White stork
White stork | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Ciconiiformes |
Family: | Ciconiidae |
Genus: | Ciconia |
Species: | C. ciconia
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Binomial name | |
Ciconia ciconia | |
Approximate ranges and routes
Breeding range Migration routes
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Synonyms | |
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The white stork (Ciconia ciconia) is a large
A carnivore, the white stork eats a wide range of animal prey, including insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, small mammals and small birds. It takes most of its food from the ground, among low vegetation, and from shallow water. It is a monogamous breeder, and both members of the pair build a large stick nest, which may be used for several years. Each year the female can lay one clutch of usually four eggs, which hatch asynchronously 33–34 days after being laid. Both parents take turns incubating the eggs and both feed the young. The young leave the nest 58–64 days after hatching, and continue to be fed by the parents for a further 7–20 days.
The white stork has been rated as
Taxonomy and evolution
English naturalist Francis Willughby wrote about the white stork in the 17th century, having seen a drawing sent to him by Sir Thomas Browne of Norwich. He named it Ciconia alba. They noted they were occasional vagrants to England, blown there by storms.[2][a] It was one of the many bird species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae,[4] where it was given the binomial name of Ardea ciconia. It was reclassified to and designated the type species of the new genus Ciconia by Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760.[5][6] Both the genus and specific epithet, cĭcōnia, are the Latin word for "stork".[7]
There are two subspecies:
- C. c. ciconia, the
- C. c. asiatica, described by Russian naturalist Nikolai Severtzov in 1873, breeds in Turkestan and winters from Iran to India. It is slightly larger than the nominate subspecies.[8][10]
The stork family contains six genera in three broad groups: the open-billed and wood storks (
A Ciconia fossil representing the distal end of a right humerus has been recovered from Miocene beds of Rusinga Island, Lake Victoria, Kenya.[14] The 24–6 million year old fossil could have originated from either a white stork or a black stork (C. nigra), which are species of about the same size with very similar bone structures. The Middle Miocene beds of Maboko Island have yielded further remains.[14]
Description
The white stork is a large bird. It has a length of 100–115 cm (39–45 in),
As with other storks, the wings are long and broad enabling the bird to soar.[21] In flapping flight its wingbeats are slow and regular. It flies with its neck stretched forward and with its long legs extended well beyond the end of its short tail. It walks at a slow and steady pace with its neck upstretched. In contrast, it often hunches its head between its shoulders when resting.[22] Moulting has not been extensively studied, but appears to take place throughout the year, with the primary flight feathers replaced over the breeding season.[19]
Upon hatching, the young white stork is partly covered with short, sparse, whitish down feathers. This early down is replaced about a week later with a denser coat of woolly white down. By three weeks, the young bird acquires black scapulars and flight feathers. On hatching the chick has pinkish legs, which turn to greyish-black as it ages. Its beak is black with a brownish tip.[19] By the time it fledges, the juvenile bird's plumage is similar to that of the adult, though its black feathers are often tinged with brown, and its beak and legs are a duller brownish-red or orange. The beak is typically orange or red with a darker tip.[22] The bills gain the adults' red colour the following summer, although the black tips persist in some individuals. Young storks adopt adult plumage by their second summer.[23]
Similar species
Within its range the white stork is distinctive when seen on the ground. The winter range of C. c. asiatica overlaps that of the Asian openbill, which has similar plumage but a different bill shape. When seen at a distance in flight, the white stork can be confused with several other species with similar underwing patterns, such as the yellow-billed stork, great white pelican and Egyptian vulture.[22] The yellow-billed stork is identified by its black tail and a longer, slightly curved, yellow beak. The white stork also tends to be larger than the yellow-billed stork.[24] The great white pelican has short legs which do not extend beyond its tail, and it flies with its neck retracted, keeping its head near to its stocky body, giving it a different flight profile.[25] Pelicans also behave differently, soaring in orderly, synchronised flocks rather than in disorganised groups of individuals as the white stork does.[26] The Egyptian vulture is much smaller, with a long wedge-shaped tail, shorter legs and a small yellow-tinged head on a short neck.[27] The common crane, which can also look black and white in strong light, shows longer legs and a longer neck in flight.[28]
Distribution and habitat
The
In Africa the white stork may spend the winter in Tunisia, Morocco, Uganda, Angola, Zimbabwe, Djibouti, Botswana, Mozambique, Zambia, Swaziland, Gambia, Guinea, Algeria, and Ghana.
