Science and technology in Russia

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Shukhov Tower in Moscow.

Science and technology in Russia have developed rapidly since the Age of Enlightenment, when Peter the Great founded the Russian Academy of Sciences and Saint Petersburg State University and polymath Mikhail Lomonosov founded the Moscow State University, establishing a strong native tradition in learning and innovation.

In the 19th and 20th centuries,

communications, IT, nuclear technology and space technology
.

The crisis of the 1990s led to the drastic reduction of state support for science and technology, leading many Russian scientists and university graduates to move to Western Europe or the United States. In the 2000s, on the wave of a new economic boom, the situation has improved, and the Russian government

modernisation and innovation with mixed success.[citation needed
]

History

Main articles:
Russian inventors
Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian polymath scientist, inventor, poet and artist, the founder of Moscow State University.

At the start of the 18th century the

reforms of Peter the Great
(founder of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Saint Petersburg State University) and the work of such champions as polymath Mikhail Lomonosov (the founder of Moscow State University) gave a great boost to the development of science and innovation in Russia.

Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were

Georgiy Gamov (an author of the Big Bang theory), engineer Alexander M. Poniatoff, who created the world's first rotary head recorder and social scientist Pitirim Sorokin who played an important role in development of sociology in the US. Many foreigners such as Leonhard Euler and Alfred Nobel worked in Russia for a long time.[1][2]

Despite many technological achievements in the 19th and 20th centuries, since the time of

brain drain
".

In the 2000s, on the wave of a new economic boom, the situation in the Russian science and technology has improved, and the government launched a campaign to encourage modernisation and innovation. Russian President

GPS, European Galileo and Chinese BeiDou, and Russia's being the only country constructing mobile nuclear plants
.

Science and education

Main articles: Russian Academy of Sciences, Education in Russia, and List of Russian scientists

Physics

Main article: List of Russian physicists

The Russian

Umov–Poynting vector
and was the first scientist to indicate an interrelation between mass and energy, proposing the formula as early as in 1873.
Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio
.

During the 20th century, Russian and Soviet scientists were among the world leaders in physics.

atomic nuclei (1932) and nuclear shell model
(1932).

fiber optic transceivers (Nobel Prize in Physics, 2000). In 2010 two Russian-born and educated physicists Konstantin Novoselov and Andre Geim were awarded with the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work in graphene
, a material which may have important applications in electronics, aviation and medicine.

Kunstkamera building, the first headquarters of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg.

A number of achievements of Russian/Soviet scientists remained unknown to general public due to security considerations or bureaucratic obstacles. For example, the first design of magnetic resonance imaging was proposed by Vladislav Ivanov in 1960 but was not realized at that time.

Mathematics

Main article: List of Russian mathematicians

In

Chebyshev the Russian mathematical school became one of the most influential in the world and was represented by numerous figures greatly contributing to different fields of mathematics, physics and computing sciences.[8] Chebyshev's students included Aleksandr Lyapunov who founded the modern stability theory (lately developed by such scientists as Aleksandr Andronov and Vladimir Arnold), and Andrey Markov who developed the theory of Markov chains
, playing a central role in information sciences and modern applied mathematics.

At the beginning of the 20th century

mathematical biology and applied sciences. Israel Gelfand is credited with many important discoveries in algebra, topology, mathematical physics and applied sciences. Sergei Sobolev developed the theory of Sobolev space which played an extremely important role in formation of modern mathematical views and introduced the notion of distributions
generalizing ideas of Newton and Leibniz.

Such mathematicians as

Andrey Tychonoff, who was the author of the "central theorem"[9] of general topology, Pavel Alexandrov, a very important figure in topology of the 20th century, and many others made fundamental contributions to different fields of mathematics. Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians were awarded with Fields Medal, a most prestigious award in mathematics. Recently Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002.[10]

Astronomy

Main article:
List of Russian astronomers

Chemistry

Main articles: List of Russian chemists and Pharmaceutical industry in Russia

Lomonosov was the first Russian chemist, among others he was the founder of the science of

Dmitry Mendeleev and his periodic table in Slovakia
.

Nikolay Semyonov made major contributions to explanation of the mechanism of chemical transformation (1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
).

Biology

Main article: List of Russian biologists

In

aging and later was awarded with Nobel Prize
(not shared by Olovnikov).

Electrical engineering

Main article: List of Russian electrical engineers

electric lighting, and Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented and introduced the first three-phase electric power systems, widely used today. Oleg Losev is often considered as the inventor of the light-emitting diode (LED)
.

