Space station

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about an outpost in space. For radio broadcasts sent from space, see space radio station. For stations named "Space", see Space (disambiguation).
International Space StationTiangong Space StationMirSkylabTiangong-2Soyuz 4Salyut 1Salyut 2Salyut 4Salyut 6Salyut 7
The image above contains clickable links
The image above contains clickable links
Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes.

A space station (or orbital station) is a

commercial uses, such as hosting space tourists
.

Space stations have been hosting the only continuous

Salyut successor Mir. Uninterrupted occupation has been sustained since the operational transition from the Mir to the International Space Station
(ISS), with its first occupation in 2000.

Currently there are two fully operational space stations – the ISS and

Tiangong Space Station (TSS), which have been occupied since October 2000 with Expedition 1 and since June 2022 with Shenzhou 14. The highest number of people at the same time on one space station has been 13, first achieved with the eleven day docking to the ISS of the 127th Space Shuttle mission in 2009. The record for most people on all space stations at the same time has been 17, first on May 30, 2023, with 11 people on the ISS and 6 on the TSS.[1]

Space stations are often

docking ports, through which they are built and maintained, allowing the joining or movement of modules and the docking of other spacecrafts for the exchange of people, supplies and tools. While space stations generally do not leave their orbit, they do feature thrusters for station keeping
.

History

See also: List of space stations

Early concepts

The first mention of anything resembling a space station occurred in Edward Everett Hale's 1868 "The Brick Moon".[2] The first to give serious, scientifically grounded consideration to space stations were Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Hermann Oberth about two decades apart in the early 20th century.[3]

stairwell
. Verdampfungsrohr: boiler pipe).

In 1929,

Collier's Weekly, referencing Potočnik's idea. However, development of a rotating station was never begun in the 20th century.[3]

First advances and precursors

Further information: Space rendezvous § First docking

The first human flew to space and concluded the first orbit on April 12, 1961, with Vostok 1.

The

Kennedy administration sped ahead and made the Apollo program focus on what was originally planned to come after it, the lunar landing. The Project Olympus space station, or orbiting laboratory of the Apollo program, was proposed as an in-space unfolded structure with the Apollo command and service module docking.[5] While never realized, the Apollo command and service module would perform docking maneuvers
and eventually become a lunar orbiting module which was used for station-like purposes.

But before that the

Gemini 6 and Gemini 7 in 1965. Subsequently in 1966 Neil Armstrong performed on Gemini 8 the first ever space docking, while in 1967 Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188
were the first spacecrafts that docked automatically.

Gemini 8 docking with Agena vehicle

In January 1969, Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 performed the first docked, but not internal, crew transfer, and in March, Apollo 9 performed the first ever internal transfer of astronauts between two docked spaceships.

Salyut, Almaz and Skylab

Main articles:
Salyut, Almaz, and Skylab
Skylab (1973–1974), the first U.S. space station and second overall

In 1971, the

Salyut series were eventually joined by Skylab, Mir, and Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2
. The hardware developed during the initial Soviet efforts remains in use, with evolved variants comprising a considerable part of the ISS, orbiting today. Each crew member stays aboard the station for weeks or months but rarely more than a year.

Early stations were monolithic designs that were constructed and launched in one piece, generally containing all their supplies and experimental equipment. A crew would then be launched to join the station and perform research. After the supplies had been consumed, the station was abandoned.[6]

The first space station was Salyut 1, which was launched by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The early Soviet stations were all designated "Salyut", but among these, there were two distinct types: civilian and military. The military stations, Salyut 2, Salyut 3, and Salyut 5, were also known as Almaz stations.[7]

The civilian stations

TKS tug shortly before it was abandoned; this served as a proof of concept for the use of modular space stations. The later Salyuts may reasonably be seen as a transition between the two groups.[7]

Mir

Main article: Mir
Mir station seen in 1998

Unlike previous stations, the Soviet space station Mir had a modular design; a core unit was launched, and additional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added. This method allows for greater flexibility in operation, as well as removing the need for a single immensely powerful launch vehicle. Modular stations are also designed from the outset to have their supplies provided by logistical support craft, which allows for a longer lifetime at the cost of requiring regular support launches.[9]

International Space Station

Main article: International Space Station
View of the International Space Station in 2021

The ISS is divided into two main sections, the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) and the US Orbital Segment (USOS). The first module of the ISS, Zarya, was launched in 1998.[10]

The Russian Orbital Segment's "second-generation" modules were able to launch on

Proton, fly to the correct orbit, and dock themselves without human intervention.[11]
Connections are automatically made for power, data, gases, and propellants. The Russian autonomous approach allows the assembly of space stations prior to the launch of crew.

