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Part of a series on |
Law |
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Legal debate |
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Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,[1] with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate.[2][3][4] It has been variously described as a science[5][6] and as the art of justice.[7][8][9] State-enforced laws can be made by a group legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes; by the executive through decrees and regulations; or established by judges through precedent, usually in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals may create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that adopt alternative ways of resolving disputes to standard court litigation. The creation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and also serves as a mediator of relations between people.
Legal systems vary between
The scope of law can be divided into two domains:
Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into
Etymology
The word law, attested in
Philosophy of law
But what, after all, is a law? [...] When I say that the object of laws is always general, I mean that law considers subjects en masse and actions in the abstract, and never a particular person or action. [...] On this view, we at once see that it can no longer be asked whose business it is to make laws, since they are acts of the general will; nor whether the prince is above the law, since he is a member of the State; nor whether the law can be unjust, since no one is unjust to himself; nor how we can be both free and subject to the laws, since they are but registers of our wills.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, II, 6.[29]
The philosophy of law is commonly known as jurisprudence. Normative jurisprudence asks "what should law be?", while analytic jurisprudence asks "what is law?"
Analytical jurisprudence
There have been several attempts to produce "a universally acceptable definition of law". In 1972,
One definition is that law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behaviour.[1] In The Concept of Law, H. L. A. Hart argued that law is a "system of rules";[35] John Austin said law was "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction";[36] Ronald Dworkin describes law as an "interpretive concept" to achieve justice in his text titled Law's Empire;[37] and Joseph Raz argues law is an "authority" to mediate people's interests.[38] Oliver Wendell Holmes defined law as "the prophecies of what the courts will do in fact, and nothing more pretentious."[39] In his Treatise on Law, Thomas Aquinas argues that law is a rational ordering of things, which concern the common good, that is promulgated by whoever is charged with the care of the community.[40] This definition has both positivist and naturalist elements.[41]
Connection to morality and justice
Definitions of law often raise the question of the extent to which law incorporates morality.
In 1934, the Austrian philosopher Hans Kelsen continued the positivist tradition in his book the Pure Theory of Law.[49] Kelsen believed that although law is separate from morality, it is endowed with "normativity", meaning we ought to obey it. While laws are positive "is" statements (e.g. the fine for reversing on a highway is €500); law tells us what we "should" do. Thus, each legal system can be hypothesised to have a 'basic norm' (German: Grundnorm) instructing us to obey. Kelsen's major opponent, Carl Schmitt, rejected both positivism and the idea of the rule of law because he did not accept the primacy of abstract normative principles over concrete political positions and decisions.[50] Therefore, Schmitt advocated a jurisprudence of the exception (state of emergency), which denied that legal norms could encompass all of the political experience.[51]
Later in the 20th century, H. L. A. Hart attacked Austin for his simplifications and Kelsen for his fictions in The Concept of Law.[52] Hart argued law is a system of rules, divided into primary (rules of conduct) and secondary ones (rules addressed to officials to administer primary rules). Secondary rules are further divided into rules of adjudication (to resolve legal disputes), rules of change (allowing laws to be varied) and the rule of recognition (allowing laws to be identified as valid). Two of Hart's students continued the debate: In his book Law's Empire, Ronald Dworkin attacked Hart and the positivists for their refusal to treat law as a moral issue. Dworkin argues that law is an "interpretive concept"[37] that requires judges to find the best fitting and most just solution to a legal dispute, given their Anglo-American constitutional traditions. Joseph Raz, on the other hand, defended the positivist outlook and criticised Hart's "soft social thesis" approach in The Authority of Law.[38] Raz argues that law is authority, identifiable purely through social sources and without reference to moral reasoning. In his view, any categorisation of rules beyond their role as authoritative instruments in mediation are best left to sociology, rather than jurisprudence.[53]
History
The history of law links closely to the development of
The
Ancient
Similarly,
Legal systems
Civil law
Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. In civil law the sources recognised as authoritative are, primarily, legislation—especially
Anarchist and socialist law
Anarchist law primarily deals with how anarchism is implemented upon a society, the framework based on decentralized organizations and
Socialist law is the legal systems in
Common law and equity
In
Common law originated from England and has been inherited by almost every country once tied to the
As time went on, many felt that the common law was overly systematised and inflexible, and increasing numbers of citizens petitioned the King to override the common law. On the King's behalf, the Lord Chancellor started giving judgments to do what was equitable in a case. From the time of Sir Thomas More, the first lawyer to be appointed as Lord Chancellor, a systematic body of equity grew up alongside the rigid common law, and developed its own Court of Chancery. At first, equity was often criticised as erratic.[97] Over time, courts of equity developed solid principles, especially under Lord Eldon.[98] In the 19th century in England, and in 1937 in the U.S., the two systems were merged.
