Hebron

Hebron
Hebron
Hebrew
	Downtown Hebron
	City (from 1997)
• Head of Municipality	Tayseer Abu Sneineh
Area
• Total	74,102 dunams (74.102 km2 or 28.611 sq mi)
Population (2017)
• Total	201,063
• Density	2,700/km2 (7,000/sq mi)
Website	www.hebron-city.ps
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Hebron/Al-Khalil Old Town
Criteria	Cultural: ii, iv, vi
Reference	1565
Inscription	2017 (41st Session)
Endangered	2017–
Area	20.6 ha
Buffer zone	152.2 ha

Hebron (

above sea level. The second-largest city in the West Bank (after East Jerusalem),^[9]^[10] and the third-largest in the Palestinian territories (after East Jerusalem and Gaza), it had a population of 201,063 Palestinians in 2017,^[3] and seven hundred Jewish settlers concentrated on the outskirts of its Old City.^[11] It includes the Cave of the Patriarchs, which Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions all designate as the burial site of three key patriarchal/matriarchal couples.^[11] The city is often considered one of the four holy cities in Judaism^[12]^[13]^[14] as well as in Islam.^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]

Hebron is considered one of the oldest cities in the Levant. According to the Bible, Abraham settled in Hebron and bought the Cave of the Patriarchs as a burial place for his wife Sarah. Biblical tradition holds that the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, along with their wives Sarah, Rebecca, and Leah, were buried in the cave. Hebron is also recognized in the Bible as the place where David was anointed king of Israel.^[19] Following the Babylonian captivity, the Edomites settled in Hebron. During the first century BCE, Herod the Great built the wall which still surrounds the Cave of the Patriarchs, which later became a church, and then a mosque.^[19] With the exception of a brief Crusader control, successive Muslim dynasties ruled Hebron from the 6th century CE until the Ottoman Empire's dissolution following World War I, when the city became part of British Mandatory Palestine.^[19] A massacre in 1929 and the Arab uprising of 1936–39 led to the emigration of the Jewish community from Hebron.^[19] The 1948 Arab–Israeli War saw the entire West Bank, including Hebron, occupied and annexed by Jordan, and since the 1967 Six-Day War, the city has been under Israeli military occupation. Following Israeli occupation, Jewish presence was reestablished at the city.^[19] Since the 1997 Hebron Protocol, most of Hebron has been governed by the Palestinian National Authority.

The city is often described as a "microcosm" of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the Israeli occupation of the West Bank.^[20] The Hebron Protocol of 1997 divided the city into two sectors: H1, controlled by the Palestinian National Authority, and H2, roughly 20% of the city, including 35,000 Palestinians, under Israeli military administration.^[21] All security arrangements and travel permits for local residents are coordinated between the Palestinian National Authority and Israel via the Israeli military administration of the West Bank (COGAT). The Jewish settlers have their own governing municipal body, the Committee of the Jewish Community of Hebron.

Today, Hebron is the capital of the

pottery workshops and glassblowing factories. The old city of Hebron features narrow, winding streets, flat-roofed stone houses, and old bazaars. The city is home to Hebron University and the Palestine Polytechnic University.^[24]^[25]

Etymology

The name "Hebron" appears to trace back to two

Amorite, with a basic sense of 'unite' and connoting a range of meanings from "colleague" to "friend". In the proper name Hebron, the original sense may have been alliance.^[27]

The city's name in

toponym Ḥebron, understood as ḥaḇer (friend).^[31] Earlier Muslim sources refer to the city as Ḥabra or Ḥabrūn.^[28]

History

Bronze Age

Archaeological excavations reveal traces of strong fortifications dated to the Early

Kenite element, since the nomadic Kenites are said to have long occupied the city,^[37] and Heber is the name for a Kenite clan.^[38] In the narrative of the later Hebrew conquest, Hebron was one of two centres under Canaanite control. They were ruled by the three sons of Anak (b^enê/y^elîdê hāʿănaq).^[39] or may reflect some Kenite and Kenizzite migration from the Negev to Hebron, since terms related to the Kenizzites appear to be close to Hurrian. This suggests that behind the Anakim legend lies some early Hurrian population.^[40] In Biblical lore they are represented as descendants of the Nephilim.^[41] The Book of Genesis mentions that it was formerly called Kirjath-arba, or "city of four", possibly referring to the four pairs or couples who were buried there, or four tribes, or four quarters,^[42] four hills,^[43] or a confederated settlement of four families.^[44]

