Islamic fundamentalism
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Islamic fundamentalism has been defined as a revivalist and reform movement of Muslims who aim to return to the founding scriptures of Islam.[1] The term has been used interchangeably with similar terms such as Islamism, Islamic revivalism, Qutbism, Islamic extremism, Islamic activism, but also criticized as pejorative, a term used by outsiders who instead ought to be using more positive terms such as Islamic activism or Islamic revivalism.[2]
Some of the beliefs attributed to Islamic fundamentalists are that the primary sources of Islam (the
Definitions and descriptions
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The term fundamentalism has been deemed misleading by those who suggest that all mainstream Muslims believe in the literal divine origin and perfection of the
Some 20th century preachers and writers sometimes dubbed Islamic fundamentalist include
Definitions vary as to what Islamic fundamentalism exactly is and how it differs from
- Form of Islamism – Olivier Roy takes a similar line, describing "neo-fundamentalists", (i.e. contemporary fundamentalists) as being more passionate than earlier Islamists in their opposition to the perceived "corrupting influence of Western culture", avoiding Western dress, "neckties, laughter, the use of Western forms of salutation, handshakes, applause", discouraging but not forbidding other activities such as sports, ideally limiting the Muslim public space to "the family and the mosque".[12]In this fundamentalists have "drifted" away from the stand of the Islamists of the 1970s and 1980s, such as [Abul A'la Maududi] who:
...didn't hesitate to attend Hindu ceremonies. Khomeini never proposed giving Iranian Christians and Jews the status of dhimmi (protected communities) as provided for in the sharia: the Armenians of Iran have remained Iranian citizens, are required to perform military service and pay the same taxes as Muslims, and have the right to vote (with separate electoral colleges). Similarly, the Afghan Jamaat, in its statutes, has declared it legal to employ non-Muslims as experts in the eyes of Islam.[4]
- Umbrella term – Another American observer, Ira Lapidus sees Islamic fundamentalism as "an umbrella designation for a very wide variety of movements, some intolerant and exclusivist, some pluralistic; some favourable to science, some anti-scientific; some primarily devotional and some primarily political; some democratic, some authoritarian; some pacific, some violent."[14]
- Synonym – Still another, Martin Kramer, sees little difference between the two terms (at least in usage in one country): "To all intents and purposes, Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism have become synonyms in contemporary American usage."[15]
- Scriptural literalism – According to another academic, Natana J. Delong-Bas, the contemporary use of the term Islamic fundamentalism applies to Muslims who seek not just "to return to the primary sources", but who use "a literal interpretation of those sources".[3]
- Use of ijtihad in Islamic law – According to academic John Esposito, one of the most defining features of Islamic fundamentalism is belief in the "reopening" of the gates of ijtihad ("independent reasoning" used in reaching a legal decision in Sunni law).[16]
Differences with Islamism
According to Roy distinctions between Fundamentalism and Islamism (or at least pre-1990 Islamism) are in the fields of:
- Politics and economics. Islamists often talk of "revolution" and they believe "that the society will only be Islamized through social and political action: it is necessary to leave the mosque ..." Fundamentalists are primarily interested in Islamic practice, less interested in "modernity or Western models of politics or economics", and less willing to associate with non-Muslims.[17]
- Sharia. While both Islamists and fundamentalists are committed to implementing Sharia law, Islamists "tend to consider it more a project than a corpus."[18]
- Issue of women. "Islamists generally tend to favour the education of women and their participation in social and political life: the Islamist woman militates, studies, and has the right to work, but in a chador. Islamist groups include women's associations." While the fundamentalist preaches that women should return to their homes, Islamism believes that it is sufficient if "the sexes are separated in public".[19]
- Variety and diversity within Islamic social movements has been highlighted by Husnul Amin in his work by referring to plurality within these movements.[20]
Curiously, historian Ervand Abrahamian (who essentially devoted a book—Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic—to why Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, leader of the Iranian Revolution, was not a fundamentalist but a populist, and calls the term "Islamic fundamentalism" in general "not only confusing but also misleading and even downright wrong"), notes that in the Islamic Republic of Iran, supporters of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini "finding no equivalent in Persian or Arabic" for fundamentalist, "have proudly coined a new word, bonyadegar, by translating literally the English term fundamental-ist."[21]
Differences with Christian fundamentalism
Differences between Christian fundamentalism and Islamic fundamentalism include (according to Bernard Lewis):[22]
"In western usage, these words [Revivalism and Fundamentalism] have a rather specific connotation; they suggest a certain type of religiosity- emotional indeed sentimental; not intellectual, perhaps even anti-intellectual; and in general apolitical and even anti-political. Fundamentalists are against
scriptures. For the so call fundamentalists of Islam these are not and never have been the issues. Liberal theology have not hitherto made much headway in Islam, and the divinity and inerrancy of the Quranare still central dogmas of the faith ... Unlike their Christian namesakes, the Islamic fundamentalists do not set aside but on the contrary embrace much of the post-scriptural scholastic tradition of their faith, in both its theological and its legal aspects."