In developing the common law, academic writings have always played an important part, both to collect overarching principles from dispersed case law, and to argue for change. William Blackstone, from around 1760, was the first scholar to collect, describe, and teach the common law.[99] But merely in describing, scholars who sought explanations and underlying structures slowly changed the way the law actually worked.[100]
Religious law
Religious law is explicitly based on religious precepts. Examples include the Jewish
A number of countries are sharia jurisdictions.
Canon law
Canon law (
The Catholic Church has the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the western world,[105][106] predating the evolution of modern European civil law and common law systems. The 1983 Code of Canon Law governs the Latin Church sui juris. The Eastern Catholic Churches, which developed different disciplines and practices, are governed by the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches.[107] The canon law of the Catholic Church influenced the common law during the medieval period through its preservation of Roman law doctrine such as the presumption of innocence.[108][c]
Sharia law
Until the 18th century, Sharia law was practiced throughout the
Legal methods
There are distinguished methods of legal reasoning (applying the law) and methods of interpreting (construing) the law. The former are
Law professor and former United States Attorney General Edward H. Levi noted that the "basic pattern of legal reasoning is reasoning by example"—that is, reasoning by comparing outcomes in cases resolving similar legal questions.[116] In a U.S. Supreme Court case regarding procedural efforts taken by a debt collection company to avoid errors, Justice Sotomayor cautioned that "legal reasoning is not a mechanical or strictly linear process".[117]
Jurimetrics is the formal application of quantitative methods, especially probability and statistics, to legal questions. The use of statistical methods in court cases and law review articles has grown massively in importance in the last few decades.[118][119]
Legal institutions
It is a real unity of them all in one and the same person, made by covenant of every man with every man, in such manner as if every man should say to every man: I authorise and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition; that thou givest up, thy right to him, and authorise all his actions in like manner.
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, XVII
The main institutions of law in industrialised countries are independent
Max Weber and others reshaped thinking on the extension of state. Modern military, policing and bureaucratic power over ordinary citizens' daily lives pose special problems for accountability that earlier writers such as Locke or Montesquieu could not have foreseen. The custom and practice of the legal profession is an important part of people's access to justice, whilst civil society is a term used to refer to the social institutions, communities and partnerships that form law's political basis.
Judiciary
A judiciary is a number of judges mediating disputes to determine outcome. Most countries have systems of appeal courts, with an
Some countries allow their highest judicial authority to overrule legislation they determine to be
A judiciary is theoretically bound by the constitution, just as all other government bodies are. In most countries judges may only
In
Legislature
Prominent examples of legislatures are the
In the 'lower house' politicians are elected to represent smaller
To pass legislation, a majority of the members of a legislature must
Executive
The executive in a legal system serves as the centre of political authority of the State. In a parliamentary system, as with Britain, Italy, Germany, India, and Japan, the executive is known as the cabinet, and composed of members of the legislature. The executive is led by the head of government, whose office holds power under the confidence of the legislature. Because popular elections appoint political parties to govern, the leader of a party can change in between elections.[133]
The
Although the role of the executive varies from country to country, usually it will propose the majority of legislation, and propose government agenda. In presidential systems, the executive often has the power to veto legislation. Most executives in both systems are responsible for
Military and police
While military organisations have existed as long as government itself, the idea of a standing police force is a relatively modern concept. For example,
Bureaucracy
The etymology of bureaucracy derives from the French word for office (bureau) and the
The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly; here the offices, clerks, secretaries, inspectors and intendants are not appointed to benefit the public interest, indeed the public interest appears to have been established so that offices might exist.[141]
Cynicism over "officialdom" is still common, and the workings of public servants is typically contrasted to
Writing in the early 20th century, Max Weber believed that a definitive feature of a developed state had come to be its bureaucratic support.[144] Weber wrote that the typical characteristics of modern bureaucracy are that officials define its mission, the scope of work is bound by rules, and management is composed of career experts who manage top down, communicating through writing and binding public servants' discretion with rules.[145]
Legal profession