The story of Abraham's purchase of the

Amorite clans who became his ba'alei brit or masters of the covenant.^[47]

Iron Age

The Hebron of the Israelites was centered on what is now known as Tel Rumeida, while its ritual centre was located at Elonei Mamre.^[48]

Hebrew Bible narrative

It is said to have been wrested from the Canaanites by either

King David called by God to relocate to Hebron and reign from there for some seven years (2 Samuel 2:1–3).^[52] It is there that the elders of Israel come to him to make a covenant before Elohim and anoint him king of Israel.^[53] It was in Hebron again that Absalom has himself declared king and then raises a revolt against his father David (2 Samuel 15:7–10). It became one of the principal centers of the Tribe of Judah and was classified as one of the six traditional Cities of Refuge.^[54]

Archaeology

As is shown by the discovery at

Shepelah and the coastal plain to the west.^[56] Lying along trading routes, it remained administratively and politically dependent on Jerusalem for this period.^[57]

Classic antiquity

After the destruction of the

Idumean.^[63]

Simon Bar Giora, a leader of the Zealots, without bloodshed. The "little town" was later laid to waste by Vespasian's officer Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis.^[65] Josephus wrote that he "slew all he found there, young and old, and burnt down the town." After the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, innumerable Jewish captives were sold into slavery at Hebron's Terebinth slave-market.^[66]^[67]

The city was part of the

Sassanid army.^[69]

Muslim conquest and Rashidun caliphate

Hebron was one of the last cities of Palestine to fall to the Islamic invasion in the 7th century, possibly the reason why Hebron is not mentioned in any traditions of the Arab conquest.[70] When the Rashidun Caliphate established its rule over Hebron in 638, the Muslims converted the Byzantine church at the site of Abraham's tomb into a mosque.^[14] It became an important station on the caravan trading route from Egypt, and also as a way-station for pilgrims making the yearly hajj from Damascus.^[71] After the fall of the city, Jerusalem's conqueror, Caliph Omar ibn al-Khattab permitted Jewish people to return and to construct a small synagogue within the Herodian precinct.^[72]

Umayyad period

Catholic bishop

Umayyad period, described the city as unfortified and poor. In his writings he also mentioned camel caravans transporting firewood from Hebron to Jerusalem, which implies there was a presence of Arab nomads in the region at that time.^[73] Trade greatly expanded, in particular with Bedouins in the Negev (al-Naqab) and the population to the east of the Dead Sea (Baḥr Lūṭ). According to Anton Kisa, Jews from Hebron (and Tyre) founded the Venetian glass industry in the 9th century.^[74]

Fatimid and Seljuk periods

Hebron was almost absent from Muslim literature before the 10th century.

al-Muqaddasi, described the town as follows:

Habra (Hebron) is the village of Abraham al-Khalil (the Friend of God)...Within it is a strong fortress...being of enormous squared stones. In the middle of this stands a dome of stone, built in Islamic times, over the sepulchre of Abraham. The tomb of Isaac lies forward, in the main building of the mosque, the tomb of Jacob to the rear; facing each prophet lies his wife. The enclosure has been converted into a mosque, and built around it are rest houses for the pilgrims, so that they adjoin the main edifice on all sides. A small water conduit has been conducted to them. All the countryside around this town for about half a stage has villages in every direction, with vineyards and grounds producing grapes and apples called Jabal Nahra...being fruit of unsurpassed excellence...Much of this fruit is dried, and sent to Egypt

. In Hebron is a public guest house continuously open, with a cook, a baker and servants in regular attendance. These offer a dish of lentils and olive oil to every poor person who arrives, and it is set before the rich, too, should they wish to partake. Most men express the opinion this is a continuation of the guest house of Abraham, however, it is, in fact from the

Amir of Khurasan...has assigned to this charity one thousand dirhams yearly, ...al-Shar al-Adil bestowed on it a substantial bequest. At present time I do not know in all the realm of al-Islam any house of hospitality and charity more excellent than this one.^[76]

