turkic inscriptions do not mention the state with that name.[51] 10th-century Hudud al-'Alam mentions the "country of Kīmāk", ruled by a khagan (king) who has eleven lieutenants that hold hereditary fiefs.[52] Furthermore, Andar Az Khifchāq is mentioned as a country (nāḥiyat) of the Kīmāk, 'of which inhabitants resemble the Ghūz in some customs'.[52]
In the 9th century Ibn Khordadbeh indicated that they held autonomy within the Kimek confederation.[13] They entered the Kimek in the 8th- or beginning of 9th century, and were one of the seven original tribes.[24] In the 10th-century's Hudud al-'Alam it is said that the Kimek appointed the Kipchak king.[13]
Physical appearance
The looks of a typical Kipchak are a matter of debate. This is because in spite of their Eastern origins, several sources point at them being white, blue-eyed, and blond. It is important to elaborate, however, that the full range of available data sketches a more complex picture. While the written sources often emphasize a fair complexion the craniometric and genetic data, as well as some historical descriptions, support the image of a people highly heterogenous in appearance. Skulls with East Asian features are often found in burials associated with the Kipchaks in Central Asia and Europe.[53]
An early description of the physical appearance of Kipchaks comes from the Great Ming Code (大明律) Article 122,
Genetics
Lee and Kuang suggest that the high frequency (63.9%) of the Y-DNA haplogroup R-M73 among Karakypshaks (a tribe within the Kipchaks) allows inference about the genetics of Karakypshaks' medieval ancestors, thus explaining why some medieval Kipchaks were described as possessing "blue [or green] eyes and red hair.[58]
A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined the remains of two Kipchak males buried between c. 1000 AD and 1200 AD.[59] One male was found to be a carrier of the paternal haplogroup C[60] and the maternal haplogroup F1b1b,[61] and displayed "increased East Asian ancestry".[62] The other male was found to be a carrier of the maternal haplogroup D4[63] and displayed "pronounced European ancestry".[62]
Legacy
Kipchak peoples and languages
The modern Northwestern branch of the
Notable people
Kipchak confederations
- Ayyub Khan (fl. 1117), Kipchak leader
- Bačman (fl. 1229–1236), Kipchak leader in the Lower Volga
- Qačir-üküle (fl. 1236), Kipchak leader in the Lower Volga
- Köten (fl. 1223–1239), Kipchak leader
Kipchak ancestry
- Al-Mansur Qalawun, Mamluk sultan of Egypt (r. 1279–1290)
- Baibars, Mamluk sultan of Egypt (r. 1260–1277)
- El Temür, chancellor of the Chinese-Mongolian Yuan dynasty
- Faris ad-Din Aktai, Mamluk emir
- Nasir ad-Din Qabacha, Mamluk Sultan of Multan
See also
History of the Turkic peoples pre–14th century |
---|
- Manav People
- Kipchaks in Georgia
- Afghan Kypchaks
- Nağaybäk
- History of the central steppe
Notes
References
- ^ Clauson, Gerard (1972). An Etymological Dictionary of Pre-13th Century Turkish. Oxford University Press. p. 581.
- ^ Julian Baldick, Animal and Shaman: Ancient Religions of Central Asia, p.55.
- ^ Golden, Peter B. (1992). An Introduction to the History of the Turkic People. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. p. 271
- ^ Golden, Peter B. The Turkic world of Mahmud al-Kashgari. p. 522
- ^ a b Agajanov 1992, p. 74.
- ^ Golden, Peter (1987). "Cumanica II: The Ölberli (Ölperli): The Fortunes and Misfortunes of an Inner Asian Nomadic Clan". Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi. VI: 16–22. Retrieved 2 May 2022.
- ^ Golden, Peter (2006). "Cumanica V: The Basmils and Qipchaqs". Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi. 15: 16–17.
- Toqto'a et al. Yuanshi, vol. 128 Tutuha
- Liji "Zhong Yong"quote: "衽金革,死而不厭,北方之強也,而強者居之。", tr.: "To sleep armed and armored, to die undismayed; those are strengths in the north, the forceful dwell there."