A corollary of the rule of law is the existence of a legal profession sufficiently autonomous to invoke the authority of the independent judiciary; the right to assistance of a barrister in a court proceeding emanates from this corollary—in England the function of barrister or advocate is distinguished from legal counselor.[146] As the European Court of Human Rights has stated, the law should be adequately accessible to everyone and people should be able to foresee how the law affects them.[147]
In order to maintain professionalism, the
Many Muslim countries have developed similar rules about legal education and the legal profession, but some still allow lawyers with training in traditional Islamic law to practice law before personal status law courts.[150] In China and other developing countries there are not sufficient professionally trained people to staff the existing judicial systems, and, accordingly, formal standards are more relaxed.[151]
Once accredited, a lawyer will often work in a law firm, in a chambers as a sole practitioner, in a government post or in a private corporation as an internal counsel. In addition a lawyer may become a legal researcher who provides on-demand legal research through a library, a commercial service or freelance work. Many people trained in law put their skills to use outside the legal field entirely.[152]
Significant to the practice of law in the common law tradition is the legal research to determine the current state of the law. This usually entails exploring
Civil society
The Classical republican concept of "civil society" dates back to Hobbes and Locke.[153] Locke saw civil society as people who have "a common established law and judicature to appeal to, with authority to decide controversies between them."[154] German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel distinguished the "state" from "civil society" (German: bürgerliche Gesellschaft) in Elements of the Philosophy of Right.[155][156]
Hegel believed that
Areas of law
All legal systems deal with the same basic issues, but jurisdictions categorise and identify their legal topics in different ways. A common distinction is that between "
International law
International law can refer to three things: public international law, private international law or conflict of laws and the law of supranational organisations.
- international organisations, such as the United Nations (which was established after the failure of the League of Nations to prevent World War II),[i] the International Labour Organisation, the World Trade Organisation (WTO), or the International Monetary Fund. Public international law has a special status as law because there is no international police force, and courts (e.g. the International Court of Justice as the primary UN judicial organ) lack the capacity to penalise disobedience. The prevailing manner of enforcing international law is still essentially "self help"; that is the reaction by states to alleged breaches of international obligations by other states.[164][1][165] However, a few bodies, such as the WTO, have effective systems of binding arbitration and dispute resolution backed up by trade sanctions.[166]
- labour supply chains across borders, as well as trading with overseas businesses, making the question of which country has jurisdiction even more pressing. Increasing numbers of businesses opt for commercial arbitration under the New York Convention 1958.[167]
- European Union law is the first and so far the only example of a supranational law, i.e. an internationally accepted legal system, other than the United Nations and the World Trade Organization. Given the trend of increasing global economic integration, many regional agreements—especially the African Union—seek to follow a similar model.[168][169] In the EU, sovereign nations have gathered their authority in a system of courts and the European Parliament. These institutions are allowed the ability to enforce legal norms both against or for member states and citizens in a manner which is not possible through public international law.[170] As the European Court of Justice noted in its 1963 Van Gend en Loos decision, European Union law constitutes "a new legal order of international law" for the mutual social and economic benefit of the member states.[171][172][173]
Constitutional and administrative law
Constitutional and administrative law govern the affairs of the state. Constitutional law concerns both the relationships between the executive, legislature and judiciary and the human rights or civil liberties of individuals against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a single codified constitution with a bill of rights. A few, like the United Kingdom, have no such document. A "constitution" is simply those laws which constitute the body politic, from statute, case law and convention.
The fundamental constitutional principle, inspired by
A subdiscipline of constitutional law is election law. It deals with rules governing elections. These rules enable the translation of the will of the people into functioning democracies. Election law addresses issues who is entitled to vote, voter registration, ballot access, campaign finance and party funding, redistricting, apportionment, electronic voting and voting machines, accessibility of elections, election systems and formulas, vote counting, election disputes, referendums, and issues such as electoral fraud and electoral silence.
Criminal law
Criminal law, also known as penal law, pertains to crimes and punishment.