Types
Islamic fundamentalism (at least among
- Traditionalists accept "the continuity" between the founding Islamic "texts"—the
- "Reformist" fundamentalism, in contrast, "criticizes the tradition, the commentaries, popular religious practices" (European imperialism ii) Western philosophy iii) neglect of the correct practice of Islam iv) Raafidi doctrines[24]
Controversy
Criticism of the term
The term "Islamic fundamentalism" has been criticized by Bernard Lewis, Khaled Abou El Fadl, Eli Berman, and John Esposito, among others. Many have proposed replacing it with another term, such as "puritanical", "Islamic revivalism" or "activism", and "radical Islam".
Lewis, a leading historian of Islam, believes that although "the use of this term is established and must be accepted":
It remains unfortunate and can be misleading. "Fundamentalist" is a Christian term. It seems to have come into use in the early years of the last century, and it denotes certain Protestant churches and organizations, more particularly, those that maintain the literal divine origin and inerrancy of the Bible. In this, they oppose the liberal and modernist theologians, who tend to have a more critical, historical view of Scripture. Among Muslim theologians, there is as yet no such liberal or modernist approach to the Qur'an, and all Muslims, in their attitude to the text of the Qur'an, are in principle at least fundamentalists. Where the so-called Muslim fundamentalists differ from other Muslims and indeed from Christian fundamentalists is in their scholasticism and their legalism. They base themselves not only on the Qur'an, but also on the Traditions of the Prophet, and on the corpus of transmitted theological and legal learning.[25]
John Esposito has attacked the term for its association "with political activism, extremism, fanaticism, terrorism, and anti-Americanism", saying "I prefer to speak of Islamic revivalism and Islamic activism."[2]
Khaled Abou El Fadl of UCLA, a critic of those who are called Islamic fundamentalists, also finds fault with the term because:
[M]any liberal, progressive, or moderate Muslims would describe themselves as usulis, or fundamentalist, without thinking that this carries a negative connotation. In the Islamic context, it makes much more sense to describe the fanatical reductionism and narrow-minded literalism of some groups as puritanical (a term that in the West invokes a particular historical experience)[26]
Eli Berman argues that "radical Islam" is a better term for many post-1920s movements starting with the Muslim Brotherhood, because these movements are seen as practicling "unprecedented extremism", thus, they do not qualify as movements which are returning to the practice of historic fundamentals.[27]
Defense
In contrast, American author Anthony J. Dennis accepts the widespread usage and relevance of the term and calls Islamic fundamentalism "more than a religion today, it is a worldwide movement." He notes the intertwining of social, religious and political goals found within the movement and states that Islamic fundamentalism "deserves to be seriously studied and debated from a secular perspective as a revolutionary ideology."[28]
At least two Muslim academics, Syrian philosopher Sadiq Jalal al-Azm and Egyptian philosopher Hassan Hanafi, have defended the use of the phrase. Surveying the doctrines of the new Islamic movements, Al-Azm found them to consist of "an immediate return to Islamic 'basics' and 'fundamentals'. ... It seems to me quite reasonable that calling these Islamic movements 'Fundamentalist' (and in the strong sense of the term) is adequate, accurate, and correct."[29]
Hassan Hanafi reached the same conclusion: "It is difficult to find a more appropriate term than the one recently used in the West, 'fundamentalism,' to cover the meaning of what we name Islamic awakening or revival."[30]
Study
In 1988, the
Origins
The modern Islamic fundamentalist movements have their origins in the late 19th century.
