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Domitian | |||||
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Emperor of the Roman Empire | |||||
Reign | 14 September, 81 – 18 September, 96 | ||||
Predecessor | Titus | ||||
Successor | Nerva | ||||
Burial | Rome | ||||
Wife |
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Issue | One son, died young (between 77-81) | ||||
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Dynasty | Flavian | ||||
Father | Vespasian | ||||
Mother | Domitilla |
Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 – 18 September 96), known as Domitian, was a
Domitian's youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his brother Titus, who gained military renown during the
As emperor, Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage, expanded the border defenses of the Empire, and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome. Significant wars were fought in Britain, where Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland, and in Dacia, where Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against king Decebalus. Domitian's government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics. As emperor, he saw himself as the new Augustus, an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance. Religious, military and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality, and by nominating himself perpetual censor, he sought to control public and private morals. As a consequence, Domitian was popular with the people and the army but despised by members of the Roman Senate as a tyrant.
Domitian's reign came to an end on 18 September 96 when he was assassinated by court officials. The same day he was succeeded by his friend and advisor
Early life
Family
Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51, as the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus—commonly known as Vespasian—and Flavia Domitilla Major.[2] He had an older sister, Domitilla the Younger, and brother, also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus.[3]
Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century.
The
Youth and character
By 66, Domitian's mother and sister had long died,[12] while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military, commanding armies in Germania and Judaea. For Domitian, this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives. During the Jewish-Roman wars, he was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II, at the time serving as city prefect of Rome; or possibly even Marcus Cocceius Nerva, a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian.[13][14]
He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class, studying
He was tall of stature, with a modest expression and a high colour. His eyes were large, but his sight was somewhat dim. He was handsome and graceful too, especially when a young man, and indeed in his whole body with the exception of his feet, the toes of which were somewhat cramped. In later life he had the further disfigurement of baldness, a protruding belly, and spindling legs, though the latter had become thin from a long illness.
De Vita Caesarum, "Life of Domitian", 18
Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness, which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs.[20] According to Suetonius, he even wrote a book on the subject of hair care.[21] With regard to Domitian's personality, however, the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor-tyrant, a man both physically and intellectually lazy, and the intelligent, refined personality drawn elsewhere.[22] Brian Jones concludes in The Emperor Domitian that assessing the true nature of Domitian's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources.[22] Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence. He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father. He was prone to suspicion, displayed an odd, sometimes self-deprecating sense of humour,[23][24] and often communicated in cryptic ways. This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness, and as he grew older, he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude, which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing.[13] Indeed, by the age of eighteen nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease. Having spent the greater part of his early life in the twilight of Nero's reign, his formative years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s, culminating with the civil war of 69, which brought his family to power.[25]
Rise of the Flavian dynasty
Year of the Four Emperors
On 9 June 68, amidst growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide, and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian—successively vied for imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.[26] Before reaching Italy however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.[27]
Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital
In Rome meanwhile, Domitian was placed under
Aftermath of the war
Although the war had officially ended, a state of
Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian's military ambitions. The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces, leading to several local uprisings such as the
Marriage
Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment, Domitian's private affairs were more successful in 70. Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus, Julia Flavia,[40] but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina, going so far as to persuade her husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia, to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself.[40]
Despite its initial recklessness, the alliance was very prestigious for both families. Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, a respected general and honoured politician. Following the failed Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in 65, he had been forced to commit suicide. The new marriage not only re-established ties to senatorial opposition, but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time, which sought to diminish Vespasian's political success under Nero. Instead connections to Claudius and Britannicus were emphasised, and Nero's victims, or those otherwise disadvantaged by him, rehabilitated.[41]
In 73, Domitia and Domitian's only attested son was born. It is not known what the boy's name was, but he died in childhood sometime between 77 and 81.
By 84, Domitia had returned to the palace,
Ceremonial heir
Prior to becoming Emperor, Domitian's role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial. In June of 71,
Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian, both militarily and politically. As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian's sons, Titus shared
Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 23 June 79. Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his, but neither tribunician power nor imperium of any kind was conferred upon him during Titus' brief reign.
Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother, either by directly accusing him of murder,
Emperor
Administration
Roman imperial dynasties | ||
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Flavian dynasty | ||
Chronology | ||
69–79 AD |
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79–81 AD |
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81–96 AD |
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As Emperor, Domitian quickly dispensed with the Republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign.
