History of Beijing

For changes to the English spelling of the city's name, see Names of Beijing. For other administrative divisions called Beijing in Chinese history, see Beijing (disambiguation) and the History of the administrative divisions of China

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Historical Names of Beijing

Year	City Name	Dynasty	Notes
c. 11th century BC	City of Ji 蓟城	State of Ji (Zhou dynasty)	[Note 1]
c. 7th century BC		State of Yan (Zhou dynasty, Warring States)
221 BC		Qin	[Note 2]
206 BC		State of Yan	[Note 3]
202 BC		Han
106 BC - 318 AD	Youzhou 幽州	Western Jin (晋)	[Note 4]
319		Later Zhao	[Note 5]
350		Eastern Jin (晋)	[Note 6]
352–57		Former Yan	[Note 7]
370		Former Qin	[Note 8]
385		Later Yan	[Note 9]
397		Northern Dynasties	[Note 10]
607	City of Ji	Sui	[Note 11]
616	Youzhou	Tang	[Note 12]
742	Youzhou
759	Yanjing 燕京
765	Youzhou
907		Later Liang
911-13		Yan (Five Dynasties)
913		Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin (后晋)
938	Nanjing 南京	Liao	[Note 13]
1122		Northern Liao
Yanjing	Jin (金)
	1122
1123	Yanshan 燕山	Song
1125	Yanjing	Jin (金)
1151	Zhongdu 中都		[Note 14]
1215	Yanjing	Yuan
1271	Dadu (Khanbaliq) 大都
1368	Beiping 北平	Ming	[Note 15]
1403	Beijing 北京
1420
1644		Qing
1912		Republic of China
1928	Beiping
1937–40	Beijing		[Note 16]
1945	Beiping
1949–present	Beijing	People's Republic of China
Capital of regional dynasty or kingdom   Capital of China

The city of Beijing has a long and rich history that dates back over 3,000 years.^[11][12]

Prior to the unification of China by the

People's Republic of China

(1949–present).

Prehistory

The earliest remains of

homo sapiens also lived in the caves from about 27,000 to 10,000 years ago.^[15]

UNESCO World Heritage Site of Beijing

The Upper Cave on Dragon Bone Hill in Zhoukoudian where remains of the Peking Man

were found.

In 1996, over 2,000

Dongcheng District.^[16]

The artifacts date to 24,000 to 25,000 years ago and are preserved in the Wangfujing Paleolithic Museum in the lower level of the New Oriental Plaza mall.

Archaeologists have discovered over 40

Hongshan Culture further to the north.^[19]

Pre-imperial history

The Districts and Counties of Beijing Municipality
Old city inside the 2nd Ring Road   Urban districts between the 2nd & 5th Ring Road   Inner suburbs linked by the 6th Ring Road   Outer suburbs and rural areas.

The earliest events of Beijing's history are shrouded in

descendants of the Yan and Yellow Emperors

.

The Yellow Emperor is said to have founded the settlement of Youling (幽陵) in or near Zhuolu.

Pinggu County, in the northeastern fringe of Beijing Municipality, is one of several places in China claiming to host the Yellow Emperor's Tomb.^{[Note 18]} Yuzishan's association with Yellow Emperor dates back at least 1,300 years when Tang poets Chen Zi'ang and Li Bai mentioned the tomb in their poems about Youzhou.^[22]

The first event in Beijing's history with archaeological support dates to the 11th century BC when the

Gregorian Calendar, the Beijing Government uses 1045 BC as the official estimate of the date of this occasion.^[25]

It is believed that the seat of Ji, called the

White Cloud Abbey outside Xibianmen, about 4 km (2.5 mi) north of Guang'anmen.^{[Note 19]} South and west of Guang'anmen, roof tiles used for palace construction and dense concentrations of wells lined with ceramic ring tiles have been discovered.^[26]

Fangshan District

.

The capital of Yan was located about 45 km (28 mi) to the south of Ji, in the village of Dongjialin in Liulihe Township of Fangshan District, where a large walled settlement and over 200 tombs of nobility have been unearthed.

cowry shells

to pay for the creation of an honorific ding to remember the event. The inscription thus confirms the appointment of King Zhou's kin to Yan and the location of Yan's capital.

Both Yan and Ji were situated along an important north–south trade route along the eastern flank of the

Eastern Zhou dynasty, Yan conquered Ji and moved its capital to Ji, which continued to be called Jicheng or the City of Ji until the 2nd century AD.^[26] Due to its historical association with the State of Yan, the city of Beijing is also known as Yanjing (燕京) or the "Yan Capital."^{[Note 20]}

The State of Yan continued to expand until it became one of the seven major powers during the Warring States period (473–221 BC).^[32] It stretched from the Yellow River to the Yalu.^{[Note 21]} Like subsequent rulers of Beijing, the Yan also faced the threat of invasions by the Shanrong steppe nomads, and built walled fortifications across its northern frontier. Remnants of the Yan walls in Changping County date to 283 BC.^[33] They predate Beijing's better known Ming Great Wall by more than 1,500 years.

In 226 BC, the City of Ji fell to the invading

Liaodong.^[34] The Qin eventually ended Yan in 222 BC. The following year, the ruler of Qin, having conquered all the other states, declared himself to be the First Emperor

.

Early imperial history

See also:

Youzhou, Guangyang Commandery, Yuyang Commandery, and Yan Kingdom (Han dynasty)

Haidian District

, now located in the Haidian Museum.

During the first one thousand years of Chinese imperial history, Beijing was a provincial city on the northern periphery of

Central and Guanzhong Plains used the city to manage trade and military relations with nomadic peoples of the north and northeast.^[35]

The

Miyun County, was Yuyang Commandery. The Qin removed defensive barriers dividing the Warring States, including the southern wall of the Yan, which separated the Beijing Plain from the Central Plain, and built a national roadway network.^[35] Ji served as the junction for the roads connecting the Central Plain with Mongolia and Manchuria.^[35] The First Emperor visited Ji in 215 BC and, to protect the frontier from the Xiongnu, had the Great Wall built in Yuyang Commandery and fortified Juyong Pass.^[35]

The

Yan Commandery (燕郡), and the Principality of Guangyang (广阳国/廣陽國). In the early Western Han, the four counties of Guangyang Principality had 20,740 households and an estimated population of 70,685.^{[36][Note 22]}

Buddhist

temple in Beijing.

In 106 BC, under

Shijingshan District but the prince formerly buried there has not been identified.^[38][39]

During the early Eastern Han dynasty in 57 AD, the five counties of Guangyang Commandery had 44,550 households and an estimated 280,600 residents.[36]^{[Note 22]} By population density, Guangyang ranked in the top 20 among the 105 commanderies nationally.^[36] In the late Eastern Han, the Yellow Turban Rebellion erupted in Hebei in 184 AD and briefly seized Youzhou. The court relied on regional militaries to put down the rebellion and Youzhou was controlled successively by warlords Liu Yu, Gongsun Zan, Yuan Shao and Cao Cao.^[40] In 194 AD, Yuan Shao captured Ji from Gongsun Zan with the help of Wuhuan and Xianbei allies from the steppes.^[40] Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao in 200 AD and the Wuhuan in 207 AD to pacify the north.^[40]

During the Three Kingdoms period, the Kingdom of Wei founded by Cao Cao's son, Cao Pi, controlled ten of the Han dynasty's prefectures including Youzhou and its capital Ji. The Wei court instituted offices in Youzhou to manage relations with the Wuhuan and Xianbei.^[41] To help sustain the troops garrisoned in Youzhou, the governor in 250 AD built the Lilingyan, an irrigation system that greatly improved agricultural output in the plains around Ji.^[41]

Ji was demoted to a mere county seat in the

zhou

in China was massively increased in this period, from 21 in the early 4th century to more than 200 in the late 6th century.

In 446, the Northern Wei built a Great Wall from Juyong Pass west to Shanxi to protect its capital,

Rouran.^[42] In 553–56, the Northern Qi extended this Great Wall eastward to the Bohai Sea to defend against the Göktürks, who raided Youzhou in 564 and 578.^[43][44] Centuries of warfare severely depopulated northern China. During the Eastern Wei (534–550), Youzhou, Anzhou (modern Miyun) and East Yanzhou (modern Changping) had a combined 4,600 households and about 170,000 residents.^{[36][Note 22]}

Xicheng District was first established by Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty

in 645

After the Sui dynasty reunited China in 589 AD, Youzhou was renamed Zhuojun or the Zhuo Commandery (涿郡), which was administered from Ji. In 609, Zhuo Commandery and neighboring Anle Commandery (modern Miyun) had a combined 91,658 households and an estimated population of 458,000.^{[36][Note 22]} Emperor Yang of Sui built a network of canals from the Central Plain to Zhuojun to carry troops and food for the massive military campaigns against Goguryeo (Korea). Though the campaigns proved to be ruinous, they were continued by the Tang dynasty. In 645 AD, the Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty founded the Minzhong Temple (now Fayuan Temple) in the southeast of Ji to remember the war dead from the Korean Campaigns. The Fayuan Temple, now within Xicheng District, is one of the oldest temples in urban Beijing.

The Tang dynasty reduced the size of a prefecture, as a unit of administration

Fanyang Commandery

(范陽郡), but reverted to Youzhou in 762.