The trajectory of Islamic fundamentalism was marked by four phases. The first phase of proto-fundamentalism emerged during the late 19th century in wake of backlash against the Western colonial onslaught. Its main representatives were the
After the
The emergence of the next phase occurred in the context of the
During the
In the contemporary era, the term "fundamentalism" is usually applied to denote these
Muslim critics of Islamic fundamentalism often draw a parallel between the modern fundamentalist movement and the 7th century
Goals
Interpretation of texts
Islamic fundamentalists, or at least "reformist" fundamentalists, believe that Islam is based on the Qur'an,
Social and political
Along with adherents of other fundamentalist movements,[48] Islamic fundamentalists hold the view that the problems of the world stem from secular influences.
Some scholars of Islam, such as Bassam Tibi, believe that, contrary to their own message, Islamic fundamentalists are not actually traditionalists. He refers to fatwahs which have been issued by fundamentalists such as the fatwa which states that "every Muslim who pleads for the suspension of the shari'a is an apostate and can be killed. The killing of those apostates cannot be prosecuted under Islamic law because this killing is justified" as going beyond, and unsupported by, the Qur'an. Tibi asserts, "The command to slay reasoning Muslims is un-Islamic, an invention of Islamic fundamentalists".[49][50]
Conflicts with the secular state
Islamic fundamentalism's push for sharia and an
- Freedom from religious police
- Equality issues between men and womenfeminists)
- Separation of religion and state[54]
- Freedom of speech[55]
- Freedom of religion[56][57][58][59][60][61][62]
Islamic fundamentalist states
The
Islamic fundamentalist groups
Islamic fundamentalist groups include
ISIL/ISIS/Daesh
Caucasus Emirate
Caucasus Emirate is a fundamentalist Islamic terrorist group residing primarily in the North Caucasus of Russia. Created from the remnants of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (ChRI) in October 2007, it adheres to an ideology of Salafist-takfiri jihad[69] that seeks to establish an Islamic caliphate within the North Caucasus and Volga region (primarily the republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan). Many of their fighters are also present in jihadist battlegrounds such as Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, and throughout Central Asia. Many plots involving Chechen and other indigenous ethnic groups of the North Caucasus have also been thwarted in Europe over the recent years.
Al-Shabaab
Boko Haram
Congregation of the People of Tradition for Proselytism and Jihad (Arabic: جماعة اهل السنة للدعوة والجهاد Jamā'a Ahl al-sunnah li-da'wa wa al-jihād), better known by its Hausa name Boko Haram (pronounced [bōːkòː hàrâm], "Western education is sinful"), is a jihadist militant organization based in the northeast of Nigeria. It is an Islamist movement which strongly opposes man-made laws and westernization. Founded by Mohammed Yusuf in 2001, the organization seeks to establish sharia law in the country. The group is also known for attacking Christians and bombing Mosques and churches.
The movement is divided into three factions. In 2011, Boko Haram was responsible for at least 450 killings in Nigeria. It was also reported that they had been responsible for over 620 deaths over the first 6 months of 2012. Since its founding in 2001, the jihadists have been responsible for between 3,000 and 10,000 deaths.
The group became known internationally following sectarian violence in Nigeria in July 2009, which left over 1000 people dead. They do not have a clear structure or evident chain of command. Moreover, it is still a matter of debate whether Boko Haram has links to terror outfits outside Nigeria and its fighters have frequently clashed with Nigeria's central government. A US commander stated that Boko Haram is likely linked to Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), although professor Paul Lubeck points out that no evidence is presented for any claims of material international support.
Ansar Dine
Ansar Dine is an Islamist militant group in the country of Mali that wants Shariah law in Mali.[72][73] It opposes Sufi shrines.[74] Its main support comes from the Ifora tribe of Tuaregs.[75] The group is connected to Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb.[73]
It took part in the
It is
Ansar al-Sharia
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2022) |
Ansar al-Sharia or Ansar al-Shariah is a name used by a collection of
Human rights controversy
Some states and movements that are perceived or claimed to be Islamic fundamentalists have been criticized for their human rights record by international organizations. The acceptance of international law on human rights has been somewhat limited even in Muslim countries that are not seen as fundamentalist. Ann Elizabeth Mayer writes that states with a predominantly Muslim population, even when they adopt laws along European lines, are influenced by Islamic rules and precepts of sharia, which cause conflict with international law on human rights. According to Mayer, features found in conflict include severe deficiencies in criminal procedure, harsh criminal penalties causing great suffering, discrimination against women and non-Muslims, and prohibition against abandoning the Islamic religion. In 1990, under Saudi leadership, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, a group representing all Muslim majority nations, adopted the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, which substantially diverges from the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The Cairo declaration lacks provisions for democratic principles, protection for religious freedom, freedom of association and freedom of the press, as well as equality in rights and equal protection under the law. Further it stipulates that "all the rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic shari'a".[82]
The Cairo declaration followed years of limited acceptance of the Universal declaration by predominantly Muslim states. As an example, in 1984, Iran's UN representative, Said Raja'i Khorasani, said the following amid allegations of human rights violations, "[Iran] recognized no authority ... apart from Islamic law.... Conventions, declarations and resolutions or decisions of international organizations, which were contrary to Islam, had no validity in the Islamic Republic of Iran.... The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which represented secular understanding of the Judaeo-Christian tradition, could not be implemented by Muslims and did not accord with the system of values recognized by the Islamic Republic of Iran; this country would therefore not hesitate to violate its provisions."