The custom, known as the 'Table of Abraham' (simāt al-khalil), was similar to the one established by the

Fatimids. In his Safarna, Persian traveller Nasir-i-Khusraw

, who visited Hebron in 1047, offers this description:

... this Sanctuary has belonging to it very many villages that provide revenues for pious purposes. At one of these villages is a spring, where water flows out from under a stone, but in no great abundance; and it is conducted by a channel, cut in the ground, to a place outside the town (of Hebron), where they have constructed a covered tank for collecting the water...The Sanctuary (
Maksurah (or enclosed space for Friday prayers) stand in the width of the building (at the south end). In the Maksurah are many fine Mihrabs.^[77] He further recorded that "They grow at Hebron for the most part barley, wheat being rare, but olives are in abundance. The [visitors] are given bread and olives. There are very many mills here, worked by oxen and mules, that all day long grind the flour, and further, there are working girls who, during the whole day are baking bread. The loaves are [about three pounds] and to every persons who arrives they give daily a loaf of bread, and a dish of lentils cooked in olive-oil, also some raisins....there are some days when as many as five hundred pilgrims arrive, to each of whom this hospitality is offered."^[78]^[79]

The tradition survives to this day in the form of the Takiat Ibrahim soup kitchen, which has been active in providing food for thousands over Ramadan, which coincided with food shortages during the 2024 Israel–Hamas war.^[80]

Seljuk period, the community was headed by Saadia b. Abraham b. Nathan, known as the "haver of the graves of the patriarchs."^[81]

Crusader/Ayyubid period

The

relics purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, a discovery which excited eager curiosity among all three communities in Palestine, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian.^[88]^[89] Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166 Maimonides visited Hebron and wrote,

On Sunday, 9 Marheshvan (17 October), I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave. On that day, I stood in the cave and prayed, praise be to God, (in gratitude) for everything.^[90]

A royal domain, Hebron was handed over to

Kerak and Sebastia (the tomb of John the Baptist).^[92] In 1170, Benjamin of Tudela visited the city, which he called by its Frankish name, St. Abram de Bron. He reported:

Here there is the great church called St. Abram, and this was a Jewish place of worship at the time of the Mohammedan rule, but the Gentiles have erected there six tombs, respectively called those of Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob and Leah. The custodians tell the pilgrims that these are the tombs of the Patriarchs, for which information the pilgrims give them money. If a Jew comes, however, and gives a special reward, the custodian of the cave opens unto him a gate of iron, which was constructed by our forefathers, and then he is able to descend below by means of steps, holding a lighted candle in his hand. He then reaches a cave, in which nothing is to be found, and a cave beyond, which is likewise empty, but when he reaches the third cave behold there are six sepulchres, those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, respectively facing those of Sarah, Rebekah and Leah.^[93]

The Kurdish Muslim

Richard of Cornwall, brought from England to settle the dangerous feuding between Templars and Hospitallers, whose rivalry imperiled the treaty guaranteeing regional stability stipulated with the Egyptian Sultan As-Salih Ayyub, managed to impose peace on the area. But soon after his departure, feuding broke out and in 1241 the Templars mounted a damaging raid on what was, by now, Muslim Hebron, in violation of agreements.^[96]

In 1244, the

Khwarazmians destroyed the town, but left the sanctuary untouched.^[69]

Mamluk period

In 1260, after

Na'ib of Gaza and much of coastal and interior Palestine ordered the construction of Jawli Mosque to enlarge the prayer space for worshipers at the Ibrahimi Mosque.^[100]

Hebron was visited by some important rabbis over the next two centuries, among them

Obadiah ben Abraham Bartenura wrote around 1490:

I was in the Cave of Machpelah, over which the mosque has been built; and the Arabs hold the place in high honour. All the Kings of the Arabs come here to repeat their prayers, but neither a Jew nor an Arab may enter the Cave itself, where the real graves of the Patriarchs are; the Arabs remain above, and let down burning torches into it through a window, for they keep a light always burning there. . Bread and lentil, or some other kind of pulse (seeds of peas or beans), is distributed (by the Muslims) to the poor every day without distinction of faith, and this is done in honour of Abraham.^[108]