- ^ Lee & Kuang 2017, pp. 213, 217–218, 225–226: "Concerning the physiognomy of the Qipchaq tribe, the Zizhi tongjian houbian [Later compilation to the comprehensive mirror to aid in government], a seventeenth-century continuation of Sima Guang’s Zizhi tongjian by Xu Qianxue, states that they had 'blue eyes and red hair (青目赤髪)'."
- ISBN 978-1-4381-2918-1.
- ^ Golden 2014, p. 186.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Golden 1990, p. 278.
- ^ Moyun Chur inscriptions "Note 207" at Türik Bitig
- ^ Golden 1990, p. 271.
- ^ Klyashtorny 2005, p. 243.
- ^ Ergin 1980, p. 33, 52.
- ^ Du You, Tongdian, vol. 199 ""自厥越失、拔悉彌、駮馬、結骨、火燖、觸木昆諸國皆臣之" tr. "Many states such as Jueyueshi, Basmyls, Boma, Kirghizes, Khwarazmians, and Chumukun, etc. all submitted themselves (to Duolu Qaghan)."
- ^ Zuev 2002, p. 236.
- ^ Gumilev, L. N. (2006). "İklim Değişiklikleri ve Göçebe Göçleri". (A. Batur, trans.), Avrasyadan Makaleler I, (pp. 131-151). İstanbul: Selenge Yayınları. p. 140 of pp. 131–151
- ^ Schuessler, Axel (2014). "Phonological Notes on Hàn Period Transcriptions of Foreign Names and Words" (PDF). Studies in Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Dialect, Phonology, Transcription and Text. Language and Linguistics Monograph Series. Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica (53). p. 273
- ^ Golden 1992, p. 270.
- ^ Golden 2014, p. 185.
- ^ a b c Agajanov 1992, p. 69.
- ^ Golden 1990, pp. 278–279.
- ^ a b c d e Golden 1990, p. 279.
- ^ Vásáry 2005, p. 6.
- ^ a b c d e f g h May 2016, p. 96.
- ^ a b c d May 2016, p. 103.
- ^ Vásáry 2005, p. 39.
- ^ GOLUBOVSKİY, P.V., Peçenegi, Torki i Polovtsı Rus i Step Do Naşestviya Tatar, Veçe, Moskva, 2011.
- ^ ÖZTÜRK, Meriç T., The Provıncıal Arıstocracy In Byzantine Asia Minor (1081-1261), Boğaziçi Üniversitesi, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul, 2013.
- ^ WOLF, Robert Lee, “The Latın Empire Of Constantinople 1204-1261”, A History Of The Crusaders, Volume II Later Crusades (1189-1311), General ed. Kenneth M. Setton, ed. By. Robert Lee Wolf and Harry W. Hazard, The Unıversıty Of Wısconsın Press, Madıson, Milwaukee and London, 1969, s. 187-233.
- ^ a b Dimitri Korobeinikov (2015). "The Cumans in Paphlagonia". Karadeniz İncelemeleri Dergisi (18): 29–44.
- ^ Caroline Gurevich (May 2017). The Image of the Cumans in Medieval Chronicles: Old Russian and Georgian Sources in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (PDF) (MA thesis). Budapest: Central European University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-08-23.
- ^ Rustam M. Shukurov. "Latent Turkification of Byzantium (ca. 1071–1461)". Dumbarton Oaks.
- ^ "Anadolu'ya yerleştirilen Kumanlar (Manavlar)".
- ^ Yilmaz, Adil (2018). "Bızans'in Anadolu'ya Yerleştırdığı Son Türkler" [The Last Turks Settled in Anatolia by Byzantium]. Eski̇çağ Araştirmalari Dergi̇si̇ [Journal of Ancient Researches] (in Turkish) (3): 29–32.
- ^ "YALAKOVA'DAN YALOVA'YA Prof. Dr. Halil İnalcık Anısına Yalova Tarihi Araştırmaları" (PDF).