Medicine

Main article:
List of Russian physicians

Economic theory and social sciences

Earth sciences

Main article: List of Russian Earth scientists

Vasily Dokuchaev (1845–1902) is credited with laying the foundations of soil science.

Vladimir Vernadsky (1863–1945) is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and of radiogeology and deeply developed the concepts of biosphere and noosphere.

chemical reactions, discovered the atmosphere of Venus, and founded modern geology.[12]

Linguistics

Main article:
List of Russian linguists

Performance of Russian students in International Science Olympiads

Russia's rank based on number of Gold Medals in last 10 years(2014-2023):

Technology

Main articles:
Timeline of Russian inventions

Aviation

Main articles: Aircraft industry of Russia, United Aircraft Corporation, and List of Russian aerospace engineers
Russian aircraft industry
.
Rostec headquarters in Moscow

The history of Russian aircraft engineering begins with a pioneer of aviation

Petr Ufimtsev played a critical role in development of stealth technology
.

Famous Russian airplanes include the first

most produced military aircraft in history. The Polikarpov Po-2 Kukuruznik is the world's most produced biplane, and the Mil Mi-8 is the most produced helicopter
.

Aircraft manufacturing is one of the most science-intensive high tech sectors of modern Russian economy and employs the largest number of skilled personnel. The production and value of the military aircraft branch far outstrips other

defense industry sectors, and aircraft products make up more than half of the country's arms exports.[13] The Russian aircraft industry offers a portfolio of internationally competitive military aircraft, while new projects such as the Sukhoi Superjet 100
are hoped to revive the fortunes of the civilian aircraft segment. In 2009, companies belonging to the United Aircraft Corporation delivered 95 new fixed-wing aircraft to its customers, including 15 civilian models. In addition, the industry produced over 141 helicopters.

Space technology

Main articles:
Russian Federal Space Agency, and Space industry of Russia

Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program in the early stages of the Space Race
and beyond.

In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial

space exploration rover,[25] and Salyut 1 was the world's first space station.[26]

Russia is among the world's largest satellite launchers,

satellite navigation system. It is developing its own fifth-generation jet fighter (Sukhoi Su-57),[28] and has built the world's first floating nuclear power plant.[29] Luna-Glob is a Russian Moon exploration programme, with its first mission scheduled to launch in October 2021 (Luna 25).[30] To replace the ageing Soyuz, Roscosmos is also developing the Orel spacecraft, which could conduct its first crewed fight in 2025.[31] In February 2019, it was announced that Russia is intending to conduct its first crewed mission to land on the Moon in 2031.[32] In April 2021, Roscosmos declared that it is planning to quit the ISS, and will create its own space station with the aim of launching it into orbit by 2030.[33] In June 2021, Roscosmos and China National Space Administration announced that they are jointly developing a lunar base, which is planned to be utilized from 2036.[34]

Military

Main articles:
Defence industry of Russia, Rosoboronexport, and List of Russian weaponry makers

Famous Russian battle tanks include the

T-54/55,[36] the first fully gas turbine tank T-80, and the most modern Russian tanks T-90 and T-14 Armata. The AK-47 and AK-74 by Mikhail Kalashnikov constitute the most widely used type of assault rifle throughout the world—so much so that more AK-type rifles have been manufactured than all other assault rifles combined.[37][38] With these and other weapons Russia for a long time has been among the world's top arms suppliers, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales[39] and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.[citation needed
]

The

armored personnel carriers and infantry fighting vehicles.[citation needed] Aviation products make up about half of the country's arms exports.[citation needed] One of the industry's recent technological achievements was the maiden flight of the fifth generation fighter Sukhoi Su-57, which broke the United States' complete monopoly on development and production of fifth generation jets. The Moscow Defense Brief
journal hailed the occasion as a major coup for Russia's defence industry, saying that:

{W}hile not America’s equal militarily, Russia is still a solid second in terms of defense technology, outranking both Western Europe and China and punching well above its economic weight.[40]

Computing

Main article: Information technology in Russia

Sergei Lebedev developed one of the first universally programmable computers in continental Europe in 1950, MESM. The first ternary computer Setun was developed by Nikolay Brusentsov, together with Sergei Sobolev
in 1958.

Automotive industry

Main article: Automotive industry in Russia

Niva was one of the first off-road vehicles gaining international success and is still exported to Canada, South America and Europe.

KAMAZ trucks are exported to many areas of the world including Eastern Europe, Latin America, China, the Middle East, and North Africa and are persistent winners (ten times) of the famous Dakar Rally
.

Railroads

Ivan Polzunov is credited with creation of the first steam engine in Russia and the first two-cylinder engine in the world.