Despite these grand designs Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration:
The reality of Domitian's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, more than any emperor since Tiberius, he spent significant periods of time away from the capital.[70] Although the Senate's power had been in decline since the fall of the Republic, under Domitian the seat of power was no longer even in Rome, but rather wherever the Emperor was.[63] Until the completion of the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill, the imperial court was situated at Alba or Circeo, and sometimes even farther afield. Domitian toured the European provinces extensively, and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania and Illyricum, conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire.[71]
Economy
Domitian's tendency towards micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy. The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated. However the evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian's reign.[72] Upon his accession he revalued the Roman currency to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85 forced a devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65,[73] but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign. Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years.[73] Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits.[73]
Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million
In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, or congiaria, throughout Domitian's reign.[76] The Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86 he founded the Capitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot racing, and competitions for oratory, music and acting.[77] Domitian himself supported the travel of competitors from all corners of the Empire to Rome and distributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games such as naval contests, nighttime battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights. Lastly, he added two new factions to the chariot races, Gold and Purple, to race against the existing White, Red, Green and Blue factions.[78]
Military activity
The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were generally defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.
Domitian's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government. His competence as a military strategist was criticised by his contemporaries however.[79] Although he claimed several triumphs, these were largely propaganda manoeuvres. Tacitus derided Domitian's victory against the Chatti as a "mock triumph", and criticised his decision to retreat from Britain following the conquests of Agricola.[83][84] Nevertheless, Domitian appears to have been very popular amongst the soldiers, spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns—more than any emperor since Augustus—and raising their pay by one-third.[85][80] While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions, the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned.[86]
Campaign against the Chatti
Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory. As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct a census, and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti.[87] For this purpose, a new legion was founded, Legio I Minervia, which constructed some 75 kilometres (46 mi) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy's hiding places.[81] Although little information survives of the battles fought, enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83, where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of Germanicus.[88] Domitian's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors, who described the campaign as "uncalled for",[89] and a "mock triumph".[83] The evidence lends some credence to these claims, as the Chatti would later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89.[80]
Conquest of Britain
One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus, whose biography of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola largely concerns the conquest of Britain between 77 and 84.[80] Agricola arrived c. 77 as governor of Roman Britain, immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia: modern day Scotland.
In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.
In 85, Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian, having served for more than six years as governor, longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era.
Dacian wars
The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of
Domitian immediately launched a
Domitian returned to Moesia in August of 86. He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia, and transferred three additional legions to the Danube. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under the command of Tettius Julianus, and finally defeated Decebalus in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished.[97] An attack on the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa was forestalled however, when new troubles arose on the German frontier in 89. In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts, Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus, negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces.[70] Contemporary authors severely criticised this treaty, which was considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged.[98] For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defences, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of Trajan that the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines.[99]
Religious policy
Domitian firmly believed in the traditional
Domitian also revived the practice of the
Construction projects such as these constituted only the most visible part of Domitian's religious policy, which also concerned itself with the fulfilment of religious law and public morals. In 85, he nominated himself perpetual
Foreign religions were tolerated in as much as they did not interfere with public order, or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion. The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty, to an extent not seen again until the reign of
Opposition
Revolt of Saturninus
On 1 January 89, the governor of
Lappius Maximus received the governorship of the province of Syria, a consulship in May of 95, and finally a priesthood which he still held in 102. Titus Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt, but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94, with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague.[114] Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva, suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero. Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96, he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat, surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians' most trusted advisors.[115] His consulship may therefore have been intended to emphasise the stability and status quo of the regime.[116] The revolt had been suppressed and the Empire returned to order.
Relationship with the Senate
Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic.[117] Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a de-facto monarch. Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others however, among them Domitian. From the outset of his reign, he stressed the reality of his autocracy.[118] He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate, and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state.[119] The dislike was mutual. After Domitian's assassination, the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house, where they immediately passed a motion condemning his memory to oblivion.[120] Under the rulers of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty, senatorial authors published histories which elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant.[118]
Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular power largely in the hands of the Flavian family, Domitian admitted a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as an ordinary consul.[56] Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the Senate cannot be ascertained. By offering the consulship to potential opponents, Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their supporters. When their conduct proved unsatisfactory, they were almost invariably brought to trial and exiled or executed, and their property was confiscated.[119]
Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89.
He used to say that the lot of Emperors was most unfortunate, since when they discovered a conspiracy, no one believed them unless they had been murdered.