The Russian "second-generation" modules are able to be reconfigured to suit changing needs. As of 2009,

RKK Energia was considering the removal and reuse of some modules of the ROS on the Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex after the end of mission is reached for the ISS.[12] However, in September 2017, the head of Roscosmos said that the technical feasibility of separating the station to form OPSEK had been studied, and there were now no plans to separate the Russian segment from the ISS.[13]

In contrast, the main US modules launched on the

EVAs. Connections for electrical power, data, propulsion, and cooling fluids are also made at this time, resulting in an integrated block of modules that is not designed for disassembly and must be deorbited as one mass.[14]

Axiom Station is a planned commercial space station that will begin as a single module docked to the ISS. Axiom Space gained NASA approval for the venture in January 2020. The first module, the Payload Power Transfer Module (PPTM), is expected to be launched to the ISS no earlier than 2027.[15] PPTM will remain at the ISS until the launch of Axiom's Habitat One (Hab-1) module about one year later, after which it will detach from the ISS to join with Hab-1.[15]

Tiangong program

Main articles: Tiangong space station and Tiangong program
Rendering of the completed Tiangong Space Station in November 2022
Rendering of the completed Tiangong Space Station in November 2022

China's first space laboratory, Tiangong-1 was launched in September 2011.[16] The uncrewed Shenzhou 8 then successfully performed an automatic rendezvous and docking in November 2011. The crewed Shenzhou 9 then docked with Tiangong-1 in June 2012, followed by the crewed Shenzhou 10 in 2013.[citation needed]

According to the

China Manned Space Engineering Office, Tiangong-1 reentered over the South Pacific Ocean, northwest of Tahiti, on 2 April 2018 at 00:15 UTC.[17][18]

A second space laboratory Tiangong-2 was launched in September 2016, while a plan for Tiangong-3 was merged with Tiangong-2.[19] The station made a controlled reentry on 19 July 2019 and burned up over the South Pacific Ocean.[20]

The

Tiangong Space Station (Chinese: 天宫; pinyin: Tiāngōng; lit. 'Heavenly Palace'), the first module of which was launched on 29 April 2021,[21] is in low Earth orbit, 340 to 450 kilometres above the Earth at an orbital inclination of 42° to 43°. The core module was extended in 2022 with two laboratory modules, bringing the total station capacity to six crew members. The station was completed on 5 November 2022.[22][23][24]

Planned projects

This section is an excerpt from List of space stations § Planned and proposed.[edit]

These space stations have been announced by their host entity and are currently in planning, development or production. The launch date listed here may change as more information becomes available.

Name Entity Program Crew size Launch date Planned Pressurized Volume Remarks
Haven-1 United States Vast Private
4
 May 2026[25] 80 m3[26] "Scheduled to be the world's first commercial space station, Haven-1 and subsequent human spaceflight missions will accelerate access to space exploration"[27]
LIFE Pathfinder United States Sierra Space Private
TBD
 2026 285 m3[28] "Before offering LIFE for Orbital Reef, though, the company is proposing to launch a standalone “pathfinder” version of LIFE as soon as the end of 2026".[29]
StarMax United States Gravitics Private
TBD
 2026[30] 400 m3

(14,126 cu ft)

"The StarMax module provides up to 400 cubic meters of usable habitable volume - nearly half the volume of the International Space Station in one module."
Axiom Station United States Axiom Space
 Private
TBD
 2027[31] ~666.8 m3

(~23,548 cu ft)

Private, free flying space station for commercial tourism and science activities.
Lunar Gateway United States NASA
ESA
Canada CSA
Japan JAXA 		Artemis
4
 2027[32] ≥125 m3 (4,400 cu ft) Intended to serve as a science platform and as a staging area for the lunar landings of NASA's Artemis program and follow-on human mission to Mars.
Orbital Reef United States Blue Origin
United States Sierra Space 		Private
10
 2027[33] 830 m3