Early Ottoman period

The expansion of the

Sephardi Jews into the Ottoman provinces, and a slow influx of Jews to the Holy Land took place, with some notable Sephardi kabbalists settling in Hebron.^[109] Over the following two centuries, there was a significant migration of Bedouin tribal groups from the Arabian Peninsula into Palestine. Many settled in three separate villages in the Wādī al-Khalīl, and their descendants later formed the majority of Hebron.^[110]

The Jewish community fluctuated between 8–10 families throughout the 16th century, and suffered from severe financial straits in the first half of the century.

Abraham Avinu Synagogue.^[112] In 1659, Abraham Pereyra of Amsterdam founded the Hesed Le'Abraham yeshiva in Hebron, which attracted many students.^[113] In the early 18th century, the Jewish community suffered from heavy debts, almost quadrupling from 1717 to 1729,^[114] and were "almost crushed" from the extortion practiced by the Turkish pashas. In 1773 or 1775, a substantial amount of money was extorted from the Jewish community, who paid up to avert a threatened catastrophe, after a false allegation was made accusing them of having murdered the son of a local sheikh and throwing his body into a cesspit.^{[citation needed]}> Emissaries from the community were frequently sent overseas to solicit funds.^[115]^[116] During the Ottoman period, the dilapidated state of the patriarchs' tombs was restored to a semblance of sumptuous dignity.^[117] Ali Bey who, under Muslim disguise, was one of the few Westerners to gain access, reported in 1807 that,

all the sepulchres of the patriarchs are covered with rich carpets of green silk, magnificently embroidered with gold; those of the wives are red, embroidered in like manner. The sultans of Constantinople furnish these carpets, which are renewed from time to time. Ali Bey counted nine, one over the other, upon the sepulchre of Abraham.^[118]

Hebron also became known throughout the Arab world for its glass production, abetted by Bedouin trade networks which brought up minerals from the Dead Sea, and the industry is mentioned in the books of 19th century Western travellers to Palestine. For example, Ulrich Jasper Seetzen noted during his travels in Palestine in 1808–09 that 150 persons were employed in the glass industry in Hebron,^[119] based on 26 kilns.^[120] In 1833, a report on the town appearing in a weekly paper printed by the London-based Religious Tract Society wrote that Hebron's population had 400 Arab families, had numerous well-provisioned shops and that there was a manufactory of glass lamps, which were exported to Egypt.^[121] Early 19th-century travellers also noticed Hebron's flourishing agriculture. Apart from glassware, it was a major exporter of dibse, grape sugar,^[122] from the famous Dabookeh grapestock characteristic of Hebron.^[123]

An

at least five were killed.^[128]

In 1838, the total population was estimated at 10,000.[126] When the government of Ibrahim Pasha fell in 1841, the local clan leader Abd ar-Rahman Amr once again resumed the reins of power as the Sheik of Hebron. Due to his extortionate demands for cash from the local population, most of the Jewish population fled to Jerusalem.^[129] In 1846, the Ottoman Governor-in-chief of Jerusalem (serasker), Kıbrıslı Mehmed Emin Pasha, waged a campaign to subdue rebellious sheiks in the Hebron area, and while doing so, allowed his troops to sack the town. Though it was widely rumoured that he secretly protected Abd ar-Rahman,^[130] the latter was deported together with other local leaders (such as Muslih al-'Azza of Bayt Jibrin), but he managed to return to the area in 1848.^[131]

According to Hillel Cohen, the attacks on Jews in this particular period are an exception that proves the rule, that one of the easiest place for Jews to live in the world were in the various countries of the Ottoman Empire. In the mid-eighteenth century, rabbi Abraham Gershon of Kitov wrote from Hebron that:"the gentiles here very much love the Jews. When there is a brit milah (circumcision ceremony) or any other celebration, their most important men come at night and rejoice with the Jews and clap hands and dance with the Jews, just like the Jews'."^[132]

Late Ottoman period

By 1850, the Jewish population consisted of 45–60 Sephardic families, some 40 born in the town, and a 30-year-old Ashkenazic community of 50 families, mainly Polish and Russian,^[133]^[134] the Lubavitch Hasidic movement having established a community in 1823.^[135]