Examples of crimes include murder, assault, fraud and theft. In exceptional circumstances defences can apply to specific acts, such as killing in
Criminal law offences are viewed as offences against not just individual victims, but the community as well.
Contract law
Contract law concerns enforceable promises, and can be summed up in the Latin phrase pacta sunt servanda (agreements must be kept).[188] In common law jurisdictions, three key elements to the creation of a contract are necessary: offer and acceptance, consideration and the intention to create legal relations.
Consideration indicates the fact that all parties to a contract have exchanged something of value. Some common law systems, including Australia, are moving away from the idea of consideration as a requirement. The idea of estoppel or culpa in contrahendo, can be used to create obligations during pre-contractual negotiations.[189]
Civil law jurisdictions treat contracts differently in a number of respects, with a more interventionist role for the state in both the formation and enforcement of contracts.
Torts and delicts
The liability for negligence [...] is no doubt based upon a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing for which the offender must pay. [...] The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour; and the lawyer's question, Who is my neighbour? receives a restricted reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour.[196]
This became the basis for the four principles of negligence, namely that:
- Stevenson owed Donoghue a duty of care to provide safe drinks;
- he breached his duty of care;
- the harm would not have occurred but for his breach; and
- his act was the proximate cause of her harm.[j]
Another example of tort might be a neighbour making excessively loud noises with machinery on his property.
Property law
This case is used to support the view of property in common law jurisdictions, that the person who can show the best claim to a piece of property, against any contesting party, is the owner.
Equity and trusts
Equity is a body of rules that developed in England separately from the "common law". The common law was administered by judges and barristers. The Lord Chancellor on the other hand, as the King's keeper of conscience, could overrule the judge-made law if he thought it equitable to do so.[206] This meant equity came to operate more through principles than rigid rules. Whereas neither the common law nor civil law systems allow people to split the ownership from the control of one piece of property, equity allows this through an arrangement known as a trust. Trustees control property whereas the beneficial, or equitable, ownership of trust property is held by people known as beneficiaries. Trustees owe duties to their beneficiaries to take good care of the entrusted property.[207] Another example of a trustee's duty might be to invest property wisely or sell it.[208] This is especially the case for pension funds, the most important form of trust, where investors are trustees for people's savings until retirement. But trusts can also be set up for charitable purposes.
Further disciplines
- Law and society
- Labour law is the study of a tripartite industrial relationship between worker, employer and trade union. This involves collective bargaining regulation, and the right to strike. Individual employment law refers to workplace rights, such as job security, health and safety or a minimum wage.
- human rights law. These are laid down in codes such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the European Convention on Human Rights (which founded the European Court of Human Rights) and the U.S. Bill of Rights. The Treaty of Lisbon makes the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union legally binding in all member states except Poland and the United Kingdom.[209]
- Civil procedure and criminal procedure concern the rules that courts must follow as a trial and appeals proceed. Both concern a citizen's right to a fair trial or hearing.
- Evidence law involves which materials are admissible in courts for a case to be built.
- Immigration law and nationality law concern the rights of foreigners to live and work in a nation-state that is not their own and to acquire or lose citizenship. Both also involve the right of asylum and the problem of stateless individuals.
- Family law covers marriage and divorce proceedings, the rights of children and rights to property and money in the event of separation.
- Transactional law is the practice of law concerning business and money.
- Biolaw focuses on the intersection of law and the biosciences.
- Law and commerce
- separate legal personalityof the corporation.
- Lex Mercatoria. The UK Sale of Goods Act 1979 and the US Uniform Commercial Codeare examples of codified common law commercial principles.
- Admiralty law and the sea law lay a basic framework for free trade and commerce across the world's oceans and seas, where outside of a country's zone of control. Shipping companies operate through ordinary principles of commercial law, generalised for a global market. Admiralty law also encompasses specialised issues such as salvage, maritime liens, and injuries to passengers.
- related rights) which result from intellectual activity in the industrial, literary and artistic fields.[211]
- space commercialisation, property, liability, and other issues.
- Law and regulation
- value added tax, corporate tax, and income tax.
- Banking law and financial regulation set minimum standards on the amounts of capital banks must hold, and rules about best practice for investment. This is to insure against the risk of economic crises, such as the Wall Street Crash of 1929.