Five Dynasties period.^[47]

To guard against barbarian invasions, the imperial court created six frontier military commands in 711 AD, and Youzhou became the headquarters of the

An–Shi Rebellion lasted eight years and severely weakened the Tang dynasty. For the next 150 years, military governors ruled Youzhou autonomously.^[50][51]

When the Tang dynasty was overthrown in 907 by the Later Liang dynasty, Youzhou remained independent and its military governor Liu Shouguang declared himself emperor of the short-lived Jie Yan dynasty in 911.^[50][52] This regime was ended in 913 by the ethnic Shatuo general Li Cunxu who went on to found the Later Tang dynasty in 923.^[50] The disintegration of the Tang dynasty into the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms paved the way for Khitan expansion into northern China, which prompted the rise of Beijing in Chinese history.^[50][52]

The nomadic Khitan people were united under

Yelü Abaoji, who founded the Liao dynasty in 916 and, from 917 to 928, tried seven times to take Youzhou.^[52] In 936, a rift in the Later Tang court allowed Yelü Abaoji to help another ethnic Shatuo general Shi Jingtang found the third of the Five Dynasties, the Later Jin.^[50] Shi Jingtang then ceded sixteen prefectures across the northern frontier including Youzhou, Shunzhou (modern Shunyi), Tanzhou (modern Changping) and Ruzhou (modern Yanqing) to the Liao dynasty.^[50]

Liao, Song and Jin dynasties

Though Beijing was but a peripheral city to Chinese dynasties centered in Luoyang and Xi'an, it was an important entryway into China for tribal peoples to the north. The city's stature grew from the 10th century with successive invasions of China proper by the Khitans, Jurchens, and Mongols, who respectively founded the Liao dynasty, Jin dynasty and Yuan dynasty.

Liao Nanjing

Main article: Nanjing (Liao dynasty)

In 938, the

Baarin Left Banner, Inner Mongolia). The Liao retained the Tang configuration of the city, which had eight gates in its outer wall, two in each cardinal direction, an inner walled city, which was converted into palace complex, and 26 residential neighborhoods.^[53]

Pagoda of Tianning Temple

was built in 1120.

Thus, the City of Ji, ceded to the Liao as Youzhou, continued as Nanjing in what is today the southwest part of urban Beijing. Some of the oldest landmarks in southern Xicheng (formerly

Tianning Temple, built from 1100 to 1119. Under Liao rule, the population inside the walled city grew from 22,000 in 938 to 150,000 in 1113 (and the population of the surrounding region grew from 100,000 to 583,000) as large numbers of Khitan, Xi, Shiwei and Balhae from the north and Han from the south migrated to the city.^{[55][Note 22]}

The

Youzhou) but was defeated in the decisive Battle of Gaoliang River, just northwest of present-day Xizhimen

.

In 1120, the Song entered the

Wanyan Aguda, who founded the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), the Jurchens captured in rapid succession the Liao's Upper, Central and Eastern Capitals.^[57][58]

In the spring of 1122, the Liao court rallied around Prince Yelü Chun in Nanjing, and defeated two Song army advances.^[58] After Yelü Chun died of illness in the early summer, Guo Yaoshi, an ethnic Han commander in the Liao Army, defected to the Song and led the vanguard of the Song Army in a raid on Nanjing.^[58] The raiders entered the city, but the Liao Empress Xiao continued to resist from the walled palace complex.^[59] After three days of street fighting, Liao reinforcements reached the city ahead of the main Song Army, and managed to expel Guo Yaoshi's forces.^[58][59] In the winter of 1122, the Jin Army drove through the Juyong Pass and marched on Nanjing from the north.^[58] This time, Empress Xiao fled to the steppes and the remaining Liao officials capitulated. Wanyan Aguda allowed the surrendering officials to retain their positions and encouraged refugees to return to the city, which was renamed Yanjing.^[58]

Song Yanshan

In the spring of 1123, Wanyan Aguda agreed, as per treaty terms, to hand Yanjing and four other prefectures to the Song in exchange for tribute.

Shangjing (near present-day Harbin).^[60] Thus, the Song, having failed to take the city militarily from the Khitans, managed to purchase Yanjing from the Jurchens.^[61]

Song rule of the city, renamed Yanshan (燕山), was short-lived.

As the convoy of relocated Nanjing residents passed Pingzhou (near Qinhuangdao) on their way to the Northeast, they persuaded the governor Zhang Jue to restore them to their home city. Zhang Jue, a former Liao official who had surrendered to the Jin dynasty, then switched his allegiance to the Song.^[60] Emperor Huizong welcomed his defection, ignoring warnings from his diplomats that the Jurchens would regard the acceptance of defectors as a breach of the treaty.^[60] The Jurchens defeated Zhang Jue who took refuge with Guo Yaoshi at Yanshan.^[60] The Song court had Zhang Jue executed to satisfy Jin demands, much to the alarm of Guo Yaoshi and other former Liao officials serving the Song.^[60]

The Jurchens, sensing Song weakness, used the Zhang Jue incident as

were captured in 1127, ending the Northern Song dynasty.^[62]

Yanshan was renamed Yanjing.

Jin Zhongdu

Main article: Zhongdu

Lugou Bridge, first built in 1189, dates to the Jin (金) dynasty (1115–1234)

.

Yanqing became a Buddhist sanctuary in the early 9th century. Of the seven pagodas standing today, five date to the Jin (金) dynasty (1115–1234) and two to the Yuan.^[63]

In 1153 the Jin emperor Wanyan Liang moved his capital from Shangjing to Yanjing and the city was renamed Zhongdu (中都) or the "Central Capital".^[32] For the first time in its history, the city of Beijing became a political capital of a major dynasty.

The Jin expanded the city to the west, east, and south, doubling its size. On today's map of urban Beijing, Zhongdu would extend from Xuanwumen in the northeast to the Beijing West railway station to the west, and south to beyond the southern

Grand View Garden.^[65] In 1179, Emperor Zhangzong had a country retreat built northeast of Zhongdu. Taiye Lake was excavated along the Jinshui River^[66] and Daning Palace (大寧宮/大宁宫) was erected on Qionghua Island in the lake.^{[67][Note 23]} The grounds of this palace is now Beihai Park

.

Paper money was first issued in Beijing during the Jin.

Lugou Bridge, over the Yongding River southwest of the city, was built in 1189. Seventeen Jin emperors are buried in Fangshan District, including those whose tombs were originally built in Shangjing and moved to Zhongdu.^[69] The city's population grew from 82,000 in 1125 to 400,000 in 1207 (and from 340,000 in the surrounding region to 1.6 million).^{[70][Note 22]}

Rashid-al-Din Hamadani

Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Division Orientale.

Zhongdu served as the Jin capital for more than 60 years, until the

Juyong Pass

.

Emperor Xuanzong, after considerable debate, decided to move the capital from Zhongdu to Kaifeng further to the south. In June 1214, as the Jin imperial procession departed the city, a detachment of Khitan guards rebelled at the Lugou Bridge and defected to the Mongols. Genghis Khan believed the Jin was trying to rebuild military strength further south in breach of the terms of peace and decided to reinvade the Jin. By winter, Mongol troops were again besieging Zhongdu.^[77]

In 1215, after a bitter siege in which many of the city's inhabitants starved, Zhongdu's 100,000 defenders and 108,000 households surrendered.^[78] The city was still looted and burned by the invaders.^[79] Zhongdu was renamed Yanjing and its population shrank to 91,000 in 1216 (with 285,000 in the surrounding region).^{[70][Note 22]} Among the captives taken from the city was a Khitan named Yelü Chucai, who persuaded Genghis Khan that while China could be conquered from the saddle, it could not be ruled from the saddle. Rather than converting northern China into pastures, it would be more beneficial for Mongols to tax the agrarian population. Genghis Khan heeded the advice and the Mongol pillaging eased. The Mongols continued to the war against the Jurchens until the capture of Kaifeng in 1234 ended the Jin dynasty. Yelü Chucai was buried on the east bank of Kunming Lake in what is now the Summer Palace.^[80]

In 1219, Genghis Khan invited the Daoist sage Qiu Chuji for advice on "keeping the empire in good order."^[81] The 76-year old Qiu had previously declined invitations from the emperors of the Jin and Southern Song, but agreed to travel from Shandong to Yanjing and then to Central Asia, where, at the Mongol encampment in the Hindu Kush, he taught the Genghis Khan about the Dao, telling the great khan medicine for immortality did not exist^[82] and urged him to preserve lives.^[83] The Mongol leader called Qiu an immortal sage, made him the head Daoist priest of the empire and exempted Daoism from taxation. Qiu returned to Yanjing in 1224 and expanded what would become the White Cloud Temple, where he is buried and which is today the seat of the Chinese Daoist Association.^[83]

Yuan dynasty

Main article: Khanbaliq

Kublai Khan made Beijing the capital of Yuan dynasty. (Portrait by Araniko in Dadu in 1294. Collections of the National Palace Museum)

The White Dagoba on Qionghua Island in Beihai Park. On his first visit to Beijing in 1261, Kublai Khan stayed on this island, which was then a suburb of the city. He liked the surroundings and ordered that the new city be built around the island.

Drum Tower

, first built in 1272, marked the geographic center of Dadu. Di'anmen Outer Avenue still forms part of the city's north–south central axis.

When

Xanadu, some 275 km (171 mi) due north of Beijing on the Luan River in present-day Inner Mongolia, but he preferred the location of Beijing. With the North China Plain

opening to the south and the steppes just beyond the mountain passes to the north, Beijing was an ideal midway point for Kublai Khan's new seat of power.