The ascendency of Ibrahim Pasha led to a decline in the local glass industry. His plan to build a Mediterranean fleet led to severe logging in Hebron's forests, making firewood for the kilns scarce. At the same time, Egypt began importing cheap European glass. The rerouting of the hajj from Damascus through Transjordan reduced traffic to Hebron, and the

Suez Canal (1869) precipitated a drop in caravan trade. The consequence was a steady deterioration of the local economy.^[136]

At the time, the town was divided into four quarters: the Ancient Quarter (Harat al-Kadim) near the Cave of Machpelah; to its south, the Quarter of the Silk Merchant (Harat al-Kazaz), inhabited by Jews; the Mamluk-era Sheikh's Quarter (Harat ash Sheikh) to the north-west; and further north, the Dense Quarter (Harat al-Harbah).[137]^[138]

In 1855, the newly appointed Ottoman

nazir of the Hebron region. Relative quiet reigned in the town for the next 4 years.^[139]^[140]

In 1866, Hungarian Jews of the

C.R. Conder visited Hebron under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund, the Jewish community numbered 600 in an overall population of 17,000.^[144] The Jews lived in the Quarter of the Corner Gate.^[144]

In the late 19th century the production of

World Fair of 1873 in Vienna

.

A report from the French consul in 1886 suggests that glass-making remained an important source of income for Hebron, with four factories earning 60,000 francs yearly.[146] While the economy of other cities in Palestine was based on solely on trade, the economy of Hebron was more diverse, including agriculture and livestock herding, alone with glassware manufacturing and processing of hides. This was because the most fertile lands were situated within the city limits.^[147] Even so, Hebron had an image of being unproductive and an "asylum for the poor and the spiritual."^[148] While the wealthy merchants of Nablus built fine mansions, housing in Hebron consisted of semi-peasant dwellings.^[147]

Hebron was described as 'deeply Bedouin and Islamic',^[149] and 'bleakly conservative' in its religious outlook,^[150] with a strong tradition of hostility to Jews.^[151]^[152] It had a reputation for religious zeal in jealously protecting its sites from Jews and Christians, although the Jewish and Christian communities seem to have been an integral part of the local economy.^[110] As income from commerce declined and tax revenues diminished significantly, the Ottoman government left Hebron to manage its own affairs for the most part, making it "one of the most autonomous regions in late Ottoman Palestine."^[153]

The Jewish community was under French protection until 1914. The Jewish presence itself was divided between the traditional Sephardi community, whose members spoke Arabic and adopted Arab dress, and the more recent influx of Ashkenazi Jews. They prayed in different synagogues, sent their children to different schools, lived in different quarters and did not intermarry. The community was largely Orthodox and anti-Zionist.^[154]^[155]

British Mandate

The British

Haj Amin, supported the Muslim National Associations and had good contacts with the Zionists.^[159] Later, al-Khaṭīb became one of the few loyal followers of Haj Amin in Hebron.^[160] During the late Ottoman period, a new ruling elite had emerged in Palestine. They later formed the core of the growing Arab nationalist movement in the early 20th century. During the Mandate period, delegates from Hebron constituted only 1 per cent of the political leadership.^[161] The Palestinian Arab decision to boycott the 1923 elections for a Legislative Council was made at the fifth Palestinian Congress, after it was reported by Murshid Shahin (an Arab pro-Zionist activist) that there was intense resistance in Hebron to the elections.^[162] Almost no house in Hebron remained undamaged when an earthquake struck Palestine on July 11, 1927.^[163]

The Cave of the Patriarchs continued to remain officially closed to non-Muslims, and reports that entry to the site had been relaxed in 1928 were denied by the Supreme Muslim Council.^[164]

At this time following attempts by the

Palestinian Arab revolt (April 23, 1936) the British Government decided to move the Jewish community out of Hebron as a precautionary measure to secure its safety. The sole exception was the 8th generation Hebronite Ya'akov ben Shalom Ezra, who processed dairy products in the city, blended in well with its social landscape and resided there under the protection of friends. In November 1947, in anticipation of the UN partition vote, the Ezra family closed its shop and left the city.^[173] Yossi Ezra has since tried to regain his family's property through the Israeli courts.^[174]