De Vita Caesarum, "Life of Domitian", 21
Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor Claudius (41–55), noting that Claudius executed around 35 senators and 300 equestrians, and yet was still deified by the Senate and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history.[125] Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy, despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments. His autocratic style of government accentuated the Senate's loss of power, while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him their contempt.[125]
Death and succession
Assassination
Domitian was murdered on 18 September 96, in a palace conspiracy organized by court officials.
Dio further suggests that the assassination was improvised, while Suetonius implies a well organised conspiracy.[131] For some days before the attack took place, Stephanus feigned an injury so as to be able to conceal a dagger beneath his bandages. On the day of the assassination the doors to the servants' quarters were locked while Domitian's personal weapon of last resort, a sword he concealed beneath his pillow, had been removed in advance.[132] In accordance with an astrological prediction the emperor believed that he would die around noon, and was therefore restless during this time of the day. On his last day, Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant several times what time it was. The boy, included in the plot, lied, saying that it was much later than noon.[132] More at ease, the emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees, where he was suddenly approached by Stephanus:
Then pretending to betray a conspiracy and for that reason being given an audience, [Stephanus] stabbed the emperor in the groin as he was reading a paper which the assassin handed him, and stood in a state of amazement. As the wounded prince attempted to resist, he was slain with seven wounds by Clodianus, a subaltern, Maximus, a freedman of Parthenius, Satur, decurion of the chamberlains, and a gladiator from the imperial school.
De Vita Caesarum, "Life of Domitian", 17
Domitian and Stephanus wrestled on the ground for some time, until the emperor was finally overpowered and fatally stabbed by the conspirators. Around noon Domitian, just one month short of his 45th birthday, was dead. His body was carried away on a common
Succession and aftermath
The Fasti Ostienses, the Ostian Calendar, records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor.[135] Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination.[136][137] According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot.[138][139] He does not appear in Suetonius' version of the events, but this may be understandable, since his works were published under Nerva's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian. To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive.[138] On the other hand, Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire, and as a known Flavian loyalist, his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators. The precise facts have been obscured by history,[140] but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke.[135] The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war, but neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy.[141]
The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian, and immediately following Nerva's accession as Emperor, passed damnatio memoriae on his memory: his coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records.[142] Domitian is the only known emperor to have officially received a damnatio memoriae, though others may have received de facto ones. In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva, which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material.[143] Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome, and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy, indicating at least some popular support for Domitian.[142]
According to Suetonius, the people of Rome met the news of Domitian's death with indifference, but the army was much grieved, calling for his deification immediately after the assassination, and in several provinces rioting.[144] As a compensation measure, the Praetorian guard demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused. Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus, and replaced him with a former commander, Casperius Aelianus.[145] Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva's reign, and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October of 97, when members of the Praetorian guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage.[146] He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians.[146] Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out and killed. Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged beyond repair. Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor, and with this decision all but abdicated.[147]
Legacy
Ancient sources
The classic view of Domitian is usually negative, since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class, with which Domitian had a notoriously difficult relation.[120] Furthermore, contemporary historians such as Pliny the Younger, Tacitus and Suetonius all authored the information on his reign after it had ended, and his memory had been condemned to oblivion. The work of Domitian's court poets Martial and Statius constitutes virtually the only literary evidence concurrent with his reign. Perhaps equally unsurprising as the attitude of post-Domitianic historians, the poems of Martial and Statius are highly adulatory, praising Domitian's achievements as equalling those of the gods.[148]
The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius, who was born during the reign of Vespasian, and published his works under Emperor
De Vita Caesarum is also the source of several outrageous stories regarding Domitian's marriage life. According to Suetonius, Domitia Longina was exiled in 83 because of an affair with a famous actor named Paris. When Domitian found out, he allegedly murdered Paris in the street and promptly divorced his wife, with Suetonius further adding that once Domitia was exiled, Domitian took Julia as his mistress, who later died during a failed abortion.[48][150] Modern historians consider this highly implausible however, noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia's alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post-Domitianic authors, and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals, while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court.[151] Nevertheless, the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries.