In 1271, he declared the creation of the

account. Construction of Dadu began in 1267 and the first palace was finished the next year. The entire palace complex was completed in 1274 and the rest of the city by 1285.^[88] In 1279, when Mongol armies finished off the last of the Song dynasty in southern China, Beijing became for the first time, the capital of the whole of China. After the construction of Dadu, Xanadu, also known as Shangdu, became Kublai Khan's summer capital

.

jinshi

scholars of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties.

Rather than continuing on the foundation of Zhongdu, the new capital Dadu was shifted to the northeast and built around the old Daning Palace on Qionghua Island in the middle of the

Drum Tower

.

The most striking physical feature of Dadu was the string of lakes in the heart of the city. These lakes were created from the Jinshui River[91] inside the city.^[66] They are now known as the six seas ("hai") of central Beijing: Houhai, Qianhai, and Xihai (the Rear, Front, and Western Seas) which are collectively known as Shichahai; Beihai (the North Sea); and Zhonghai and Nanhai which are collectively known as Zhongnanhai. Qionghua Island is now the island in Beihai Park on which the White Dagoba stands. Like today's Chinese leaders, the Yuan imperial family lived west of the lakes in the Xingsheng (兴圣宫) and Longfu (隆福宫) Palaces.^[92] A third palace east of the lakes, called the Danei (大内), at the site of the later Forbidden City, housed the imperial offices. The city's construction drew builders from all over the Mongols' Asian empire, including local Chinese as well as those from places such as Nepal and Central Asia.^[93] Liu Bingzhong was appointed as the supervisor of the construction of the imperial city and a chief architect was Yeheidie'erding. The pavilions of the palaces took on various architectural styles from across the empire. The entire palace complex occupied the south central portion of Dadu. Following Chinese tradition, the temples for ancestral rites and harvest rites were built, respectively, to west and east of the palace.^[94]

Tongzhou District

The inclusion of the Jinshui and Gaoliang rivers gave Dadu a larger supply of water than the Lotus Pool which had nourished Ji, Youzhou, and Nanjing for the previous 2,000 years.^[66] To boost water supply even more, Yuan hydrologist Guo Shoujing built channels to draw additional spring water from Yuquan Mountain in the northwest through what is today the Kunming Lake of the Summer Palace through the Purple Bamboo Park to Jishuitan, which was a large reservoir inside Dadu.^[95] The expansion and extension of the Grand Canal from Dadu to Hangzhou enabled the city to import greater volumes of grain to sustain a larger population. The completion of the Tonghui Canal in 1293 allowed barges from Tongzhou to sail through the city right to the gates of the imperial palace at Shichahai. In 1270, Dadu had a population of 418,000 and another 635,000 in the surrounding region.^{[70][Note 22]} By 1327, the city had 952,000 residents with another 2.08 million in the surrounding region.^[70]

The city's residential districts were laid out in a checkerboard pattern divided by avenues 25 m in width and narrow alleyways, called

hutongs, 6–7 m wide.^[96] One of the best surviving examples of such a district is Dongsi Subdistrict, which has 14 parallel hutongs, called the 14 tiao of Dongsi. The name hutong is unique to the Yuan-era city; in older neighborhoods that date to the Liao and Jin eras, narrow lanes are called jie or streets. Each of the large avenues had underground sewers which carried rain and refuse to the south of the city.^[97] The main markets were located in Dongsi, Xisi and along the north shore of Jishuitan.^[95]

As Kublai Khan had intended, the city was a showcase of the cosmopolitan Yuan Empire. A number of foreign travelers including

Guozijian (Imperial Academy) were founded during the reign of Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong

, Kublai's successor.

Yuan rule was severely weakened by a succession struggle in 1328 known as the War of the Two Capitals in which the Dadu-based claimant to the throne prevailed over his Shangdu-based rival, but not after heavy fighting around Dadu and across the country among Mongol princes.^[99]

Ming dynasty

The Yongle Emperor moved the capital of the Ming dynasty from Nanjing to Beijing in 1421. He commissioned the Forbidden City, which was built from 1406 to 1420.

The Beijing Palace City Scroll, depicting the Forbidden City, 15th century.

In 1368,

famed voyages overseas in part to investigate the rumors of the Jianwen Emperor

abroad.

In 1403, the Yongle Emperor renamed his home base Beijing (北京, the "Northern Capital"), and elevated the city to the status of capital, on par with Nanjing. For the first time, Beijing took on its modern name, while the

Daoist Jiajing Emperor

in 1530.

In 1421, Yongle moved the Jingshi of the Ming to Beijing, which made Beijing the main capital of the Ming dynasty. From Beijing, Yongle launched

Great Wall

in northern Beijing Municipality were built during the Ming dynasty.

Southeast Corner Tower

near Dongbianmen.

Ming Tombs

In the early Ming dynasty, the northern part of old Dadu was depopulated and abandoned. In 1369, the city's population had been reduced to 95,000, with only 113,000 in the surrounding region.[70]^{[Note 22]} A new northern wall was built 2.5 km (1.6 mi) to the south of the old wall, leaving the Jishuitan reservoir outside the city as part of the northern moat. A new southern wall for the city was built half a kilometer south of the southern Dadu wall. These changes completed the Inner City wall of Beijing, which had nine gates (three in the south and two each to the north, east and west).

The Inner City walls withstood a major test following the

Back in power, the Zhengtong Emperor, now ruling under the new era name of Tianshun, first promoted and then became distrustful of officials who had aided his restoration. One of them, the grand eunuch Cao Jixiang, decided to strike at the throne. In August 1461, Cao's adopted son, Cao Qin, launched a mutiny among ethnic Mongol troops stationed inside Beijing.^[105] The plot was betrayed and the Tianshun Emperor ordered the gates of the Forbidden City and the Inner City closed, trapping the mutineers, who were unable to break into the palace complex and were killed.^[105]

In 1550,

On the eve of the Tumu Crisis in 1448, the city had 960,000 residents with another 2.19 million living in the surrounding region.[70]^{[Note 22]} Beijing was the largest city in the world from 1425 to 1635 and from 1710 to 1825.^[108] To feed the growing population, Ming authorities built and administered granaries, including the Imperial Granary and Jingtong storehouses near the terminus of the Grand Canal, which fed a growing population and sustained the military. The granaries helped control prices and prevent inflation, but price controls became less effective as the population grew and demand for food exceeded supply.

Until the mid-15th century, Beijing residents relied on wood for heating and cooking. The growing population led to massive logging of the forests around the city. By the mid-15th century, the forests had largely disappeared. As a substitute, residents turned to coal, which was first mined in the Western Hills during the Yuan dynasty and expanded in the Ming. The use of coal caused many environmental problems and changed the ecological system around the city.

During the Ming dynasty, 15 epidemic outbreaks occurred in the city of Beijing including smallpox, "pimple plague" and "vomit blood plague" - the latter two were possibly bubonic plague and pneumonic plague. In most cases, the public health system functioned well in gaining control of the outbreaks, except in 1643. That year, epidemics claimed 200,000 lives in Beijing, thus compromising the defense of the city from the attacks of the peasant rebels and contributing to the downfall of the dynasty.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, banditry was common near Beijing despite the presence of imperial government. Due to inadequate supervision and economic privation, imperial troops in the capital region to protect the throne would often turn to brigandage. Officials responsible for eradicating banditry often had ties to brigands and other marginal elements of Ming society.^[109]

During the late Ming dynasty, Beijing faced threats from both within and beyond the Great Wall. In 1629, the

Manchus south of the Great Wall and seized Beijing in 1644.

Dorgon preserved trappings of imperial power including the bureaucracy, rituals and palaces, and moved the Qing capital to Beijing. In so doing, he positioned the Qing as the political heir to the Ming and legitimate ruler of China. Above, Qing imperial procession at the Forbidden City depicted in an 18th-century Jesuit painting.

On May 3, 1644, the Manchus seized Beijing in the name of freeing the city from the rebel forces of Li Zicheng.^[113] Dorgon held a state funeral for the Chongzhen Emperor of the Ming dynasty and reappointed many Ming officials. In October, he moved the child Shunzhi Emperor from the old capital Shenyang into the Forbidden City and made Beijing the new seat of the Qing dynasty. In the following decades, the Manchus would conquer the rest of the country and ruled China for nearly three centuries from the city.^[114] During this era, Beijing was also known as Jingshi which corresponds with the Manchu name Gemun Hecen.^[115] The city's population, which had fallen to 144,000 in 1644, rebounded to 539,000 in 1647 (the population of the surrounding area rose from 554,000 to 1.3 million).^{[70][Note 22]}

The Qing largely retained the physical configuration of Beijing inside the city walls. Each of the Eight Banners, including the Manchu, Mongol, and Han Banners were assigned to guard and live near the eight gates of the Inner City.^[113] Outside the city, the Qing court seized large tracts of land for Manchu noble estates.^[113] Northwest of the city, Qing emperors built several large palatial gardens. In 1684, the Kangxi Emperor built the Changchun Garden on the site of the Ming dynasty's Qinghua (or Tsinghua) Garden (outside today's west gate of Peking University). In the early 18th century, he began building the Yuanmingyuan, also known as the "Old Summer Palace", which the Qianlong Emperor expanded with European Baroque-style garden pavilions. In 1750, the Qianlong Emperor built the Yiheyuan, commonly referred to as the "Summer Palace". The two summer palaces represent both the culmination of Qing imperial splendor and its decline. Both were ransacked and razed by invading Western powers in the late Qing dynasty.