Jordanian period

At the beginning of the

Jordanian military control. The armistice agreement between Israel with Jordan intended to allow Israeli Jewish pilgrims to visit Hebron, but, as Jews of all nationalities were forbidden by Jordan into the country, this did not occur.^[176]^[177]

In December 1948, the Jericho Conference was convened to decide the future of the West Bank which was held by Jordan. Hebron notables, headed by mayor Muhamad 'Ali al-Ja'bari, voted in favour of becoming part of Jordan and to recognise Abdullah I of Jordan as their king. The subsequent unilateral annexation benefited the Arabs of Hebron, who during the 1950s, played a significant role in the economic development of Jordan.^[178]^[179]

Although a significant number of people relocated to Jerusalem from Hebron during the Jordanian period,^[180] Hebron itself saw a considerable increase in population with 35,000 settling in the town.^[181] During this period, signs of the previous Jewish presence in Hebron were removed.^[182]

Israeli occupation

Constructed in 1893, this former Jewish clinic in central Hebron now forms part of an Israeli neighbourhood.

After the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel occupied Hebron along with the rest of the West Bank, establishing a military government to rule the area. In an attempt to reach a land for peace deal, Yigal Allon proposed that Israel annex 45% of the West Bank and return the remainder to Jordan.^[183] According to the Allon Plan, the city of Hebron would lie in Jordanian territory, and in order to determine Israel's own border, Allon suggested building a Jewish settlement adjacent to Hebron.^[184] David Ben-Gurion also considered that Hebron was the one sector of the conquered territories that should remain under Jewish control and be open to Jewish settlement.^[185] Apart from its symbolic message to the international community that Israel's rights in Hebron were, according to Jews, inalienable,^[186] settling Hebron also had theological significance in some quarters.^[187] For some, the capture of Hebron by Israel had unleashed a messianic fervor.^[188]

Survivors and descendants of the prior community are mixed. Some support the project of Jewish redevelopment, others commend living in peace with Hebronite Arabs, while a third group recommend a full pullout.^[189] Descendants supporting the latter views have met with Palestinian leaders in Hebron.^[190] In 1997 one group of descendants dissociated themselves from the settlers by calling them an obstacle to peace.^[190] On May 15, 2006, a member of a group who is a direct descendant of the 1929 refugees^[191] urged the government to continue its support of Jewish settlement, and allow the return of eight families evacuated the previous January from homes they set up in emptied shops near the Avraham Avinu neighborhood.^[189] Beit HaShalom, established in 2007 under disputed circumstances, was under court orders permitting its forced evacuation.^[192]^[193]^[194]^[195] All the Jewish settlers were expelled on December 3, 2008.^[196]

Immediately after the 1967 war, mayor al-Ja'bari had unsuccessfully promoted the creation of an autonomous Palestinian entity in the West Bank, and by 1972, he was advocating for a confederal arrangement with Jordan instead. al-Ja'bari nevertheless consistently fostered a conciliatory policy towards Israel.^[197] He was ousted by Fahad Qawasimi in the 1976 mayoral election, which marked a shift in support towards pro-PLO nationalist leaders.^[198]

Supporters of Jewish settlement within Hebron see their program as the reclamation of an important heritage dating back to Biblical times, which was dispersed or, it is argued, stolen by Arabs after the massacre of 1929.^[199]^[200] The purpose of settlement is to return to the 'land of our forefathers',^[201] and the Hebron model of reclaiming sacred sites in Palestinian territories has pioneered a pattern for settlers in Bethlehem and Nablus.^[202] Many reports, foreign and Israeli, are sharply critical of the behaviour of Hebronite settlers.^[203]^[204]

Sheik Farid Khader heads the Ja'bari tribe, consisting of some 35,000 people, which is considered one of the most important tribes in Hebron. For years, members of the Ja'bari tribe were the mayors of Hebron. Khader regularly meets with settlers and Israeli government officials and is a strong opponent of both the concept of Palestinian State and the Palestinian Authority itself. Khader believes that Jews and Arabs must learn to coexist.^[205]

Division of Hebron

Official 1997 agreement map of Palestinian controlled H1 and Israeli controlled H2.