(29,000 cu ft)

"Commercial station in LEO for research, industrial, international, and commercial customers."
Russian Orbital Service Station
 Russia Roscosmos Russia's next generation space station.
TBD
 2027[34] With Russia leaving the ISS programme sometime after 2024, Roscosmos announced this new space station in April 2021 as the replacement for that program.
Bharatiya Antariksha Station[35]
 India ISRO Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
3
 ~2028[35][36][37][38][39] ISRO chairman K. Sivan announced in 2019 that India will not join the International Space Station, but will instead build a space station of its own.[40] of 52 Tonne Mass [41] It is intended to be completed 5–7 years after the conclusion of the Gaganyaan program.[42]
Starlab
NanoRacks
United States Voyager Space
European Union Airbus
CanadaMDA Space
JapanMitsubishi Corporation
 Private
4
 2028[43] ~450 m3

(~15892 cu ft)

"Commercial platform supporting a business designed to enable science, research, and manufacturing for customers around the world."

While originally Lockheed Martin was included in the project, as of 2024, it appears their primary role has been filled by Airbus, to provide the main habitat for the station.[44] As of 2024, they are no longer listed as a partner on Starlab's website.[45]

Haven-2 United States Vast Private
12
 2028 1160 m3

[26]

A planned successor to Haven-1. Vast CEO Max Hoat expressed hope that the first module of Haven-2 will be launched in 2028 if the station will be approved during the second phase of NASA's Commercial LEO Destinations program.[46]
Lunar Orbital Station[47]
 Russia Roscosmos
TBD
 after 2030[48]
Artificial Gravity Station United States Vast Private
40
 2035 1400 m3 [26]
Japanese Space Station Module (Mitsui) Japan JAXA|Mitsui & Co. TBA
TBD
 TBD Japan's spaceflight agency, JAXA, announced in July 2024 that has contracted Mitsui & Co. to develop a concept for a new space station module for eventual flight and docking to an American private space station as yet to be determined as of the initial announcement. [49][50][51]

Architecture

Two types of space stations have been flown: monolithic and modular. Monolithic stations consist of a single vehicle and are launched by one rocket. Modular stations consist of two or more separate vehicles that are launched independently and docked on orbit. Modular stations are currently preferred due to lower costs and greater flexibility.[52][53]

A space station is a complex vehicle that must incorporate many interrelated subsystems, including structure, electrical power, thermal control,

attitude determination and control, orbital navigation and propulsion, automation and robotics, computing and communications, environmental and life support, crew facilities, and crew and cargo transportation. Stations must serve a useful role, which drives the capabilities required.[citation needed
]

Orbit and purpose

Materials

Main article:
Manufacturing of the International Space Station
See also: Bigelow Expandable Activity Module

Space stations are made from durable materials that have to weather

aluminum alloys, with layers of insulation such as Kevlar as a ballistics shield protection.[54]

The International Space Station (ISS) has a single inflatable module, the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module, which was installed in April 2016 after being delivered to the ISS on the SpaceX CRS-8 resupply mission.[55][56] This module, based on NASA research in the 1990s, weighs 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb) and was transported while compressed before being attached to the ISS by the space station arm and inflated to provide a 16 cubic metres (21 cu yd) volume. Whilst it was initially designed for a 2 year lifetime it was still attached and being used for storage in August 2022.[57][58]

Construction

Habitability

Main article: Effect of spaceflight on the human body

The space station environment presents a variety of challenges to human habitability, including short-term problems such as the limited supplies of air, water, and food and the need to manage

eyesight disorders, and elevated risk of cancer.[59]

Future

radiation shielding, and the development of on-site agricultural ecosystems. Some designs might even accommodate large numbers of people, becoming essentially "cities in space" where people would reside semi-permanently.[60]

Molds that develop aboard space stations can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. Despite an expanding array of molecular approaches for detecting microorganisms, rapid and robust means of assessing the differential viability of the microbial cells, as a function of phylogenetic lineage, remain elusive.[61]

Power

Main article: Solar panels on spacecraft
See also: Electrical system of the International Space Station and Roll Out Solar Array

Like uncrewed spacecraft close to the Sun, space stations in the inner

solar panels to obtain power.[62]