The white stork's preferred feeding grounds are grassy meadows, farmland and shallow wetlands. It avoids areas overgrown with tall grass and shrubs.
The white stork breeds in greater numbers in areas with open grasslands, particularly grassy areas which are wet or periodically flooded, and less in areas with taller vegetation cover such as forest and shrubland.[47] They make use of grasslands, wetlands, and farmland on the wintering grounds in Africa.[35] White storks were probably aided by human activities during the Middle Ages as woodland was cleared and new pastures and farmland were created, and they were found across much of Europe, breeding as far north as Sweden. The population in Sweden is thought to have established in the 16th century after forests were cut down for agriculture. About 5000 pairs were estimated to breed in the 18th century which declined subsequently. The first accurate census in 1917 found 25 pairs and the last pair failed to breed around 1955.[48] A similar pattern was seen in Denmark where the white stork appears to have become established in the 15th century when forests were being replaced by farmland and meadows, followed by a rapid population increase in the next centuries and then a rapid decline due mainly to modern, high-intensity agriculture in the last 200 years.[49] The white stork has been a rare visitor to the British Isles, with about 20 birds seen in Britain every year, and prior to 2020 there were no records of nesting since a pair nested atop St Giles High Kirk in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1416.[50] In 2020, a pair bred in the United Kingdom for the first time in over 600 years,[51] as part of a re-introduction initiative in West Sussex called the White Stork Project.[52]
A decline in population began in the 19th century due to
Migration
Systematic research into migration of the white stork began with German ornithologist Johannes Thienemann who commenced bird ringing studies in 1906 at the Rossitten Bird Observatory, on the Curonian Spit in what was then East Prussia. Although not many storks passed through Rossitten itself, the observatory coordinated the large-scale ringing of the species throughout Germany and elsewhere in Europe. Between 1906 and the Second World War about 100,000, mainly juvenile, white storks were ringed, with over 2,000 long-distance recoveries of birds wearing Rossitten rings reported between 1908 and 1954.[55]
Routes
White storks fly south from their summer breeding grounds in Europe in August and September, heading for Africa.
To avoid a long sea crossing over the Mediterranean, birds from central Europe either follow an eastern migration route by crossing the
Juvenile white storks set off on their first southward migration in an inherited direction but, if displaced from that bearing by weather conditions, they are unable to compensate, and may end up in a new wintering location. Adults can compensate for strong winds and adjust their direction to finish at their normal winter sites, because they are familiar with the location. For the same reason, all spring migrants, even those from displaced wintering locations, can find their way back to the traditional breeding sites.[64] An experiment with young birds raised in captivity in Kaliningrad and released in the absence of wild storks to show them the way revealed that they appeared to have an instinct to fly south, although the scatter in direction was large.[65]
Energetics
White storks rely on the uplift of air thermals to soar and glide the long distances of their annual migrations between Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa. For many, the shortest route would take them over the Mediterranean Sea; however, since air thermals do not form over water, they generally detour over land to avoid the trans-Mediterranean flights that would require prolonged energetic wing flapping.[66] It has been estimated that flapping flight metabolises 23 times more body fat than soaring flight per distance travelled.[67] Thus, flocks spiral upwards on rising warm air until they emerge at the top, up to 1,200–1,500 m (3,900–4,900 ft) above the ground (though one record from Western Sudan observed an altitude of 3,300 m (10,800 ft)).[57]
Long flights over water may occasionally be undertaken. A young white stork ringed at the nest in Denmark subsequently appeared in England, where it spent some days before moving on. It was later seen flying over St Mary's, Isles of Scilly, and arrived in a poor condition in Madeira three days later. That island is 500 km (320 mi) from Africa, and twice as far from the European mainland.[68] Migration through the Middle East may be hampered by the khamsin, winds bringing gusty overcast days unsuitable for flying. In these situations, flocks of white storks sit out the adverse weather on the ground, standing and facing into the wind.[57]