The

UNESCO World Heritage Site of Beijing

1888 water color pictorial map of the Summer Palace

Longevity Hill and Kunming Lake

The Qing dynasty maintained a relatively stable supply of food for the population of the capital during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. The government's grain tribute system brought food from the provinces and kept grain prices stable. Soup kitchens provided relief to the needy. The secure food supply helped the Qing court maintain a degree of political stability.[118] Temple fairs such as the Huguo Fair, which are like monthly bazaars held around temples, added to the commercial vibrance of the city. At the height of the Qianlong Emperor's reign in 1781, the city had a population of 776,242 (and another 2.18 million in the surrounding region).^{[70][Note 22]} Thereafter, Qing authorities began to restrict inward migration to the city.^[119] A century later, the census of 1881–82 showed similar figures of 776,111 and 2.45 million.^{[70][Note 22]}

In 1790, the Qing court's Nanfu office, which was in charge of organizing entertainment for the emperor, invited the dramatic

Most of Beijing's oldest business establishments date to the Qing era.

In 1813, some 200 adherents of the

The British diplomat Lord Macartney's mission to China arrived in Beijing in 1792, but failed to persuade the Qianlong Emperor to ease trade restrictions or to permit a permanent British Embassy in the city. Nevertheless, Macartney observed weaknesses within the Qing regime, which would influence future Sino-British conflicts.^{[citation needed]}

The Second Opium War

Left:Illustration by Godefroy Durand on December 22, 1860, depicting the sacking of a Baroque-style hall in the Old Summer Palace during the Second Opium War. Right: The ruins of the Old Summer Palace

Boxer Indemnity Scholar Program.

The Peking Union Medical College

, founded in 1906 by the American and British missionaries, remains one of China's top medical schools.

After the Boxer Rebellion, the struggling Qing dynasty accelerated the pace of reform and became more receptive to foreign influence. The centuries-old imperial civil service examination was abolished in 1905, and replaced with a Western-style curriculum and degree system. Public education for women received greater emphasis and even drew support from reactionaries like the Empress Dowager.^[123] Beijing's school for girls in the late Qing period made unbound feet an entrance requirement. The Beijing Police Academy, founded in 1901 as China's first modern institution for police training, used Japanese instructors and became a model for police academies in other cities. The Peking Union Medical College, founded by missionaries in 1906 and funded by the Rockefeller Foundation from 1915, set the standard for the training of nurses.^[124] The Metropolitan University Library in Beijing, founded in 1898, was China's first modern academic library devoted to serving public higher education.^[125][126]

Also in 1905, the Board of Revenue and private investors founded the Hubu Bank, China's first central bank and largest modern bank.

The first railway in China was built in Beijing in 1864 by a British merchant to demonstrate the technology to the imperial court.

Left: Qianmen (Zhengyangmen) railway station in the 1900s. Right: The old railway station is now the China Railway Museum.

Republic of China

The Qing dynasty was overthrown in the

When the Wuchang Uprising erupted in October 1911, the Qing court summoned Yuan Shikai and his powerful Beiyang Army to suppress the insurrection. As he fought revolutionaries in the south, Yuan also negotiated with them. On January 1, 1912, Dr. Sun Yat-sen, who returned from exile, founded the Republic of China in Nanjing and was elected provisional president. The new government was not recognized by any foreign powers, and Sun agreed to cede leadership to Yuan Shikai in exchange for the latter's assistance in ending the Qing dynasty. On February 12, Yuan compelled the Qing court, under the regency of Prince Chun, to abdicate. Empress Dowager Longyu signed the abdication agreement on behalf of the five-year-old Last Emperor, Puyi. The following day Sun resigned from the provisional presidency and recommended Yuan for the position. Under the terms of the imperial abdication, the Puyi would retain his dignitary title and staff and receive an annual stipend of 4 million Mexican silver dollars from the Republic. He was permitted to continue to reside in the Forbidden City for a time but was required to eventually move to the Summer Palace. His tomb and rituals were to be maintained at the expense of the Republic. The abdication ended the Qing dynasty and averted further bloodshed in the revolution.

As a condition for ceding leadership to Yuan, Sun insisted that the provisional government remain in Nanjing. On February 14, the Provisional Senate initially voted 20–5 in favor of making Beijing the capital over Nanjing, with two votes going for Wuhan and one for Tianjin.

Unlike prior dynastic changes, the end of Qing rule in Beijing did not cause a substantial decline in the city's population, which was 785,442 in 1910, 670,000 in 1913 and 811,566 in 1917.[145] The population of the surrounding region grew from 1.7 to 2.9 million over the same period.^[70] In 1917, Beijing was the fourth largest city in China after Guangzhou, Shanghai and Hankou, and the seventh largest capital city in the world.^[146]

World War I and the May 4th Movement

After Yuan's death, Li Yuanhong became president and

May Fourth Movement, 1919

Middle: Peking University (shown here the "Red Building" on what is now May 4th Boulevard), played a prominent role in the Movement. Left: Students arrested in the demonstrations returned triumphantly to campus on May 7th after their release. Right: the Movement began a tradition of popular student protest in Beijing as students marched again in Tiananmen Square in November 1919 to protest Japanese imperialism.

The

Li Yuanhong

Duan Qirui

Feng Guozhang

Wu Peifu

Cao Kun

Feng Yuxiang

Zhang Zuolin

Military strongmen of the Beiyang Government in Beijing

March 18 Massacre, 1926

Students demonstrated in Tiananmen Square on March 18, 1926, against the special privileges of foreign powers in China.

After the students marched to Duan Qirui's presidential office on the Iron Lion Hutong, now Zhang Zizhong Road, they were confronted by soldiers and bloodshed ensued.

In the 1920s, military strongmen of the Beiyang Army split into cliques and vied for control of the Republican government and its capital. In July 1920, Duan's government, weakened by the May 4 Protests, was driven out of Beijing by

Though the Nationalists, under Sun's leadership, had allied with the Communists in the struggle against warlords, this alliance was not without tension. In November 1925, a group of right-wing Nationalist leaders met in the Western Hills and called for the expulsion of Communists from the Nationalist Party and severance of ties with the Comintern including advisor Mikhail Borodin.^[149][151] This manifesto was denounced by the Nationalists' party center in Guangzhou led by Chiang Kai-shek, Wang Jingwei, and Hu Hanmin, and members of the so-called "Western Hills Group" were either expelled or left out of the party leadership.^[152] They moved to Shanghai and regained power during the rupture between the Nationalists and Communists in April 1927.

Nationalist Party leaders led by Chiang Kai-shek gathered at the Temple of Azure Clouds on July 6, 1928, to pay homage to Sun Yat-sen. Sun's tomb and the seat of national government were both moved to Nanjing. Beijing was renamed Beiping. Front row from left: Bai Chongxi, Ma Sida, Ma Fuxiang, Yan Xishan, Wu Zhihui, Chiang, Chen Diaoyuan, Zhang Zuobao, and He Chengjun.

The Imperial Altar of Earth and Harvest

located inside the Forbidden City between Tiananmen and Zhongnanhai became a city park in 1914. In 1928, the park was renamed "Zhongshan Park" in honor of Sun, whose statue is visible in the background. (One of his alternative appellations is Sun Zhongshan).

A year later, Zhang Zuolin raided the Soviet Embassy in the Legation and seized Li Dazhao. Li and 19 others Communist and Nationalist activists were executed in Beijing on April 25, 1927.

Zhang Zuolin controlled the Beiyang Government until June 1928 when the Nationalists on the

Zhang Xueliang, the son of Zhang Zuolin who was allied with Chiang Kai-shek.^[161]

Rickshaws

were also common.

City planning in the 1920s

During the Beiyang period, Beijing transitioned from an imperial capital into a modern city. The city's population grew from 725,235 in 1912 to 863,209 in 1921.

tram service and introduced urban planning and zoning rules. The authorities also built modern water utilities, improved urban sanitation, educated the public about the proper handling of food and waste and monitored outbreaks of infectious diseases. With these public health measures, infant mortality and life expectancy of the general population improved.^[163]

Urban development also reflected changes in political attitudes as the republican form of government prevailed over the monarchy and attempts to reintroduce imperial rule.[164] One example of the newfound emphasis on civic rights over imperial tradition was the development of city parks in Beijing. The idea of the public park as a place where common people could relax in a pastoral setting came to China from the West via Japan. Public parks in Beijing were almost all converted from imperial gardens and temples, which had previously been off-limits to most commoners. The Beijing municipal government, local gentry and merchants all promoted the development of public parks to provide wholesome entertainment and reduce alcoholism, gambling, and prostitution. After the Beijing Coup of 1924, Feng Yuxiang evicted Puyi from the Forbidden City, which was opened to the public as the Palace Museum. Parks also provided places for commercial activities and the open exchange of political and social ideas for the middle and upper classes.^[165]

The demotion of Beijing from national capital to a mere provincial city greatly constrained urban planners' initiatives to modernize the city. Along with political stature, Beiping also lost government revenue, jobs and jurisdiction. In 1921, large banks headquartered in Beijing accounted for 51.9% of bank capital held by the 23 most important banks in China.

Daxing were denied.^[168] The city, anchored by its historical relics and universities, remained a center for tourism and higher education and became known as "China's Boston."^[169] In 1935, the city's population stood at 1.11 million, with another 3.485 million in the surrounding region.^[70]

Second Sino-Japanese War

Main articles:

Marco Polo Bridge Incident and Battle of Beiping–Tianjin

After Japan seized Manchuria through the

East Hebei Autonomous Council

, which declared its independence from the Republic of China and controlled 22 counties east of Beiping, including Tongzhou and Pinggu in modern-day Beijing Municipality.