- Regulation deals with the provision of OECDcountries.
- consumer welfare.
- contractual termsand clauses to directives on airline baggage insurance.
- Environmental law is increasingly important, especially in light of the Kyoto Protocol and the potential danger of climate change. Environmental protection also serves to penalise polluters within domestic legal systems.
- Aviation law deals with all regulations and technical standards applicable to the safe operation of aircraft, and is an essential part both of pilots' training and pilot's operations. It is framed by national civil aviation acts (or laws), themselves mostly aligned with the recommendations or mandatory standards of the International Civil Aviation Organisation or ICAO.
Intersection with other fields
Economics
In the 18th century,
The most prominent economic analyst of law is 1991
Sociology
The sociology of law examines the interaction of law with society and overlaps with jurisprudence, philosophy of law, social theory and more specialised subjects such as
Around 1900, Max Weber defined his "scientific" approach to law, identifying the "legal rational form" as a type of domination, not attributable to personal authority but to the authority of abstract norms.[223] Formal legal rationality was his term for the key characteristic of the kind of coherent and calculable law that was a precondition for modern political developments and the modern bureaucratic state. Weber saw this law as having developed in parallel with the growth of capitalism.[219][220] Another leading sociologist, Émile Durkheim, wrote in his classic work The Division of Labour in Society that as society becomes more complex, the body of civil law concerned primarily with restitution and compensation grows at the expense of criminal laws and penal sanctions.[224][225] Other notable early legal sociologists included Hugo Sinzheimer, Theodor Geiger, Georges Gurvitch and Leon Petrażycki in Europe, and William Graham Sumner in the U.S.[226][227]
See also
- By-law
- Law dictionary
- Legal research in the United States
- Legal treatise
- Legislation
- Natural law
- Outline of law
- Political science
- Pseudolaw
- Public interest law
- Social law
- Sources of law
- Translating "law" to other European languages
References
Citations
- ^ a b c Robertson 2006, p. 90.
- ^ Willis 1926.
- JSTOR 3052897.
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- ^ Spooner, Lysander (1882). Natural Law; or The Science of Justice: A Treatise on Natural Law, Natural Justice, Natural Rights, Natural Liberty, and Natural Society; Showing that All Legislation Whatsoever is an Absurdity, a Usurpation, and a Crime. Part First. A. Williams & Co. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
- from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
- ^ Cohen 1992.
- ^ Rubin, Basha (13 January 2015). "Is Law an Art or a Science?: A Bit of Both". Forbes. Archived from the original on 3 November 2018.
- ^ Berger 1953, p. 525.
- ^ Mason, Anthony (1996). "The Judge as Law-maker" (PDF). James Cook University Mayo Lecture. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
- ^ Devins, Neal (2008). "Congressional Responses to Judicial Decisions". Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court. Gale MacMillan. pp. 400–403. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
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- ^ Cox, Noel (2001). "Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction in the Church of the Province of Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia". Deakin Law Review. 6 (2): 262. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
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- ^ Raisch, Marylin Johnson. "Religious Legal Systems in Comparative Law: A Guide to Introductory Research – GlobaLex". Hauser Global Law School Program. New York University School of Law. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
- ]
- ^ Merryman, John Henry (1968). "The Public Law-Private Law Distinction in European and American Law". Journal of Public Law. 17: 3. Archived from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
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- ^ Rubin, Paul H. "Law and Economics". The Library of Economics and Liberty. Liberty Fund, Inc. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2019.
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- doi:10.1093/OED/4864419306. (Subscription or participating institution membershiprequired.)
- ^ Rousseau, The Social Contract, Book II: Chapter 6 (Law)
- ^ Dennis Lloyd, Baron Lloyd of Hampstead. Introduction to Jurisprudence. Third Edition. Stevens & Sons. London. 1972. Second Impression. 1975. p. 39.
- ISBN 1-85431-582-X. p. 2.
- ^ Williams, Glanville. International Law and the Controversy Concerning the Meaning of the Word "Law". Revised version published in Laslett (Editor), Philosophy, Politics and Society (1956) p. 134 et seq. The original was published in (1945) 22 BYBIL 146.
- ^ Arnold 1935, p. 36.