Opinion polling
In a 2005
- A New York Times poll found that 33% of Americans think that Muslim Americans were more "sympathetic to terrorists than other Citizens" Rik Coolsaet analysed this as indicating a high level of distrust directed at the American Muslim community.[87] The Times did this survey during the Park51 Ground Zero Mosque incident. The Times called the findings "appalling" and also analysed the data as showing a very high level of distrust of Muslim Americans and robust disapproval of the Park51 Mosque proposal.[88] The New Republic stated that it does not trust the poll carried out by the New York Times and that the figures would be higher than 33%. They further claimed that New York residents are tolerant and if the figures were 33% in New York then "non-New Yorker fellow citizens are far more deeply biased and warped than the Gotham locals".[89]
See also
- 2009 Diyala Province Bombing
- Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah (British organisation)
- Anwar al-Awlaki
- Forced conversion in Islam
- Islam and violence
- Islamic extremism
- Islamic religious police
- Islamic terrorism
- Mona Mahmudnizhad
- Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi
- Muslim patrol incidents in London
- Salafi
- Wahhabi movement
- Deobandi movement
Notes
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7923-3542-9.
- ^ a b John L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 8.
- ^ ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
- ^ a b Roy, Failure of Political Islam, 1994: p. 215
- ^ Bernard, Lewis, Islam and the West, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
- ^ " 'The Green Peril': Creating the Islamic Fundamentalist Threat", Leon T. Hadar, Policy Analysis, Cato Institute, 27 August 1992.
- ^ Atkin, Muriel (2000). "The Rhetoric ofIslamophobia". CA&C Press. Archived from the original on 25 September 2021.
- ISBN 0-19-510298-3.
- ^ "Islamic fundamentalism". Muslimphilosophy.com. Retrieved 16 May 2013.
- ISBN 0-19-503340-X
- ^ Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p. 48
- ^ Roy, Failure of Political Islam, 1994: p. 83
- ^ Remarks by Robert H. Pelletreau, Jr., Middle East Policy Council, 26 May 1994, "Symposium: Resurgent Islam in the Middle East," Middle East Policy, Fall 1994, p. 2.
- ISBN 9780521779333. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
- ^ Coming to Terms, Fundamentalists or Islamists? Martin Kramer originally in Middle East Quarterly (Spring 2003), pp. 65–77.
- ISBN 0-19-503340-X
- ^ Roy, Failure of Political Islam, 1994: pp. 82–3, 215
- ^ Roy, Failure of Political Islam, 1994: p. 59
- ^ Roy, Failure of Political Islam, 1994: pp. 38, 59
- ^ Amin, Husnul (2014). "Making Sense of Islamic Social Movements: A Critical Review of Major Theoretical Approaches". Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
- ^ Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic, by Ervand Abrahamian, University of California Press, 1993, p. 13.
- ^ Lewis, Bernard(1993) Islam in history:ideas, people and events in the Middle East:398
- ^ a b c d Roy, Failure of Political Islam, 1994: pp. 30–31
- ^ M. Bennett, Andrew (2013). "Islamic History & Al-Qaeda: A Primer to Understanding the Rise of Islamist Movements in the Modern World". Pace International Law Review Online. 3 (10). PACE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW: 344 – via DigitalCommons.
- ^ Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp. 117–118, n. 3.