- ^ "Acar, Kenan (2010). Kuzeybatı Anadolu Manav Türkmen Ağızları Üzerine Birkaç Not" (PDF).
- ^ "Muharrem ÖÇALAN SAKARYA- İZMİT YÖRESİ YERLEŞİK TÜRKMENLERİ MANAV AĞIZLARINDA ÖTÜMSÜZ PATLAYICI ÜNSÜZ DEĞİŞMELERİ" (PDF).
- ^ Yalvar, Cihan (19 February 2021). "CİHAN YALVAR, ANADOLU'DA SON TÜRK İSKÂNI: İZNİK İMPARATORLUĞU'NDA KUMAN-KIPÇAKLAR VE YALOVA KAZIMİYE (YORTAN) İLE ELMALIK (SARUHANLI) KÖYLERİNDEKİ VARLIKLARI". Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları. 127 (250): 11–36.
- ^ An Armeno-Kipchak Chronicle on the Polish-Turkish Wars in 1620-1621, Robert Dankoff, p. 388
- ^ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 85, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.[full citation needed]
- ^ "Crimean Tatar proper, called the 'central dialect', belonged to the West Kipchak subbranch as a descendant of Kuman." (Lars Johanson, Turkic, Cambridge University Press, 2021, pg. 62)
- ^ Peter B. Golden (1992). An Introduction to the History of the Turkic People. O. Harrassowitz. pp. 184–185.
- ^ a b May 2016, p. 221.
- ^ Roux 1997, p. 242.
- ^ Islamic Civilization Archived 2008-05-12 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Central Asiatic Journal. O. Harrassowitz. 1998.
- ^ a b Hudud al-'Alam, ch. 18
- ^ Oshanin, L.V. 1964. Anthropological Composition of the Population of Central Asia, and the Ethnogenesis of its Peoples (trans. V.M. Maurin, ed. H. Field). Cambridge (MA): Peabody Museum of Archaeology.
- ISBN 978-0-295-80166-7.
- ISBN 978-1-000-13466-7.
- ^ Lee 2017, p. 207
- ^ Lee, J. Y., & Kuang, S. (2017). A comparative analysis of Chinese historical sources and Y-DNA studies with regard to the early and medieval turkic peoples. Inner Asia, 19(2), 197-239.
- ^ S2CID 165623743.
- ^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 2, Rows 20, 105.
- ^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 9, Row 14.
- ^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 8, Row 75.
- ^ a b Damgaard et al. 2018, p. 4.
- ^ Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 8, Row 44.
- ^ Муратов Б.А., Суюнов Р.Р. ДНК-генеалогия башкирских родов из сако-динлинской подветви R1a+Z2123//Суюнов Р.Р. Гены наших предков (2-е издание). Том 3, серия «Этногеномика и ДНК-генеалогия», ЭИ Проект «Суюн». Vila do Conde, Lidergraf, 2014, — 250 c., илл., Португалия (Portugal), С.15-77
Sources
- Agajanov, S. G. (1992). "The States of the Oghuz, the Kimek and the Kipchak". History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV: The Age of Achievement AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 61–76. ISBN 978-81-208-1595-7.
- Damgaard, P. B.; et al. (May 9, 2018). "137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes". S2CID 13670282. Retrieved April 11, 2020.
- Ergin, Muharrem (1980). Orhun Abideleri (in Turkish). İstanbul: Boğaziçi Yayınları.
- Golden, Peter B. (1990). "The peoples of the south Russian steppes". In Sinor, Denis (ed.). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 256–284. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9.
- Golden, Peter B. (1992). An Introduction to the History of the Turkic People. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.
- Golden, Peter B. (2014). Nurettin Demir (ed.). "Qıpčaq". Turcology and Linguistics. Éva Ágnes Csató Festschrift.