Life support

Main articles:
Environmental Control and Life Support System and Vika oxygen generator

Space station air and water is brought up in spacecraft from Earth before being recycled. Supplemental oxygen can be supplied by a solid fuel oxygen generator.[63]

Communications

Main articles: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System, Lira (ISS), and Amateur Radio on the International Space Station
See also: Interplanetary Internet, InterPlaNet, and Optical Payload for Lasercomm Science

Military

The last military-use space station was the Soviet Salyut 5, which was launched under the Almaz program and orbited between 1976 and 1977.[64][65][66]

Occupation

Space stations have harboured so far the only long-duration direct human presence in space. After the first station,

ISS, with its first occupation in 2000. The ISS has hosted the highest number of people in orbit at the same time, reaching 13 for the first time during the eleven day docking of STS-127 in 2009.[67]

The duration record for a single spaceflight is 437.75 days, set by Valeri Polyakov aboard Mir from 1994 to 1995.[68] As of 2021, four cosmonauts have completed single missions of over a year, all aboard Mir.

Operations

Resupply and crew vehicles

Main articles: List of crewed spacecraft and Comparison of space station cargo vehicles
See also: Commercial Resupply Services

Many spacecraft are used to dock with the space stations. Soyuz flight T-15 in March to July 1986 was the first and as of 2016, only spacecraft to visit two different space stations, Mir and Salyut 7.[69]

International Space Station

Main articles: List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station and Uncrewed spaceflights to the International Space Station

The International Space Station has been supported by many different spacecraft.

Tiangong space station

Main article: Tiangong space station

The Tiangong space station is supported by the following spacecraft:

Tiangong program

Main article: Tiangong program

The Tiangong program relied on the following spacecraft.

Mir

Main articles: List of human spaceflights to Mir and List of uncrewed spaceflights to Mir

The Mir space station was in orbit from 1986 to 2001 and was supported and visited by the following spacecraft:

Skylab

Main article: Skylab

Salyut programme

Main article: Salyut programme

Docking and berthing

Main article: Docking and berthing of spacecraft
See also: International Docking System Standard and Chinese Docking Mechanism

Maintenance

Research

Main article: Scientific research on the International Space Station

Research conducted on the Mir included the first long term space based ESA research project EUROMIR 95 which lasted 179 days and included 35 scientific experiments.[108]

During the first 20 years of operation of the International Space Station, there were around 3,000 scientific experiments in the areas of biology and biotech, technology development, educational activities, human research, physical science, and Earth and space science.[109][110]

Materials research

Space stations provide a useful platform to test the performance, stability, and survivability of materials in space. This research follows on from previous experiments such as the Long Duration Exposure Facility, a free flying experimental platform which flew from April 1984 until January 1990.[111][112]

Human research

Main articles: Effect of spaceflight on the human body and Bioastronautics
See also: ISS year-long mission

Botany

Main article: Astrobotany

Space tourism

Main article: Orbital space tourism

On the

space hotels may become relatively common.[citation needed
]

Finance

As it currently costs on average $10,000 to $25,000 per kilogram to launch anything into orbit, space stations remain the exclusive province of government space agencies, which are primarily funded by

taxation. In the case of the International Space Station, space tourism
makes up a small portion of money to run it.

Legacy

Technology spinoffs

See also:
NASA spinoff technologies

International cooperation and economy

Cultural impact

This section is an excerpt from Space stations and habitats in fiction.[edit]
"The Brick Moon" – an 1869 serial by Edward Everett Hale – was the first fictional space station or habitat.
The concepts of space stations and
space habitats feature in science fiction. The difference between the two is that habitats are larger and more complex structures intended as permanent homes for substantial populations (though generation ships also fit this description, they are usually not considered space habitats as they are heading for a destination[117]), but the line between the two is fuzzy with significant overlap and the term space station is sometimes used for both concepts.[118][119] The first such artificial satellite in fiction was Edward Everett Hale's "The Brick Moon" in 1869,[118][120] a sphere of bricks 61 meters across accidentally launched into orbit around the Earth with people still onboard.[117][121]

Space settlement

Main article: Space settlement
See also: Moonbase and Mars habitat

See also

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Bibliography

Further reading

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