- ^ abou el Fadl, The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists, Harper San Francisco, 2005, p. 19
- ^ Eli Berman, Hamas, Taliban and the Jewish Underground: An Economist's View of Radical Religious Militias, UC San Diego National Bureau of Economic Research. August 2003, p. 4
- ^ Dennis, Anthony J. The Rise of the Islamic Empire and the Threat to the West (Ohio: Wyndham Hall Press, 1996), p. i.
- ^ Sadik J. al-Azm, "Islamic Fundamentalism Reconsidered: A Critical Outline of Problems, Ideas and Approaches", South Asia Bulletin, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 1 and 2 (1993), pp. 95–7.
- ^ Quoted by Bassam Tibi, "The Worldview of Sunni Arab Fundamentalists: Attitudes toward Modern Science and Technology," in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 85.
- ^ Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, "Introduction," in Martin and Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 3.
- ^ "Islamic fundamentalism is widely spread". Wissenschaftszentrums Berlin für Sozialforschung. 9 December 2013.
- S2CID 125038730.
- ^ Dreyfuss (2006), p. 2
Cooper (2008), p. 272 - ^ Murad, Suleiman (27 August 2021). "أدونيس والإسلام، تيه ومغالطات" [Adonis and Islam: Mistakes and Inaccuracies]. ORIENTXXI. Archived from the original on 27 August 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-4725-2387-7.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ISBN 978-0-333-27969-4.
- ^ Cooper (2008), p. 272
- ^ M. Bennett, Andrew (2013). "Islamic History & Al-Qaeda: A Primer to Understanding the Rise of Islamist Movements in the Modern World". Pace International Law Review Online. 3 (10). PACE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW: 345 – via DigitalCommons.
- ISBN 978-1-4725-2387-7.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ^ ISBN 978-1-4725-2387-7.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location (link - ^ Dreyfuss (2006), pp. 1–4
- ^ Dreyfuss (2006), p. 4
- ^ Dreyfuss (2006), p. 5
- ^ Khan, Sheema (29 September 2014). "Another battle with Islam's 'true believers'". The Globe and Mail.
- ^ Mohamad Jebara More Mohamad Jebara. "Imam Mohamad Jebara: Fruits of the tree of extremism". Ottawa Citizen.
- ^ Hasan, Usama (July 2012). "The Balance of Islam in Challenging Extremism" (PDF). Quilliam. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 August 2014. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
- ^ Matthews, Terry L. "Fundamentalism". Lectures for Religion 166: Religious Life in the United States. Wake Forest University. Archived from the original on 6 October 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
- ^ Bassam Tibi, The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder. Updated Edition. Los Angeles, University of California Press: 2002. Excerpt available online as The Islamic Fundamentalist Ideology: Context and the Textual Sources Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine at Middle East Information Center.
- Philipps-Universität Marburg, Volume 11, No. 1 (June 2006)
- ^ Dennis, Anthony J. The Rise of the Islamic Empire and the Threat to the West (Ohio: Wyndham Hall Press, 1996) p. 26
- ^ See Dennis, Anthony J. "Fundamentalist Islam and Human Rights" pp. 36–56 in The Rise of the Islamic Empire and the Threat of the West (Ohio: Wyndham Hall Press, 1996).
- ^ See Dennis, Anthony J. "The Attack on Women's Rights" pp. 40–44 in The Rise of the Islamic Empire and the Threat to the West (Ohio: Wyndham Hall Press, 1996).
- ^ See Dennis, Anthony J. "Strange Bedfellows: Fundamentalist Islam and Democracy" pp. 31–33 in The Rise of the Islamic Empire and the Threat to the West (Ohio: Wyndham Hall Press, 1996).
- ^ See Dennis, Anthony J. "The Attack on Freedom of Expression" pp. 47–56 in The Rise of the Islamic Empire and the Threat of the West (Ohio: Wyndham Hall Press, 1996).
- ^ See Dennis, Anthony J. "The Attack on Other Religions" pp. 44–47 in The Rise of the Islamic Empire and the Threat to the West (Ohio: Wyndham Hall Press, 1996)
- ^ "Murtad", Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Grand Ayatollah Hossein-Ali Montazeri: "Not Every Conversion is Apostasy", by Mahdi Jami, In Persian, BBC Persian, 2 February 2005. Retrieved 25 April 2006.
- ^ What Islam says on religious freedom, by Magdi Abdelhadi, 27 March 2006. Retrieved 25 April 2006.