- ^ Baron Lloyd of Hampstead. Introduction to Jurisprudence. Third Edition. Stevens & Sons. London. 1972. Second Impression. 1975.
- ^ Campbell 1993, p. 184.
- ^ a b Bix 2022.
- ^ a b Dworkin 1986, p. 410.
- ^ a b Raz 1979, pp. 3–36.
- ^ Holmes, Oliver Wendell. "The Path of Law" (1897) 10 Harvard Law Review 457 at 461.
- ^ Aquinas, St Thomas. Summa Theologica. 1a2ae, 90.4. Translated by J G Dawson. Ed d'Entreves. (Basil Blackwell). Latin: "nihil est aliud qau edam rationis ordinatio ad bonum commune, ab eo qi curam communitatis habet, promulgata".
- ISBN 1-85431-582-X. p. 73.
- JSTOR 2176104.
- ^ Fritz Berolzheimer, The World's Legal Philosophies, 115–116
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Notes
- ^ As a legal system, Roman law has affected the development of law worldwide. It also forms the basis for the law codes of most countries of continental Europe and has played an important role in the creation of the idea of a common European culture (Stein, Roman Law in European History, 2, 104–107).
- ^ Civil law jurisdictions recognise custom as "the other source of law"; hence, scholars tend to divide the civil law into the broad categories of "written law" (ius scriptum) or legislation, and "unwritten law" (ius non-scriptum) or custom. Yet they tend to dismiss custom as being of slight importance compared to legislation (Georgiadis, General Principles of Civil Law, 19; Washofsky, Taking Precedent Seriously, 7).
- ^ «In one of his elaborate orations in the United States Senate Mr. Charles Sumner spoke of "the generous presumption of the common law in favor of the innocence of an accused person;" yet it must be admitted that such a presumption cannot be found in Anglo-Saxon law, where sometimes the presumption seems to have been the other way. And in a very recent case in the Supreme Court of the United States, the case of Coffin, 156 U. S. 432, it is pointed out that this presumption was fully established in the Roman law, and was preserved in the canon law.»[109]
- ^ E.g., the court president is a political appointee (Jensen–Heller, Introduction, 11–12). About the notion of "judicial independence" in China, see Findlay, Judiciary in the PRC, 282–284
- ^ About "cabinet accountability" in both presidential and parliamentary systems, see Shugart–Haggard, Presidential Systems, 67 etc.
- ^ In these cases sovereignty is eroded, and often warlords acquire excessive powers (Fukuyama, State-Building, 166–167).
- ^ Although many scholars argue that "the boundaries between public and private law are becoming blurred", and that this distinction has become mere "folklore" (Bergkamp, Liability and Environment, 1–2).
- ^ E.g. in England these seven subjects, with EU law substituted for international law, make up a "qualifying law degree". For criticism, see Peter Birks' poignant comments attached to a previous version of the Notice to Law Schools Archived 20 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Winston Churchill (The Hinge of Fate, 719) comments on the League of Nations' failure: "It was wrong to say that the League failed. It was rather the member states who had failed the League."[163]
- ^ a b Donoghue v Stevenson ([1932] A.C. 532, 1932 S.C. (H.L.) 31, [1932] All ER Rep 1). See the original text of the case in UK Law Online Archived 16 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
- National Labor Relations Act
- ^ According to Malloy , Smith established "a classical liberal philosophy that made individuals the key referential sign while acknowledging that we live not alone but in community with others".(Law and Economics, 114)
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Further reading
- "House of Lords Judgments". House of Lords. Archived from the original on 10 November 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
- Opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States
- "law". Law.com Dictionary. Archived from the original on 5 January 2009. Retrieved 10 February 2007.
- "law". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2007.
- "legal". Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary. Archived from the original on 26 December 2005. Retrieved 9 February 2007.
External links
- Definitions from Wiktionary
- Media from Commons
- News from Wikinews
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Textbooks from Wikibooks
- Resources from Wikiversity
- DRAGNET: Search of free legal databases from New York Law School. Archived 3 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
- World Legal Information Institute
- Commonwealth Legal Information Institute
- Asian Legal Information Institute
- Australasian Legal Information Institute
- British and Irish Legal Information Institute
- Canadian Legal Information Institute (archived 4 October 2006)
- New Zealand Legal Information Institute
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