Behaviour
The white stork is a
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carrying twig to nest
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bird with transmitter carrying plastic to nest
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on nest in Spain
A white stork's droppings, containing faeces and uric acid, are sometimes directed onto its own legs, making them appear white.[24] The resulting evaporation provides cooling and is termed urohidrosis.[74] Birds that have been ringed can sometimes be affected by the accumulation of droppings around the ring leading to constriction and leg trauma.[75][76] The white stork has also been noted for tool use by squeezing moss in the beak to drip water into the mouths of its chicks.[77]
Communication
The adult white stork's main sound is noisy bill-clattering, which has been likened to distant machine gun fire. The bird makes these sounds by rapidly opening and closing its beak so that a knocking sound is made each time its beak closes. The clattering is amplified by its
Breeding and lifespan
The white stork breeds in open farmland areas with access to marshy wetlands, building a large stick nest in trees, on buildings, or on purpose-built man-made platforms.[81] Each nest is 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) in depth, 0.8–1.5 m (2.6–4.9 ft) in diameter, and 60–250 kg (130–550 lb) in weight.[82] Nests are built in loose colonies.[71] Not persecuted as it is viewed as a good omen, it often nests close to human habitation; in southern Europe, nests can be seen on churches and other buildings. The nest is typically used year after year especially by older males. The males arrive earlier in the season and choose the nests. Larger nests are associated with greater numbers of young successfully fledged, and appear to be sought after.[83] Nest change is often related to a change in the pairing and failure to raise young the previous year, and younger birds are more likely to change nesting sites.[84] Although a pair may be found to occupy a nest, partners may change several times during the early stages and breeding activities begin only after a stable pairing is achieved.[85]
Several bird species often nest within the large nests of the white stork. Regular occupants are
A white stork pair raises a single brood a year. The female typically lays four
The temperature and weather around the time of hatching in spring is important; cool temperatures and wet weather increase chick mortality and reduce breeding success rates.[47] Somewhat unexpectedly, studies have found that later-hatching chicks which successfully reach adulthood produce more chicks than do their earlier-hatching nestmates.[95] The body weight of the chicks increases rapidly in the first few weeks and reaches a plateau of about 3.4 kg (7.5 lb) in 45 days. The length of the beak increases linearly for about 50 days.[96] Young birds are fed with earthworms and insects, which are regurgitated by the parents onto the floor of the nest. Older chicks reach into the mouths of parents to obtain food.[97] Chicks fledge 58 to 64 days after hatching.[98]
White storks generally begin breeding when about four years old, although the age of first breeding has been recorded as early as two years and as late as seven years.[19] The oldest known wild white stork lived for 39 years after being ringed in Switzerland,[99] while captive birds have lived for more than 35 years.[8]
Feeding
White storks consume a wide variety of animal prey. They prefer to forage in meadows that are within roughly 5 km (3 mi) of their nest and sites where the vegetation is shorter so that their prey is more accessible.[42] Their diet varies according to season, locality and prey availability. Common food items include insects (primarily beetles, grasshoppers, locusts and crickets), earthworms, reptiles, amphibians, particularly frog species such as the edible frog (Pelophylax kl. esculentus) and common frog (Rana temporaria) and small mammals such as voles, moles and shrews. Less commonly, they also eat bird eggs and young birds, fish, molluscs, crustaceans and scorpions. They hunt mainly during the day, swallowing small prey whole, but killing and breaking apart larger prey before swallowing.[70] Rubber bands are mistaken for earthworms and consumed, occasionally resulting in fatal blockage of the digestive tract.[100]
Birds returning to Latvia during spring have been shown to locate their prey, moor frogs (
The diet of non-breeding birds is similar to that of breeding birds, but food items are more often taken from dry areas.[102] White storks wintering in western India have been observed to follow blackbuck to capture insects disturbed by them.[103] Wintering white storks in India sometimes forage along with the woolly-necked stork (Ciconia episcopus).[104] Food piracy has been recorded in India with a rodent captured by a western marsh harrier appropriated by a white stork, while Montagu's harrier is known to harass white storks foraging for voles in some parts of Poland.[105][106] White storks can exploit landfill sites for food during the breeding season, migration period and winter.[107]