Although Tacitus is usually considered to be the most reliable author of this era, his views on Domitian are complicated by the fact that his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, may have been a personal enemy of the Emperor.[152] In his biographical work Agricola, Tacitus maintains that Agricola was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted Domitian's own inadequacy as a military commander. Several modern authors such as Dorey have argued the opposite: that Agricola was in fact a close friend of Domitian, and that Tacitus merely sought to distance his family from the fallen dynasty once Nerva was in power.[153][152] Tacitus' major historical works, including The Histories and Agricola's biography, were all written and published under Domitian's successors Nerva (96–98) and Trajan (98–117). Unfortunately, the part of Tacitus' Histories dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely lost. His views on Domitian survive through brief comments in its first five books, and the short but highly negative characterisation in Agricola in which he severely criticises Domitian's military endeavours. Nevertheless, Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career.[154]
Other influential 2nd century authors include
Modern revisionism
Hostile views of Domitian were propagated until well into the early 20th century, before
The work of the spade and the use of common sense have done much to mitigate the influence of Tacitus and Pliny and redeem the memory of Domitian from infamy or oblivion. But much remains to be done.
- Ronald Syme, Imperial finances under Domitian, Nerva and Trajan
Over the course of the 20th century, Domitian's military, administrative and economic policies were re-evaluated. New book length studies were not published until the 1990s however, nearly a hundred years after
Domitian's foreign policy was realistic, rejecting expansionist warfare and negotiating peace at a time when Roman military tradition dictated aggressive conquest. His economic programme, which was rigorously efficient, maintained the Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve. Persecution of religious minorities finally, such as Jews and Christians, was non-existent.
Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a "gloomy coda to the...1st century"[155] the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian.[157]
Domitian in later arts
Literature
- Domitia and Domitian (2000), a historical novel by David Corson based on the works of Brian Jones and Pat Southern, revolving around the titular characters.
- The Marcus Didius Falco series of crime novels (1989— ) by Lindsey Davis, set during the reign of Vespasian.
- The Light Bearer (1994), a historical novel by Donna Gillespie.
- The Roman Actor (1626), a play by Philip Massinger which features Domitian as the main character.
Painting
- Pontifex Maximus, walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina, who he had only recently married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair which historians have speculated upon.[42]
Film and television
- La Rivolta dei Pretoriani (1964), Italian film directed by Alfonso Brescia, concerning a fictional plot to overthrow Domitian (Piero Lulli), who has grown into a cruel and murderous despot, which is in the end joined by the Pretorian guard.
- Dacii (1967), Romanian film directed by Sergiu Nicolaescu about the Dacian campaign of Domitian, with György Kovácsas Domitian.
- Marcus Didius Falco from the crime novels by Lindsey Davis. The story is set during the reign of Vespasian, with Domitian, played by Jamie Glover, as a peripheral character.
- San Giovanni - L'apocalisse (2003), English television film concerning the purported persecution of Christians under Domitian, who appears as a major character, played by Bruce Payne.
Notes
- Roman Emperor (Principate)although several came within a year or two of 15 year reigns
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 1
- ^ Townend (1961), p. 62
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 3
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 2
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 8
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 1
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 4
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 7
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 9–11
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 11
- ^ Waters (1964), pp. 52–53
- ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 13
- ^ Murison (2003), p. 149
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 9
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 12.3
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 20
- ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 16
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 19
- ^ Morgan (1997), p. 214
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 18
- ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 198
- ^ Morgan (1997), p. 209
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 21
- ^ a b Waters (1964), p. 54
- ^ Sullivan (1953), p. 69
- ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 44
- ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 45
- ^ a b Sullivan (1953), p. 68
- ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 126
- ^ Tacitus, Histories III.34
- ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 166
- ^ Wellesley (2000), p. 189
- ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 14
- ^ Wellesley (1956), p. 213
- ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 15
- ^ Tacitus, Histories IV.40
- ^ Tacitus, Histories IV.68
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 17
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 33
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 34
- ^ a b c Jones (1993), p. 36
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 161–162
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 39
- ^ Varner (1995), p. 200
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 34–35
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 37
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 35
- ^ a b Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.9.3
- ^ a b Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VII.5.5
- ^ a b Suetonius, Life of Domitian 2
- ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 93
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 18
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 19
- )
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 163 Cite error: The named reference "jones-163" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 20
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.22
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 80
- ^ Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana 6.32
- ^ a b Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.26
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 21
- ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 22
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 99
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 72
- ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 107
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 109
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 164
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 178–179
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 150
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 26–28
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 73
- ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 75
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 79
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 84–88
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 74
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 103
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 105
- ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 127
- ^ a b c d e Jones (1992), p. 131
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 130
- ^ (in Russian)Е.В. Федорова. "Императорский Рим в лицах". Ancientcoins.narod.ru. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
- ^ a b c Tacitus, Agricola 39
- ^ Tacitus, Histories I.2
- ^ Syme (1930), p. 64
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 144
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 128
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 129
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 6
- ^ a b c Tacitus, Agricola 24 Cite error: The named reference "tacitus-agricola-24" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c d Jones (1992), p. 132
- doi:10.2307/525804.