Naval

Main articles:
List of Russian naval engineers

Nuclear

Main articles: Nuclear power in Russia and Rosatom

The creation of the first

Arktika became the first surface ship to reach the North Pole
.

Science and politics

Russian scientists must provide detailed reports to the

Kremlin about their contacts to foreign scientists—even if these contacts are of private nature. This requirement includes even Russian scientists who work outside Russia. In addition, Russian scientists must inform the government about their plans to meet foreign scientists at least 5 days in advance.[41]

Russia ranked 51st in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from 45th in 2021.[42][43]

See also

References

  1. JSTOR 20454060
    .
  2. PMID 13608066
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  3. ^ Умов Н. А. Избранные сочинения. М. — Л., 1950.
  4. JINR Preprint D-1968, Dubna
    1965.
  5. Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics
    . 34 (1): 58.
  6. S2CID 203099794
    .
  7. JSTOR 2320506
    .
  8. ^ "Russian Mathematicians in the 20th Century". Princeton University. Retrieved 10 Apr 2010.
  9. ISBN 0-387-90125-6
    .
  10. ^ "The Poincaré Conjecture". Archived from the original on 2013-07-27.
  11. ISBN 9781850704188
    . Retrieved 24 Oct 2008.
  12. S2CID 252450664
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  13. ^ Manturov, Denis (2009). "Prospects for the Domestic Aircraft Industry". Military Parade (4): 8–9.
  14. ISSN 1496-6921. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help
    )
  15. ^ "Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky". NASA. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  16. ISBN 978-0-8050-8147-3
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  17. ISBN 978-0875804477
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  18. ^ Rincon, Paul (13 October 2014). "The First Spacewalk". BBC. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
  19. ^ "Who was the first woman in space?". Royal Museums Greenwich. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
  20. ^ "Luna 9". NASA. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
  21. ^ "What was the first animal sent into space?". Royal Museums Greenwich. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
  22. ^ "Zond 5". NASA. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
  23. ^ "Venera 7". NASA. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
  24. Radio Free Europe
    . Retrieved 1 June 2021.
  25. ^ "Lunokhod 01". NASA. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
  26. ^ "50 Years Ago: Launch of Salyut, the World's First Space Station". NASA. 19 April 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
  27. ^ "Russia launches 38 satellites for 18 countries". The Hindu. 23 March 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  28. ^ Ryan Bauer and Peter A. Wilson (17 August 2020). "Russia's Su-57 Heavy Fighter Bomber: Is It Really a Fifth-Generation Aircraft?". RAND Corporation. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  29. ^ "Russia floating nuclear power station sets sail across Arctic". BBC. 23 August 2019. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  30. ^ "Россия запустит космический аппарат на Луну 1 октября 2021 года" [Russia will launch a spacecraft to the moon on October 1, 2021]. RIA Novosti (in Russian). 17 March 2020. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  31. ^ "Russia to create Angara-A5P rocket for manned space launches by 2024". TASS. 6 November 2019. Retrieved 30 June 2021.
  32. ^ "Российские космонавты высадятся на Луну в 2031 году" [Russian cosmonauts will land on the moon in 2031]. RIA Novosti (in Russian). 9 February 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2021.
  33. ^ "Russia plans to launch own space station after quitting ISS". Reuters. 21 April 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  34. ^ Clark, Stuark (25 June 2021). "Russia and China team up to build a moon base". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  35. ^ George Parada. "Panzerkampfwagen T-34(r) Soviet T-34 in German Service". Achtung Panzer!. Archived from the original on 10 June 2008.
  36. ISBN 1-86126-270-1

    "The T-54/T-55 series is the hands down, all time most popular tank in history."
  37. ^ Poyer, Joe. The AK-47 and AK-74 Kalashnikov Rifles and Their Variations. North Cape Publications. 2004.
  38. ^ Killicoat, Phillip. "Weaponomics: The Economics of Small Arms" (PDF). Centre for the Study of African Economies, Oxford University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017.
  39. ^ "US drives world military spending to record high". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 27 Dec 2007.
  40. ^ "Russia Joins the Fifth-Gen Game". Moscow Defense Brief. 1 (19). 2010.
  41. ^ "Wissenschaftler im Visier der russischen Regierung". www.forschung-und-lehre.de (in German). 2019-10-28. Retrieved 2019-10-28.
  42. ^ WIPO. "Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition". www.wipo.int. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
  43. ^ "RUSSIAN FEDERATION" (PDF). World Intellectual Property Organization. United Nations. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
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