Parasites and diseases
White stork nests are habitats for an array of small arthropods, particularly over the warmer months after the birds arrive to breed. Nesting over successive years, the storks bring more material to line their nests and layers of organic material accumulate within them. Not only do their bodies tend to regulate temperatures within the nest, but excrement, food remains and feather and skin fragments provide nourishment for a large and diverse population of free-living mesostigmatic mites. A survey of twelve nests found 13,352 individuals of 34 species, the most common being Macrocheles merdarius, M. robustulus, Uroobovella pyriformis and Trichouropoda orbicularis, which together represented almost 85% of all the specimens collected. These feed on the eggs and larvae of insects and on nematodes, which are abundant in the nest litter. These mites are dispersed by coprophilous beetles, often of the family Scarabaeidae, or on dung brought by the storks during nest construction. Parasitic mites do not occur, perhaps being controlled by the predatory species. The overall effect of the mite population is unclear, the mites may have a role in suppressing harmful organisms (and hence be beneficial), or they may themselves have an adverse effect on nestlings.[108][109]
The birds themselves host species belonging to more than four genera of
The white stork also carries several types of internal parasites, including
West Nile virus (WNV) is mainly a bird infection that is transmitted between birds by mosquitos.[121] Migrating birds appear to be important in spread of the virus,[122] the ecology of which remains poorly known.[123] On 26 August 1998, a flock of about 1,200 migrating white storks that had been blown off course on their southward journey landed in Eilat, in southern Israel. The flock was stressed as it had resorted to flapping flight to return to its migratory route, and a number of birds died. A virulent strain of West Nile virus was isolated from the brains of eleven dead juveniles. Other white storks subsequently tested in Israel have shown anti-WNV antibodies.[124] In 2008 three juvenile white storks from a Polish wildlife refuge yielded seropositive results indicating exposure to the virus, but the context or existence of the virus in Poland is unclear.[125]
Conservation
A large population of white storks breeds in central (Poland, Ukraine and Germany) and southern Europe (Spain and Turkey). In a 2004/05 census, there were 52,500 pairs in Poland, 30,000 pairs in Ukraine, 20,000 pairs in Belarus, 13,000 pairs in Lithuania (the highest known density of this species in the world), 10,700 pairs in Latvia, and 10,200 in Russia. There were around 5,500 pairs in Romania, 5,300 in Hungary, and an estimated 4,956 breeding pairs in Bulgaria.[129]In former Yugoslavia there are 1,700 in Croatia, 1,400 in Serbia,[130][131] 236 in Slovenia and an estimated 40 breeding pairs in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[129] In Germany, the majority of the total 4,482 pairs were in the eastern region, especially in the states of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (1296 and 863 pairs in 2008 respectively).[132] Apart from Spain and Portugal (33,217 and 7,684 pairs in 2004/05 respectively), populations are generally much less stable. In the eastern Mediterranean region Turkey has a sizeable population of 6,195 pairs, and Greece 2,139 pairs. In Western Europe the white stork remains a rare bird despite conservation efforts. In 2004 France had only 973 pairs, and the Netherlands 528 pairs.[129] In Denmark, the species had consistently bred since the 15th century, peaking at several thousands pairs around 1800. Afterwards it began declining mainly due to habitat loss (especially conversion of wetlands and meadows into modern farming), with only a few tens of breeding pairs in 1974 and none in 2008.[133][134] Since then, it has reestablished itself and the population has slowly started to increase, reaching ten pairs in 2023.[135] In Armenia the population of the white stork slightly increased in the period between 2005 and 2015, and by last data reached 652 pairs.[136][137][138]
In the early 1980s, the population had fallen to fewer than nine pairs in the entire upper
In August 2019, 24 juveniles were released at the Knepp Estate in
Cultural associations
Due to its large size, predation on vermin, and nesting behaviour close to human settlements and on rooftops, the white stork has an imposing presence that has influenced human culture and folklore.