In response to the growing threat, the Palace Museum's art collection was removed to Nanjing in 1934 and air defense shelters were built in Zhongnanhai.^[172] The influx of refugees from Manchuria and presence of university campuses made Beiping a hotbed for anti-Japanese sentiment. On December 9, 1935, the university students in Beiping launched the December 9th Movement to protest the creation Hebei–Chahar Political Council, a semi-autonomous authority to administer the remainder of Hebei and Chahar not yet under direct Japanese control.

Above: Chinese soldiers defending the Marco Polo Bridge in July 1937. Right: Japanese magazine cover showing the Japanese military marching through the gate at Chaoyangmen on August 8, after the capture of Beiping. (Asahigraph, September 1, 1937, ed.)

On July 7, 1937, the 29th Army and the

Tongzhou, the collaborationist militia of the East Hebei Council refused to join the Japanese in attacking the 29th Army and mutinied, but Chinese forces had retreated to the south.^[158][173]

The city itself was spared of urban fighting and destruction that many other Chinese cities suffered in the war.

The Japanese created another puppet regime, the

Reorganized National Government of China, a collaborationist government based in Nanjing, though effective control remained with the Japanese military.^[174]

During the war, Peking and Tsinghua Universities relocated to unoccupied areas and formed the

Shunyi District still has a labyrinth of tunnels with underground command posts, meeting rooms, and camouflaged entrances from the war.^[175]

In 1938, the Japanese military secretly created North China Unit 1855, a

announcement of surrender, Unit 1855 began removing or destroying evidence of its existence and departed the city ten days later leaving few traces of its activities.^[181] The unit evaded the Japanese war crimes tribunals and remained largely unknown until later research by historians.^[182]

On October 10, 1945, Japanese occupation of Beiping ended with surrender to Chinese Nationalist forces at a ceremony in the Forbidden City.[183] With the end of World War II, the city reverted to Chinese Nationalist control and was renamed back to Beiping.

Chinese Civil War

Tiananmen Gate

during the Civil War.

Qianmen

. Right: The portrait of Mao Zedong on Tiananmen Gate on Feb. 12, 1949.

The Nationalists and

civil war, the U.S. government sent George C. Marshall to China to mediate.^[184] The Marshall Mission was headquartered in Beiping where a truce was brokered on January 10, 1946, and a three-person committee, consisting of a Nationalist, a Communist and an American representative, was created to investigate breaches in the ceasefire in North China and Manchuria.^[185] The truce began to unravel in June 1946 and the Marshall Mission ultimately failed to create a coalition government. The rape of Peking University student Shen Chong

by two U.S. Marines in Dongdan on Christmas Eve 1946 sparked student demonstrations against the U.S. military presence in China. After Marshall's departure in February 1947, full-scale civil war erupted.

Beiping was the headquarters of the Nationalists' North China military operations led by Fu Zuoyi who commanded 550,000 troops. The city in 1948 had 1.5 million residents and another 4.1 million in the surrounding region.^{[70][Note 22]} Among them were over 20,000 student airlifted out of Manchuria by Nationalist authorities to relieve pressure on food supplies in besieged cities and to prevent the youth from joining the Communist movement.^[186] Once in Beiping, the student refugees were given meager food rations but no means of reconstituting their schools.^[186] Once their rations ran out, the students marched on the city government in protest but were fired upon by the Nationalists' Youth Army, which killed at least nine and wounded 48.^[187] The July 5th Massacre was widely condemned across the country.^[188] Then vice-president Li Zongren and Fu Zuoyi met with students and promising to hold the culprits accountable. Chiang Kai-shek agreed to pull the Youth Army out of Beiping, but over 250 student organizers were arrested in August.

On November 29, 1948, the Chinese Communists'

Huaihai Campaign

further south, Fu Zuoyi and over 200,000 Nationalist defenders were surrounded in Beiping. After weeks of intensive negotiations, Fu agreed on January 22, 1949, to pull his troops out of the city for "reorganization by the PLA." His defection spared the city, its residents and its historical architecture from imminent destruction. On February 3, the PLA marched into Beiping.

In the spring of 1949, Nationalist leader

Yangtze River and concede southern China to the Nationalists.^[189]

On April 23, the PLA resumed the offensive across the Yangtze and captured the Nanjing on the following day.

As the PLA continued to gain control over the rest of the country, Communist leaders,

flag, emblem, anthem and capital

for the nation.

People's Republic of China

Tiananmen Gate, Mao Zedong, proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949, and Beijing again became the capital of China. Right: Beijing middle school students attended the ceremony in Tiananmen Square

.

See also: Politics of Beijing and History of the People's Republic of China

On October 1, 1949,

People's Republic of China. The city's name was restored to Beijing, which again served as the national capital.^[190] At the time, the city limits contained 707 km² (273 sq mi) of territory^[191] and had just over 2.03 million residents.^[192] Over the next sixty years, the city would reach unprecedented size in both territory (expanding 23-fold) and population (growing ten-fold) as well as political stature and importance. As the political center of a highly centralized government, Beijing witnessed and its residents took part in many of the political events

and developments that shaped modern China.

1949–1958

venereal diseases.^[193]

Beijing Museum of Natural History

Wangfujing Department Store

East German assistance. In 2002, the plant's bauhaus-style warehouses were converted into 798 Art Zone

, a modern art community.

The Communist leadership moved swiftly to establish a new order in Beijing. Within weeks of the founding of the new government, prostitution was banned in the city. Some 224 brothels were closed and 1,308 prostitutes were sent to reeducation centers where they received medical treatment and career retraining.^[194] Opium use was banned in 1952.

With the abolition of the unequal treaties, the foreign powers were deprived of special rights to station military units and consular offices in the Legation Quarter. The United States, France and Netherlands, which refused to recognize the new government, were forced to abandon their consulates and military offices by 1950.

embassy district emerged east of the city walls in Sanlitun where allies in the Eastern Bloc and Third World

opened diplomatic missions.

As the seat of power for the People's Republic, Beijing was transformed to reflect the ideals of socialist state. At a planning conference in November 1949, chaired by mayor

proletarian class.^[198]

The Soviet proposals largely prevailed and guided Beijing's urban planning for the next decade.

2nd Ring Road.^[200]

During the Korean War, Beijing hosted the Asia and Pacific Rim Peace Conference, the city's first major international gathering. The conference, organized by Mme. Sun Yat-sen, Guo Moruo and Peng Zhen and held at the Peace Hotel on October 2–12, 1952, was attended by over 400 delegates from 37 countries. The newly developed residential neighborhood of Hepingli, or Place of Peace, was named after the conference.

The city became the most concentrated center for higher education and academic research in China. Though foreign-funded universities were closed or converted to public institutions—Yenching University merged into Peking University, which moved from the city centre to the Yenching campus in the northwest suburbs and Fu Jen Catholic University merged into Beijing Normal University—the number of universities in Beijing swelled with the relocation of institutions from guerilla areas such as Renmin University, BIT, Central Party School, Central Nationalities Institute, and Beijing Foreign Studies University, and the opening of national academies and institutes by various ministries.

From 1949 to 1958, the city steadily acquired land from neighboring Hebei Province.

Yanqing, adding 11,988 km² (4,629 sq mi) for a total of 16,800 km² (6,500 sq mi).^[191] In 1958, the municipal population reached 6,318,497, of which 31.5% resided in the walled city, 29% in the immediate suburbs and the remainder in outlying towns and rural areas.^[192] City planners set a target population of 10 million for Beijing.^[192]

Industrialization of Beijing in the 1950s-1960s

Beijing No. 2 Cotton Mill

Beijing No. 1 Machinery Factory

Beijing Heavy Machinery Plant

Jingxi Coal Mine in the Western Hills

All photos from China Pictorial

Great Leap Forward

See also: Great Leap Forward

People's Communes and the General Mass Line of the Party

.

In January 1958, Mao kicked off the second

Five Year Plan with an ambitious campaign to accelerate economic development. The Great Leap Forward sought to overcome China's shortage of capital through mass mobilization, using large-scale collectivized farms to boost agricultural output and the food surplus to free up labor for industrial development. In urban Beijing, as in other cities, new apartment buildings were constructed without kitchens. Instead, residents dined in communal mess halls, which served free meals. Residents were mobilized to produce steel in homemade backyard furnaces using personal metal possessions (such as pots and cutlery, which they were presumed to no longer need as cooking was done centrally by the mess halls).^[201] The campaign hastened the demolition of city walls, whose bricks were used to build the furnaces. The low grade pig iron produced from these furnaces were ill-suited for industrial use. The policy was a complete failure and the misallocation of resources halted the city's reconstruction plans for years.^{[citation needed}

]

Among the most quixotic features early in the campaign was the effort to exterminate the

Four Pests, including sparrows, which were blamed for eating grain.^[202] At the height of this effort in April 1958, over three million residents using fire crackers, gongs, clanging pots and colorful flags, literally deprived sparrows (and other birds) a place to land in the city so that the birds flew until they dropped dead from fatigue. Over 400,000 sparrows (and countless other birds) were killed over a three-day period.^[203] The campaign was halted after the eradication of sparrows led to a spike in the locust

population.