Illustration showing areas H1 and H2 and adjacent Israeli settlements

1997 Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron

Following the 1995

Palestinian Authority, with the exception of Hebron,^[6] which was split into two sectors: H1 is controlled by the Palestinian Authority and H2 – which includes the Old City of Hebron – remained under the military control of Israel.^[206]^[207] Around 120,000 Palestinians live in H1, while around 30,000 Palestinians along with around 700 Israelis remain under Israeli military control in H2. As of 2009, a total of 86 Jewish families lived in Hebron.^[208] The IDF (Israel Defense Forces) may not enter H1 unless under Palestinian escort. Palestinians cannot approach areas where settlers live without special permits from the IDF.^[209] The Jewish settlement is widely considered to be illegal by the international community, although the Israeli government disputes this.^[210]

In 2007, the Palestinian population in H2 declined due to Israeli security measures such as extended curfews, strict restrictions on movement,^[211] the closure of Palestinian businesses and settler harassment.^[212]^[213]^[214]^[215] Palestinians are barred from using Al-Shuhada Street, a principal commercial thoroughfare that is locally nicknamed "Apartheid Street" as a result.^[209]^[216]

TIPH twentieth anniversary report

In 2017, Temporary International Presence in Hebron (TIPH) issued a confidential report covering their 20 years of work in Hebron. The report, based in part on over 40,000 incidents reported during this period, stated that Israel violated international law in Hebron and has breached the rights of residents as established by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The report claimed that Israel violated Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention which prohibits the deportation of civilians from occupied territory. Israeli settlement in Hebron was also cited as a violation.^[217]

Demographics

In 1820, it was reported that there were about 1,000 Jews in Hebron.^[218] In 1838, Hebron had an estimated 1,500 taxable Muslim households, in addition to 41 Jewish tax-payers. Taxpayers consisted here of male heads of households who owned even a very small shop or piece of land. 200 Jews and one Christian household were under 'European protections'. The total population was estimated at 10,000.^[126] In 1842, it was estimated that about 400 Arab and 120 Jewish families lived in Hebron, the latter having been diminished in number following the destruction of 1834.^[219]

Year	Muslims	Christians	Jews	Total	Notes and sources
1538	749 h	7 h	20 h	776 h	(h = households), Cohen & Lewis^[220]
1774			300		Azulai^[221]
1817			500		Israel Foreign Ministry^[222]
1820			1,000		William Turner^[218]
1824			60 h		(40 h Sephardim, 20 h Ashkenazim), The Missionary Herald^[223]
1832	400 h		100 h	500 h	(h = households), Augustin Calmet, Charles Taylor, Edward Robinson^[224]
1837			423		Montefiore census
1838	c.6-7,000	"few"	700	7–8,000	William McClure Thomson^[225]
1839	1295 f	1 f	241		(f = families), David Roberts^[226]^[227]
1840			700–800		James A. Huie^[228]
1851	11,000		450		Official register^[229]
1851			400		Clorinda Minor^[230]
1866			497		Montefiore census
1871/2	2,800 h		200 h	3,000 h	Ottoman records for the Syrian provincial sālnāme for these years^[231]
1875	8,000-10,000		500		Albert Socin^[229]
1875	17,000		600		Hebron Kaymakam^[229]
1881			1,000-1,200		PEF Survey of Palestine^[229]
1881			800	5,000	The Friend^[232]
1890			1,490		Jewish Encyclopedia
1895			1,400		^[233]
1906			1,100	14,000	(690 Sephardim, 410 Ashkenazim), Jewish Encyclopedia
1922	16,074	73	430	16,577	1922 census of Palestine^[234]
1929			700		Israel Foreign Ministry^[222]
1930			0		Israel Foreign Ministry^[222]
1931	17,277	109	134	17,532	1931 census of Palestine^[235]
1938			0	20,400	Village Statistics, 1938^[236]
1945	24,400	150	0	24,560	Village Statistics, 1945^[237]
1961				37,868	Jordanian census^[238]^[239]
1967	38,073	136		38,348	Israeli census^[240]
1997	n/a	n/a	530^[222]	119,093	Palestinian census^[241]
2007	n/a	n/a	500^[242]	163,146	Palestinian census^[243]