- ^ Fatwa on Intellectual Apostasy Archived 25 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Text of the fatwa by Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi
- ^ S. A. Rahman in "Punishment of Apostasy in Islam", Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore, 1972, pp. 10–13
- ^ The punishment of apostasy in Islam Archived 26 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine, View of Dr. Ahmad Shafaat on apostasy.
- ^ Appleby (1993) p. 342
- ^ Ahmed (1993), p. 94
- ISBN 978-0495100089. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
- ISBN 9780444532435. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
- ISBN 9780801433382. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
- ^ Jansen, The Dual Nature of Islamic Fundamentalism, p. 69
- ^ Darion Rhodes, Salafist-Takfiri Jihadism: the Ideology of the Caucasus Emirate Archived 21 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine, International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, March 2014
- ^ "Al-Shabaab joining al Qaeda, monitor group says – CNN.com". CNN. 10 February 2012.
- ^ "Somali group to be banned in UK". BBC News. 1 March 2010.
- ^ Armed Islamist group claims control in northeast Mali, AFP
- ^ a b "Islamist fighters call for Sharia law in Mali". Agence France-Presse. 13 March 2012. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- ^ Mali crisis: 'Timbuktu joy after life of fear' retrieved 17 January 2013
- ^ Ian Black (16 January 2013). "Mali militants: who's who among Islamist rebels". The Guardian.
- ^ Couamba Sylla (4 April 2012). "Tuareg-jihadists alliance: Qaeda conquers more than half of Mali". middle-east-online.com. Archived from the original on 19 January 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ "Rebels burn Timbuktu tomb listed as U.N. World Heritage site". CNN. 6 May 2012. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
- ^ Tiemoko Diallo; Adama Diarra (28 June 2012). "Islamists declare full control of Mali's north". Reuters. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
- ^ "Mali Tuareg and Islamist rebels agree on Sharia state". BBC News. 26 May 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2012.
- ^ "Terrorist Designations of Ansar al-Dine". United States Department of State. 21 March 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
- ^ "Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 1267 (1999) and 1989 (2011) concerning Al-Qaida and associated individuals and entities QE.A.135.13. ANSAR EDDINE". United Nations. 21 March 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
- ^ ISBN 0-7656-0261-X
- ISBN 9780195376586.
- ^ The Economist, Volume 375, Issues 8420–8428. 2005. p. 58.
- ^ "The Lowy Institute Poll Australians Speak 2005" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 16 April 2016.
- ISBN 9780195376586.
- ISBN 9781409476450.
- ^ "Opinion | Mistrust and the Mosque (Published 2010)". The New York Times. 3 September 2010. Archived from the original on 14 October 2022.
- ^ The New York Times Laments "A Sadly Wary Misunderstanding of Muslim-Americans." But Really Is It "Sadly Wary" Or A "Misunderstanding" At All?
References
- Ahmed, Akbar S.; Donnan, Hastings (1994). Islam, globalization, and postmodernity – Google Books. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415093668.
- Appleby, R. Scott (1993). Fundamentalisms and Society: Reclaiming the Sciences, the Family, and Education. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226508818.
- Cooper, William Wager; Yue, Piyu (2008). Challenges of the Muslim World: Present, Future and Past. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 9780444532435.
- Dreyfuss, Robert (2006). Devil's Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam. Macmillan. ISBN 9780805081374.
- Ariel Francais, Islam radical et nouvel ordre impérial, L'Harmattan, 2007.
- Hewer, C.T.R (2006). Understanding Islam: the first ten steps. London: SCM Press. ISBN 9780334040323.
- Roy, Olivier (1994). The Failure of Political Islam. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674291416. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
Further reading
- Käsehage, Nina (2021). "Towards a Covid-Jihad – Millennialism in the field of Jihadism". In Käsehage, Nina (ed.). Religious Fundamentalism in the Age of Pandemic. Religionswissenschaft. Vol. 21. ISBN 978-3-8376-5485-1.
- Sikand, Yoginder. Origins and Development of the Tablighi-Jama'at (1920–2000): A Cross-Country Comparative Study, ISBN 81-250-2298-8
- Shepard, William. "What is 'Islamic Fundamentalism'?" Studies in Religion. Winter 1988.
External links
- Fundamentalist Islam at the Wayback Machine (archived 27 October 2009)
- Islamic Fundamentalism: A Brief Survey