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 133
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 138
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 139
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 141
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 142
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 195
- doi:10.2307/283229.
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 88
- ^ a b c Jones (1992), p. 100
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 87
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 106
- ^ Grainger (2003), p. 54
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 101
- Eusebius of Caessarea(425). Church History.
- doi:10.1086/363978.
- ISBN 0385247672.
- ^ a b Jones (1992), pp. 114–119
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 119
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 145
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 146
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 149
- ^ Jones (1992), pp. 148–149
- ^ Grainger (2003), p. 30
- ^ Murison (2003), p. 150
- doi:10.2307/1086720.
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 161
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 169
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 160
- ^ Tacitus, Agricola 45
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 10
- ^ For a full list of senatorial victims, see Jones (1992), pp. 182–188
- ^ M. Arrecinus Clemens may have been exiled instead of executed, see Jones (1992), p. 187
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 192
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 193
- ^ Grainger (2003), p. 16
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 14;16
- ^ Grainger (2003), p. 19
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 37
- ^ Grainger (2003), p. 5
- ^ a b Grainger (2003), pp. 1–3
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 38
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 15
- ^ a b Murison (2003), p. 153
- ^ Murison (2003), p. 151
- ^ Grainger (2003), pp. 4–27
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 194
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVII.15
- ^ Syme, Ronald (1983). "Domitian: The Last Years". Chiron. 13: 121–146.
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 196
- ^ a b Grainger (2003), p. 49
- doi:10.2307/298163. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ Grainger (2003), pp. 32–33
- ^ Grainger (2003), p. 40
- ^ a b Grainger (2003), pp. 94–95
- doi:10.2307/299556. Retrieved 2007-09-23.
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 32
- ^ Waters (1964), p. 51
- ^ Suetonius, Life of Domitian 22
- ^ Levick (2002), p. 211
- ^ a b Jones (1992), p. 58
- doi:10.2307/297385.
- ^ Tacitus, Histories I.1
- ^ a b c Gowing, Alain M. (1992). "Review: The Emperor Domitian". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. University of Washington.
- ^ Jones (1992), p. 180
- ^ Syme (1930), p. 67
- doi:10.2307/3177255. Retrieved 2007-07-31.)
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References
- Grainger, John D. (2003). Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96–99. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28917-3.
- Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10195-6.
- .
- Morgan, Llewelyn (1997). "Achilleae Comae: Hair and Heroism According to Domitian" (subscription required). The Classical Quarterly, New Series. 47 (1). Great Britain: 209–214. .
- Murison, Charles Leslie (2003). "M. Cocceius Nerva and the Flavians" (subscription required). Transactions of the American Philological Association. 133 (1). University of Western Ontario: 147–157. .
- Sullivan, Philip B. (1953). "A Note on the Flavian Accession" (subscription required). The Classical Journal. 49 (2). The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc.: 67–70.
- doi:10.2307/297385.
- Townend, Gavin (1961). "Some Flavian Connections" (subscription required). The Journal of Roman Studies. 51 (1 & 2). Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 54–62. doi:10.2307/298836.
- Waters, K. H. (1964). "The Character of Domitian" (subscription required). Phoenix. 18 (1). Classical Association of Canada: 49–77. doi:10.2307/1086912.
- Wellesley, Kenneth (1956). "Three Historical Puzzles in Histories 3" (subscription required). The Classical Quarterly. 6 (3/4). Cambridge University Press: 207–214. .
- Wellesley, Kenneth (2000) [1975]. The Year of the Four Emperors. Roman Imperial Biographies. London: Routledge. p. 272. )
Further reading
- Gsell, Stéphane (1894). Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Domitien. Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome (in French). Paris: E. Thorin.
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- Jones, Brian W. (1984). The Emperor Titus. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-24443-6.
- Levick, Barbara (1999). Vespasian (Roman Imperial Biographies). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16618-7.
- Southern, Pat (1997). Domitian: Tragic Tyrant. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16525-3.
External links
Primary sources
- Cassius Dio, Roman History Book 67, English translation
- Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian, Latin text with English translation
- Tacitus, Agricola, English translation
- Tacitus, Histories, English translation
Secondary material
- Donahue, John (1997-10-10). "Titus Flavius Domitianus (A.D. 81-96)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families. Retrieved 2007-02-10.
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