- Klyashtorny, Sergey (2005). "The Polovcian Problems (II): Qipčaqs, Comans, and Polovcians". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 58 (3). Szeged, Hungary: Akadémiai Kiadó: 243–248. JSTOR 23658648.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2024 (link - Lee, Joo-Yup; Kuang, Shuntu (2017-10-18). "A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and y-dna Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples". Inner Asia. 19 (2): 197–239. ISSN 2210-5018.
- May, Timothy (7 November 2016). The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 221–. ISBN 978-1-61069-340-0.
- ISBN 978-2-213-59894-9.
- Vásáry, István (2005). Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365. Cambridge and New York: ISBN 978-0-5218-3756-9.
- Zuev, Yury (2002). Rannie tyurki: ocherki istorii i ideologii (in Russian). Almaty: Daik Press.
Further reading
- "Kipchak". Encyclopædia Britannica (Academic ed.). 2006.
- "Polovtsi". The Columbia Encyclopedia (Sixth ed.). 2001–2005.
- Boswell, A. Bruce (1927). "The Kipchak Turks". The Slavonic Review. 6 (16): 68–85.
- Golden, Peter B. (2009). "QEPČĀQ". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
- Győrfi, Dávid (2014). "Khwarezmian: Mapping the Kipchak component of Pre-Chagatai Turkic". Acta Orientalia. 67 (4): 383–406. .
- Shanijazov, K. (1978-12-31). "Early Elements in the Ethnogenesis of the Uzbeks". The Nomadic Alternative. DE GRUYTER MOUTON. pp. 147–156. ISBN 978-90-279-7520-1.
- Ushntskiy, Vasiliy V. (2015-06-01). "Kipchak component in the Sakha ethnogenesis". Vestnik Tomskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta. Istoriya. 35 (3). Institute of Humanities and Indigenouse Peoples of the North of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yakutsk: 97–101. .
- Mukhajanova, T. N.; Asetilla, A. M. (2016). "'Kipchak' Ethnonym and the History of Its Origin". World Science. 3 (12). ROST. ISSN 2413-1032.
- Baski, Imre (2006). "On the ethnic names of the Cumans of Hungary". Kinship in the Altaic World: Proceedings of the 48th PIAC. pp. 43–54.
- Róna-Tas, András (2021-11-04). "The reconstruction of Proto-Turkic and the genealogical question". The Turkic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 60–74. S2CID 243781797.
- Bíró, B. Margaret (1973). "The 'Kipchaks' in the Georgian Martyrdom of David and Constantine". Annales Universitatis Scientiarum Budapestinensis de Rolando Eötvös Nominatae. Sectio linguistica. 4: 161–168.
- Kadyrbaev, Aleksandr (2005). "Turks (Uighurs, Kipchaks and Kanglis) in the history of the Mongols". Acta Orientalia. 58 (3): 249–253. doi:10.1556/AOrient.58.2005.5.3 (inactive 2024-02-15).)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2024 (link - Halperin, Charles J. (2000). "The Kipchak Connection: The Ilkhans, the Mamluks and Ayn Jalut". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 63 (2): 229–245. S2CID 162439703.
- Eckmann, János (1963). "The Mamluk-Kipchak Literature". Central Asiatic Journal: 304–319.
- Csáki, Éva (2006). Middle Mongolian Loan Words in Volga Kipchak Languages. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3-447-05381-X.
- Güner, Galip (2013). Kıpçak Türkçesi Grameri. İstanbul: Kesit Yayınları.
- Grousset, René (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1.
- Hildinger, Erik (2001-11-08). Warriors Of The Steppe. Cambridge, Mass: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81065-7.
- Howorth, Henry Hoyle (2008) [1880]. History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century, Part 2: The So-Called Tartars of Russia and Central Asia. Cosimo, Inc. ISBN 978-1-60520-134-4.
- Argunşah, Mustafa; Güner, Galip (2015). Codex Cumanicus (in Turkish). Cağaloğlu, İstanbul: Kesit Yayınları. ISBN 978-605-9100-59-5.
External links
- Codex Cumanicus
- Kipchak dateline at the Wayback Machine (archived October 13, 2004)
- Murad ADJI, The Kipchaks