Followers of Islam revered storks because they made an annual pilgrimage to Mecca on their migration.[153] Some of the earliest understanding on bird migration were initiated by an interest in white storks; Pfeilstörche ("arrow storks") were found in Europe with African arrows embedded in their bodies. A well-known example of such a stork found in the summer of 1822 in the German town of Klütz in Mecklenburg was made into a mounted taxidermy specimen, complete with the ornate African arrow, that is now in the University of Rostock.[154]
Storks have little fear of humans if not disturbed, and often nest on buildings in Europe. In Germany, the presence of a nest on a house was believed to protect against fires. They were also protected because of the belief that their souls were human.[156] German, Dutch and Polish households would encourage storks to nest on houses, sometimes by constructing purpose-built high platforms, to bring good luck.[147] Across much of Central and Eastern Europe it is believed that storks bring harmony to a family on whose property they nest.[157]
The white stork is a popular
For the land where it's a great travesty
To harm a stork's nest in a pear tree,
For storks serve us all ...
I am homesick, Lord! ...— translated by Walter Whipple
In 1942
Storks and delivery of babies
According to European folklore, the stork is responsible for bringing babies to new parents. The legend is very ancient, but was popularised by a 19th-century Hans Christian Andersen story called "The Storks".[153] German folklore held that storks found babies in caves or marshes and brought them to households in a basket on their backs or held in their beaks. These caves contained adebarsteine or "stork stones". The babies would then be given to the mother or dropped down the chimney. Households would notify when they wanted children by placing sweets for the stork on the window sill.[147] From there the folklore has spread around the world to the Philippines and countries in South America.[147] Birthmarks on the back of the head of newborn baby, nevus flammeus nuchae, are sometimes referred to as stork-bite.[165]
In
Likewise, in
A long-term study that showed a
Psychoanalyst Marvin Margolis suggests the enduring nature of the stork fable of the newborn is linked to its addressing a psychological need, in that it allays the discomfort of discussing sex and procreation with children. Birds have long been associated with the maternal symbols from pagan goddesses such as Juno to the Holy Ghost, and the stork may have been chosen for its white plumage (depicting purity), size, and flight at high altitude (likened to flying between Earth and Heaven).[147] The fable and its relation to the internal world of the child have been discussed by Sigmund Freud[147] and Carl Jung.[172] In fact, Jung recalled being told the story himself upon the birth of his own sister.[173] The traditional link with the newborn continues with their use in advertising for such products as nappies and baby announcements.[147]
There were negative aspects to stork folklore as well; a Polish folk tale relates how God made the stork's plumage white, while the Devil gave it black wings, imbuing it with both good and evil impulses. They were also associated with handicapped or stillborn babies in Germany, explained as the stork having dropped the baby en route to the household, or as revenge or punishment for past wrongdoing. A mother who was confined to bed around the time of childbirth was said to have been "bitten" by the stork.
See also
Notes
- ^ The universally accepted starting point of modern taxonomy for animals is set at 1758, with the publishing of Linnaeus's 10th edition of Systema Naturae, although scientists had been coining names in the previous century.[3]
- ^ By convention, length is measured from the tip of the bill to the tip of the tail on a dead bird (or skin) laid on its back.
Citations
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- ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). "Ciconia". Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis (in Latin). Vol. I (10th revised ed.). Holmiae: Laurentii Salvii. p. 142.
- ^ Brisson, Mathurin Jacques (1760). Ornithologie, ou, Méthode Contenant la Division des Oiseaux en Ordres, Sections, Genres, Especes & leurs Variétés (in French and Latin). Vol. 1. Paris: Jean-Baptiste Bauche. p. 48.
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Works cited
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External links
- Audio recordings of White stork on Xeno-canto.
- "Ageing and sexing by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-12-02. Retrieved 2014-12-02. (4.43 MB)
- Feathers of white stork (Ciconia ciconia) Archived 2018-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
- Educational video about white stork (Ciconia ciconia)