Throughout the summer and fall of 1958 the quality and quantity of food served at communal mess halls steadily declined, and mess halls were shut down altogether in early 1959.[201] Residents instead received food ration tickets (15–17 kilos of grain per month for each man, 13.75 kg for each woman, 12.75 kg for young adults, 3.75 kg for children under age 10).^[204] Due to bullish grain production forecast, winter wheat was not planted in 1958 leaving no harvest in the spring of 1959.^[204] By May 1959, residents were forced to supplement their meager diet with elm bark, reed roots, willow shoots, wild amaranth, wild celery and other edible wild plants.^[204] Malnutrition became widespread in the city. Some 420,000 residents were sent to the countryside because the city could no longer support them. The food shortage caused the rate of "deaths from non-natural causes" in the Beijing to climb from 3.64% of the total population in 1958 to 4.4% in 1961, an increase of 90,000 deaths.^[205] The famine was far more severe in other provinces where the unnatural death rate in 1960 was as high as 13.8% in Anhui and 9.08% in Sichuan.^[205]

Mao initially clung to the Great Leap Forward, firing defense minister

Lushan Plenum in 1959. But as the scale of the disaster became more apparent, an extraordinary work conference for cadres from around the country was hastily convened in Beijing in early 1962. At the so-called 7,000 Cadre Conference held from January 11 to February 7, President Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping reported the severe decline in the economy and called for urgent course correction, citing numerous policy failures. Mao acknowledged that mistakes were made and the need for cadres to vent. Only Lin Biao, the new defense minister, prominently defended Chairman Mao. Liu and Deng's policy arguments drew extensively on research prepared by the Beijing Municipal Government and provided by mayor Peng Zhen

. The conference paved the way for economic recovery led by Liu and Deng but also planted the seeds for the Cultural Revolution.

Cultural Revolution

See also: Cultural Revolution

The Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution, Chairman Mao's campaign to change the social and cultural fabric of Chinese society, was launched from and ultimately halted in Beijing, with profound consequences for the city and country.

Mao initiated the campaign by directing attacks against political-literary figures in Beijing. The first target was Wu Han, the deputy mayor of Beijing and historian, whose book Hai Rui Dismissed from Office, adapted from a Peking opera about an incorruptible Ming-era official, had been praised by Mao in the early 1960s. But on November 10, 1965, the work was criticized by Shanghai propagandist Yao Wenyuan as an attempt to rehabilitate Peng Dehuai. Yao was supported by Mao's wife Jiang Qing. The scope of attack then expanded to the "Three Family Village", so-named for a column in the People's Daily jointly written by Wu Han, Deng Tuo, the editor of the newspaper, and Liao Mosha, another Beijing literary figure and official. The trio was accused of making veiled attacks against Maoism. Deng Tuo committed suicide and Wu Han later died in prison. Their fall implicated the mayor of Beijing, Peng Zhen, who was accused of running the city government as his fiefdom and harboring anti-party conspirators. The attack on Peng Zhen, in turn, undermined the standing of Liu Shaoqi, an ally of Peng and Mao's ultimate target. The Beijing Municipal Government became the first casualty of the revolution; its leaders were replaced with radical Maoists.

Red Guards in Beijing during the Cultural Revolution

big-character posters denouncing Liu Shaoqi; (2) Big-characters posted on the campus of Peking University; (3) Red guards at No. 23 Middle School wave the Little Red Book of the Quotations of Chairman Mao in a classroom revolution rally. All photos from China Pictorial

As Mao expanded the power struggle at the elite level in the spring of 1966, he encouraged youth from Beijing's universities and high school to join his campaign. On May 16, 1966, Mao unveiled the "May 16 Circular", which officially launched a Cultural Revolution to cleanse the party and country of

Khrushchev elements. Nie was initially rebuked by the university but her poster was published nationally with Mao's blessing in the People's Daily on June 2 . On June 18, Peking University students held the first struggle session

denouncing their teachers. Jiang Qing visited campus to lend her support to the rebellions students. By July 29, classes at all universities and high schools in the city were halted as students mobilized to join the Cultural Revolution.

On May 29, a group of students at

bombard the headquarters" of bourgeois elements in government. The movement spread and Mao ordered that the Red Guards be given free rides on trains and room and board across the country to spread the revolution.^[207]

From August 18 to November 26, he presided over eight Red Guard rallies in Tiananmen Square attended by over 11 million youth. The rallies helped drive Liu Shaoqi from power.

Legation Quarter, was renamed "Anti-Imperialist Road"; Beihai Park was renamed "Worker-Peasant-Soldier Park" and Jingshan Park

became "Red Guard Park". Most of the Cultural Revolution-era name changes were later reversed.

Having halted classes and toppled school administrations, the Red Guards then turned to

remnants of feudal culture, and struggled against political and cultural luminaries who were accused of following the capitalist road. Within one month of Mao's first rally on August 18, they ransacked 114,000 homes in the city, seizing 3.3 million items and ¥75.2 million in cash.^[208] During the height of the Red Guard fervor in August and September, at least 1,772 residents were killed.^[207] Many were driven to suicide or beaten to death by the Red Guards.^[207] Notable Beijing residents who took their own lives include deputy mayor Liu Ren, renowned writer Lao She and table tennis star and coach Rong Guotuan. Countless others suffered public humiliation, beatings and extrajudicial detentions at the hands of Red Guards and rebels. Many historical sites, including those designated by the city's historical protection bureau, were damaged or destroyed in the mayhem. Landmarks such as the Temple of Heaven, Beihai, Old and New Summer Palaces, Ming Tombs, Yonghe Lamsery and the Great Wall were also targeted.^[209] Almost all houses of worship were shut down. The Forbidden City was protected on the orders of Premier Zhou Enlai.^[210] Many city streets were renamed after revolutionary slogans. The Red Guards sought to rename the city itself as East is Red City.^[210]

By 1967, with schools closed and authority figures toppled, Red Guard factions began to compete with each other for control of institutions they had seized.

take control of government, universities and factories and had the Red Guards disband and leave the city for the countryside where they would "undergo reeducation from the peasants". Hundreds of thousands of educated youth

from Beijing were sent to rural and pastoralist areas.

The Cultural Revolution exacerbated tensions with the Soviet Union and some 300,000 city residents were mobilized to build elaborate underground bunkers designed to shelter up to 40% of the city's population in the event of a nuclear attack.^[213] Beijing's Underground City, built from 1969 to 1979, was later converted to underground shopping centers and a museum.^[213]

At the

unsuccessful coup plot against Mao. After Lin's death, colleges were reopened to "Worker-Peasant-Soldier students" and some of the purged old guard leaders such as Deng Xiaoping were partially rehabilitated, but radical Gang of Four, led by Jiang Qing, continued to hold sway

.

Beijing at the time of the

Revolution Committee at the Sijiqing People's Commune -- in Haidian District; (5) the American delegation was treated to a performance of the revolutionary ballet, Red Detachment of Women at the Great Hall of the People

.

In July 1971,

Central Business District

.

Mao Zedong Mausoleum

, completed in 1977.

After Zhou Enlai died on January 8, 1976, Yao Wenyuan published a series of propaganda works criticizing the legacy of Zhou, which drew widespread public disapproval. On March 20, 1976, students from the Niufang Primary School laid a wreath at the

April Fifth Incident, the largest spontaneous public gathering against the Cultural Revolution, was branded a counter-revolutionary criminal incident blamed on Deng Xiaoping, who was purged.^[216]

Mao died in Beijing on September 9, 1976, and

College entrance exams

were restored in 1977 and most of the rusticated youth returned to the city.

1976–1989

Residential architecture in Beijing

traditional courtyard residence

Socialist walk-up apartment blocks built in Hepingli in the 1960s

Jianguomen Diplomatic Residences built in 1971

Apartment blocks built in Xibahe in the 1980s

Apartment blocks built in Tiantongyuan in the 1990s and 2000s

Apartment blocks in Beijing Municipal Administrative Center (Tongzhou district)

Beijing Spring

See also: Beijing Spring and Democracy Wall

As the national leadership was changing course, a brief period of political openness in the city known as

big-character posters was protected by the Constitution.^[222] On December 5, Wei Jingsheng, an electrician at the Beijing Zoo, posted The Fifth Modernization a call for political reform.^[223] A public forum convened at the Monument to the People's Heroes where speakers debated the political future of the country.^[224]

On January 3, 1979, a People's Daily editorial, declared: "Let the people's say what they wish. The heavens will not fall."[222] On January 14, a crowd of Cultural Revolution victims marched from Tiananmen Square to Zhongnanhai calling for food, work, democracy and human rights.^[225][226] A China Human Rights Association was formed and distributed 19-point declaration demanding the freedom of speech and right to evaluate state leaders.^[227] The gatherings and public challenge to authority alarmed party conservatives who pressed Deng to take a harder line and he did so after consolidating control of the party. In late March, the city government restricted public postings and gatherings to only Xidan. Wei Jingsheng was arrested, and convicted and sentenced in October to 15 years in imprisonment for leaking state secrets about China's war with Vietnam. In December 1979, postings at the Xidan Wall were banned and instead consigned to the Temple of the Moon.^[228][229] In 1980, the State Constitution (1978 version) was amended to eliminate the right to post big-character posters. Although Beijing Spring ended, the tensions within the party between liberals and conservatives over the toleration of dissent continued into the next decade.

Urban planning in the 1980s

As the city emerged from the

Asian Games Village in the north and Fangzhuang in the south. Beijing Subway

's first line, which commenced trial operations in 1969 but was plagued by technical problems, finally passed inspection assessments in 1981.

1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre

Main articles: 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre and People's Liberation Army at the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre

The

student-led demonstrations in the spring of 1989

, which drew broad support from city residents, attracted worldwide attention and exposed deep divisions within the country's leadership, ended in bloodshed on June 3–4, as conservative leaders ordered a military crackdown of unprecedented force. The confrontation in Tiananmen Square was the culmination of a decade-long debate within the Communist Party and society over the freedom of expression and the course of political reform.

As liberal leaders

bourgeois liberalism".^[232] Hu Yaobang was forced to resign on January 17 and Fang Lizhi was expelled from the Communist Party.^[233] Zhao Ziyang succeeded Hu as Party General Secretary and Li Peng became Premier.^[234]

When Hu Yaobang died suddenly on April 15, 1989, university students laid wreaths at the Monument to the People's Heroes and organized sit-ins outside the Great Hall of the People and Zhongnanhai. They demanded the Party rescind past criticism of Hu, renounce the campaigns against spiritual pollution and bourgeois liberalism, disclose the assets of the family members of party officials, lift orders against public assembly, permit freedom of the press, and increase salaries for university graduates.^[235] On the night of April 21, 100,000 students marched into Tiananmen Square to attend Hu's funeral, which was held inside the Great Hall of the People the following day.^[234] Officials inside the Hall did not meet with students in the Square, who began to boycott classes.^[234] Workers formed an independent union and joined the protests. On April 23, as Zhao Ziyang was departing for a trip to North Korea, he told Li Peng to restore normalcy, avoid worsening tensions with students and refrain from using force, except against those who commit offenses against life and property.^[236]

Central Academy of Arts

, stood in Tiananmen Square for six days from May 30 to June 4, 1989, and was torn down by the military enforcing martial law.

On April 24, at a meeting of the

Lama Temple, breaking through police blockades along the way.^[234][238]

When Zhao Ziyang returned from North Korea, he delivered a conciliatory speech commemorating the 70th Anniversary of the May Fourth Movement, which was favorably received by the students.^[239] On May 4, he also told the board of the Asian Development Bank that there would not be turmoil in China, that the students, who accepted the country's reforms, were not fundamentally opposed to party leadership and socialism, but simply wanted leaders to correct errors in their work. Students from 47 institutions, including thousands streaming in from other parts of the country, marched on May 4 without police interference.^[240] On May 8, Zhao Ziyang chaired a politburo standing committee meeting and proposed six points of reform including the disclosure of officials' assets, expanded press freedoms and rule of law.^[241] Wan Li, chairman of the National People's Congress, called a parliamentary session for June 20 to consider the reform agenda.^[241] Li Peng, however, opposed the agenda, and only a portion of which was published in the People's Daily on May 9.^[241]

28th Army was surrounded at Muxidi by angry residents showing bloody clothing from the massacre the night before. The 28th Army's commanders defied orders to counterattack and instead had troops retreat into the museum, leaving their vehicles to be burned by protesters outside.^[242]

On May 13, to support political reforms and demonstrate their peaceful resolve, about 300 students began a hunger strike in Tiananmen Square, which soon expanded to thousands.[243] A makeshift tent city was set up for the hunger strikers, who attracted broad public sympathy. On May 15–17, more than million people visited the Square each day.^[244] Many government employees marched in support. Relaxed censorship allowed news of the hunger strike to be broadcast nationally.^[235] Foreign press on hand to cover the visit of Mikhail Gorbachev brought worldwide attention to the demonstrations. On May 18, Li Peng met with several student representatives but the two sides failed to agree on how to end the hunger strike.^[234] To defuse tensions, Zhao Ziyang tried to persuade Deng Xiaoping to back off of the April 26 editorial, but Li Peng said Zhao's approach was not working and the party center could not afford to speak with two voices.^[245] Student protests had spread to 27 cities.^[246] On the night of May 17, Deng Xiaoping resolved to impose martial law, which was signed by Li Peng and announced by Chen Xitong on May 19. That night, Zhao Ziyang made his final appearance in public, warning the hunger striking students in the Square that he had come too late. The students called off the hunger strike.^[234]

On May 20, at least 180,000

Central Academy of Arts erected a 10-meter high Goddess of Democracy

statue in the Square, which boosted student morale and drew millions of visitors.

On the afternoon of June 3, demonstrators confronted soldiers in plain clothes sneaking weapons into the city and police fired tear gas at the demonstrators. That evening, state-run television warned residents to stay indoors but crowds of people took to the streets to block the incoming army. Armored military units

advanced on Beijing from every cardinal direction. At about 10:00 pm troops opened fire on protesters with live ammunition at Wukesong intersection west of the Square, where the first civilian fatality occurred.^[234][249] Crowds were stunned and responded by hurling insults and projectiles. Among those killed was Duan Changlong, a Tsinghua University student, who was shot in the chest as he tried to negotiate with soldiers at Xidan.^[250][251] Duan was the grand nephew of the warlord Duan Qirui, whose troops were responsible for the March 18 Massacre in 1926, deadliest use of force against students in the history of Beijing until 1989. As news of the lethal force reached the Square, students at the Square were persuaded to leave the Square by several older intellectuals, including future Nobel Peace Prize winner, Liu Xiaobo. At about 4:00 am, troops from the west and south fought their way to the Square, and at 5:00 am most of the students retreated out of the Square to the south.^[234] Several students were hit by lethal gunfire in the Square and nearly a dozen were run over by an armored personnel vehicle west of the Square. Tanks also ran over the tent city. Helicopters lifted away the debris. By dawn of June 4, the army controlled the Square and major intersections around the city although clashes with residents continued. Tiananmen Mothers, a victims' organization, has recorded civilian deaths all along Chang'an Avenue, from Wukesong in the west to Tiananmen in the center to Jianguomen in the east, and throughout the city, from Hongmiao in the east, Hepingli in the north, and Tianqiao and Zhushikou in the south.^[249] Hundreds of civilians were killed, thousands were wounded

and thousands more were detained.

On June 5, foreign press in the

officially deemed a counterrevolutionary rebellion. Zhao Ziyang was placed under house arrest for the remainder of his life. Jiang Zemin assumed the position of General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party. Martial law was lifted on January 11, 1990.^[244] In subsequent years, first-year students at colleges in Beijing were required to undergo a year of military training.^[252]

1990s

In 1990, Beijing's long-term

residential population reached 10.32 million, of which 61% were in urban areas.^[192] In addition, the city had 1.27 million non-resident migrants, for a total population of 11.59 million.^[192]

From September 22 to October 7, 1990, Beijing hosted the

Asian Games Village was built north of the city center beyond the Third Ring Road. The Worker Stadium served as the Games' main venue. The city's bid for the 2000 Summer Olympic Games ended in September 1993 with a narrow loss by a vote of 43–45 in the final round to Sydney

.

The

6th Ring

).

The 1990s and the start of the new millennium were a period of rapid economic growth in Beijing. Following the

Huairou District

.

Demonstrations in Spring 1999

On April 25, 1999, Falun Gong practitioners assembled outside the Zhongnanhai compound on to protest criticism of the sect in the state media.

Also in 1995, Beijing's city government was shaken by a leadership scandal as

Shanghai Clique".^[254] He maintained that the charges against him were politically motivated.^[256]

In March 1997, two bombs detonated on

community in the capital scattered.^[259]

In the spring of 1999, two large public demonstrations took place in Beijing. On April 25, over 10,000

NATO's bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, which killed three Chinese nationals, thousands of students and residents marched on the U.S. Embassy in Beijing to protest U.S. military aggression. Some of the protesters pelted the embassy compound with stones and smashed cars, keeping the U.S. ambassador and staff confined in the compound for several days. Then vice-president Hu Jintao declared the government's support for the demonstrations, which reflected the anger and patriotism of the Chinese people, but urged against extreme and illegal conduct.^[260] The crisis was diffused after U.S. President Bill Clinton issued an apology for the airstrike, which the Pentagon blamed on outdated maps, and agreed to pay $32.5 million to the victims of the bombing and to compensate for the damage to the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade.^[261] The Chinese government agreed to pay $2.87 million to compensate the U.S. for damage to its embassy and consulates in China.^[261]

On October 1, 1999, the city celebrated the 50th Anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic with a parade, the first since 1984.

2000s

In 2000, the city's total population reached 13.56 million, including 2.49 million temporary migrants.[192] The city's population has continued to grow, largely through inbound migration, reaching 15.38 million in 2005 (including 3.57 million temporary migrants)^[192] and exceeding 20 million in 2011. Of the 20.18 million total population in 2011, 12.77 million were long-term residents with temporary migrants making up 7.4 million (36.7%).^[262]

XXIX Olympiad. The Dancing Beijing features Beijing's "jing (京)" character styled to resemble a man running. Nearly all Olympic venues are located in the northern half of the city.

On July 13, 2001, at the 112th meeting of the International Olympic Committee in Moscow, Beijing was awarded the right to host the 2008 Summer Olympic and Paralympics Games. Under the motto "New Beijing, Great Olympics", the city pledged that holding the Games in China for the first time would promote not only the city's economy but also education, health and human rights of its residents. Beijing prevailed over Paris, Toronto, Istanbul and Osaka with an absolute majority of votes in the second round of balloting.

Over the next seven years, the city spent nearly

high-speed high-speed railway to Tianjin.^[263] To improve environmental quality, the city added nine sewage treatment plants, dredged 290 km (180 mi) of waterways and built waste incineration and wind power generation facilities.^[263] From 2001 to 2007, the city's economy doubled in size and per capita income rose from $3,262 to $7,654.^[263]

airport line of the Beijing Subway

opened on July 19, 2008.

In March 2003, the

Health Minister Zhang Wenkang and mayor Meng Xuenong to resign in April. The city became the hardest hit in the SARS epidemic with 2,521 probable cases (including at least 394 infected medical personnel) and 191 deaths.^[265] Public schools, theaters, discos, and entertainment centers were closed at the order of the government in late April when 100 new cases were reported daily.^[265] A large quarantine base was set up in Changping District north of the city. After the last new case was reported on May 29, the epidemic subsided and the World Health Organization lifted the travel advisory for Beijing on June 24.^[265]

Smog diminishes visibility in Beijing. From atop Jingshan, the Forbidden City and buildings on Tiananmen Square are obscured.

Rapid modernization and population growth also created numerous problems such as heavy traffic, pollution, the destruction of historic neighborhoods, and a large population of impoverished migrant workers from the countryside. By early 2005, the city government attempted to control urban sprawl by restricting development to two semicircular bands to the west and east of the city center, instead of the concentric rings of suburbs that had been built in the past.^[266]

The rapid growth of population, motor vehicles and factories has created high pollution levels. Days with gray, acrid skies, with an eye-reddening pollution score over 400, are common, as health officials advise wearing masks and staying indoors. Heavy trucks are allowed in only at night but their diesel fuels create much of the problem. By 2008 for the city's 12 million residents, pollution was not only a hazard, but a political issue tied in with the Summer Olympics scheduled for August 2008. The city's bid for the 2000 Olympics in 1993 failed partly because of high pollution levels; in response the city began a massive cleanup campaign. That campaign has been successful in terms of 2000 standards, but the city's economy is 2.5 times larger now, with millions more people. Over 3 million cars and trucks clog the streets, and 400,000 more are added annually as the wealth shoots up rapidly. Factories and power plants were changed to burn cleaner, low-sulfur coal; sulfur dioxide emissions fell by 25% 2001–2007, even though much more coal is burned, reaching 30 million tons in 2006. Furthermore, Beijing saw more than 160 million square meters (1.7 billion square feet) of new construction begun 2002–2007 due to pollution. Athletes may have some breathing problems, but in the long-run air quality is expected to remain a critical issue as the city grows beyond 20 million inhabitants.^[267] The city also imposed road space rationing, which remained in force after the Olympics.

The

designated three city parks as areas for demonstrations

, but no permits for public demonstration were issued—the applications were either withdrawn or denied—and none took place.

Kerri Walsh

thanks Beijing volunteers.

On October 1, 2009, to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the People's Republic of China, a military parade was held on Chang'an Avenue and a gala concert in Tiananmen Square.

2010s

In the five years after the Olympics, Beijing's economy continued to grow rapidly, and the

state owned enterprises in the national capital, Beijing in 2013 had more Fortune Global 500 Company headquarters than any other city in the world.^[270] It also ranked No. 4 in the number of billionaire residents after Moscow, New York and Hong Kong.^[270]

The rapid economic growth and

property prices to rise throughout China, made Beijing one of the most expensive cities in the country. By 2010, new apartments inside the Third Ring Road cost Y30,000 per m² (US$360 per sq. ft.),^{[Note 25]} about ten times the average monthly wages.^[271] In response, the city government pledged to build low-income housing and imposed stringent limitations on home ownership.^[271] In February 2011, Beijing couples who already owned two or more homes and single residents with at least one home were barred from buying additional properties in the city.^[271] Individuals without resident permits, who can own only one property in the city, must pay local income tax for five consecutive years before they are eligible to buy it.^[271] In March 2013, the state imposed capital gains taxes on real estate transactions and raised down payment requirements for mortgages, but prices continued to climb.^[272] By August 2013, the average price of apartments inside the Fourth Ring Road reached Y42,259 per m² (US$634 per sq. ft.),^{[Note 25]} nearly twice as high as in 2009, leading to concerns of a property bubble.^[273]

Left: World leaders gathered for the 22nd APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting on November 11, 2014. Right: From the rostrum atop Tiananmen Gate, Chinese paramount leader Xi Jinping presided over the parade commemorating the 70th anniversary of the victory in World War II, with guests of honor Russian President Vladimir Putin and South Korean President Park Geun-hye

The 22nd annual meeting of leaders from countries in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum was held in Beijing on November 10–12, 2014. An international convention center was built by Yanqi Lake in Huairou District for the occasion.^[274] On September 3, 2015, a massive military parade was held to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the victory in World War II with leaders from over two dozen countries attending and honor guards from 17 countries joining the People's Liberation Army in the procession. On 18 November 2017, a fire killed nineteen people in Beijing in a southern industrial neighborhood. The municipal government launched a forty-day campaign to demolish "illegal structures", which housed millions of workers from foreign countries, who the government deems as Beijing's "low-end population".^[275][276]

See also

• City of Ji
• Youzhou
• Khanbaliq (Dadu)
• Beiping
• Peking

Notes

1. ^ The City of Ji was the capital of the States of Ji and Yan.
2. ^ During the Qin dynasty, the City of Ji served as the regional capital of the Guangyang Commandery.^[1][2]
3. ^ One of the Eighteen Kingdoms during the wars of Chu–Han Contention.
4. Yanqing County of Beijing).^[4]
5. ^ In 319, Shi Le captured Youzhou from Duan Pidi
6. ^ In 350, Murong Jun captured Youzhou in the name of restoring northern China to Jin rule.
7. ^ From 352 to 357, the Former Yan made the City of Ji its capital.^[5]
8. ^ In 319, Shi Le captured Youzhou from Duan Pidi
9. ^ In the second lunar month of 385, Murong Chui seized Youzhou from Former Qin.^[6]
10. Northern Dynasties.^[7]
11. ^ During the Sui dynasty, Youzhou became Zhuojun or Zhuo Commandery.^[8]
12. Great Yan dynasty and made Fanyang, Yanjing or "the Yan Capital." After the rebellion was suppressed, the seat of government became Youzhou Lulong Dudufu (幽州卢龙都督府).^[9]
13. ^ The seat of government in Nanjing was known as Youdufu (幽都府) until 1012, when the name was changed to Xijinfu (析津府).
14. ^ After 1151, the capital of the Jin dynasty from Shangjing to Yanjing, which was renamed Zhongdu. Zhongdu refers to the Zhongdulu (中都路), an administrative unit which governed about 12 surrounding prefectures and 39 counties. The governing seat of Zhongdulu was Daxingfu (大兴府).^[10]
15. ^ The seat of government in Beiping, later Beijing, was called Shuntianfu (顺天府).
16. ^ From 1937 to 1940, the city was renamed Beijing by the Provisional Government of the Republic of China, a puppet regime backed by the Japanese occupation. The city's name reverted to Beiping after the defeat of Japan in World War II.
17. Shanxi Province
    .
18. Shaanxi Province is more famous, a study by the Beijing Academy of Social Sciences and the National History Museum in 1992 concluded that Yuzishan was likely to be the true location of the tomb.^[20]
19. ^ In 284 BC, the victorious Yan general Yue Yi, having conquered 70 cities of neighboring Qi, wrote to Duke of Yan to report that he had enough booty to fill two palaces and planned to bring home a new tree species to plant on the Hill of Ji, north of the city.
20. Liangxiang of Fangshan District. Historians sometimes refer to the City of Ji as the Shangdu (上都) or "Upper Capital" and the Ancient City of Doudian as Zhongdu (中都), or "Middle Capital." In the 4th century BC, Duke Shaoxiang of Yan established Xiadu (下都) or the "Lower Capital", a larger settlement south of Linyi, in modern day Yi County, Hebei Province. At the time of the Qin conquests in 226 BC, the capital was back in the City of Ji.^{[26][29][30][31]}
21. ^ In the 3rd century BC, the Yellow River followed a more northerly course than the present day. It emptied into the Bohai Sea at a point south of Tianjin in what is now Hebei province as opposed Shandong Province today.
22. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o} Until the late Qing dynasty, the imperial census of the various dynasties counted only the number of taxable households in each administrative jurisdiction. To arrive at actual population figures, historical demographers have had to estimate the household size of each district in each era and add in the number of untaxed individuals, including imperial staff, religious personages and military personnel. Han Guanghui's 1996 compilation of historical census figures for Beijing provides two estimates for the city's population during each period: (1) the population within the walled city and (2) the population of the surrounding region that correspond, approximately, to the extent of modern Beijing Municipality.
23. ^ The Daning Palace is also called the Taining, Shouan, and Wanning Palace.
24. hutongs in the city are named after personages from the city's more distant past. Wenchengxiang Hutong near the shrine of Wen Tianxiang is named after the Song dynasty prime minister. Guangningbo Jie is named after the Duke of Guangning, Liu Jiang (renamed by the Yongle Emperor
    to Liu Rong), who defeated Japanese pirates in the 15th century. Liusulan Hutong is named after Liu Lan, a famous Yuan dynasty sculptor.
25. ^ ^{a b} US dollar equivalents based USD:CNY conversion rate of Y6.7695 = US$1.00 in 2010 and Y6.1957 = $1.00 in 2013.

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Further reading

• Rennie, David Field (1865). Peking and the Pekingese during the first year of the British embassy at Peking, Volume 1. J. Murray. Retrieved 24 April 2014.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of Beijing.

• Online historical maps from Perry–Castañeda Library

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