Climate

Climate data for Hebron, Palestine (2007-2018)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	24.5 (76.1)	25.0 (77.0)	31.0 (87.8)	34.0 (93.2)	36.0 (96.8)	37.6 (99.7)	36.8 (98.2)	39.0 (102.2)	36.0 (96.8)	34.5 (94.1)	29.5 (85.1)	26.6 (79.9)	39.0 (102.2)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	11.4 (52.5)	13.2 (55.8)	16.5 (61.7)	20.7 (69.3)	25.0 (77.0)	27.5 (81.5)	29.2 (84.6)	29.4 (84.9)	27.8 (82.0)	24.4 (75.9)	20.0 (68.0)	14.9 (58.8)	21.7 (71.0)
Daily mean °C (°F)	8.3 (46.9)	10.0 (50.0)	12.3 (54.1)	15.8 (60.4)	19.6 (67.3)	22.0 (71.6)	23.7 (74.7)	23.9 (75.0)	22.1 (71.8)	19.5 (67.1)	14.8 (58.6)	10.7 (51.3)	16.9 (62.4)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	5.4 (41.7)	6.6 (43.9)	8.6 (47.5)	11.4 (52.5)	15.3 (59.5)	17.5 (63.5)	19.2 (66.6)	19.6 (67.3)	17.8 (64.0)	15.9 (60.6)	11.3 (52.3)	7.0 (44.6)	13.0 (55.3)
Record low °C (°F)	−3.8 (25.2)	−2.0 (28.4)	−1.0 (30.2)	3.0 (37.4)	6.6 (43.9)	11.0 (51.8)	14.0 (57.2)	15.0 (59.0)	12.0 (53.6)	9.6 (49.3)	4.0 (39.2)	−2.5 (27.5)	−3.8 (25.2)
Average rainfall mm (inches)	138.2 (5.44)	108.6 (4.28)	49.9 (1.96)	15.4 (0.61)	4.7 (0.19)	0.0 (0.0)	0.0 (0.0)	0.0 (0.0)	1.4 (0.06)	18.8 (0.74)	40.1 (1.58)	95.1 (3.74)	472.0 (18.58)
Average rainy days	10.0	9.0	5.2	3.5	1.3	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.7	2.6	5.4	7.7	45.4
Average relative humidity (%)	73.0	69.5	63.9	56.3	52.4	55.0	56.5	60.6	68.0	66.6	67.8	71.2	63.4
Mean monthly sunshine hours	164.3	156.7	214.5	261.3	313.1	337.9	363.8	346.9	279.3	243.2	186.5	165.7	3,033.2
Percent possible sunshine	52	51	59	68	74	80	85	85	77	70	60	53	69
Source: Palestinian Meteorological Department^[244]

Urban development

Historically, the city consisted of four densely populated quarters: the suq and Harat al-Masharqa adjacent to the Ibrahimi mosque, the silk merchant quarter (Haret Kheitun) to the south and the Sheikh quarter (Haret al-Sheikh) to the north. It is believed the basic urban structure of the city had been established by the Mamluk period, during which time the city also had Jewish, Christian and Kurdish quarters.^[245] In the mid 19th-century, Hebron was still divided into four quarters, but the Christian quarter had disappeared.^[245] The sections included the ancient quarter surrounding the cave of Machpelah, the Haret Kheitun (the Jewish quarter, Haret el-Yahud), the Haret el-Sheikh and the Druze quarter.^[246] As Hebron's population gradually increased, inhabitants preferred to build upwards rather than leave the safety of their neighbourhoods. By the 1880s, better security provided by the Ottoman authorities allowed the town to expand and a new commercial centre, Bab el-Zawiye, emerged.^[247] As development continued, new spacious and taller structures were built to the north-west.^[248] In 1918, the town consisted of dense clusters of residential dwellings along the valley, rising onto the slopes above it.^[249] By the 1920s, the town was made up of seven quarters: el-Sheikh and Bab el-Zawiye to the west, el-Kazzazin, el-Akkabi and el-Haram in the centre, el-Musharika to the south and el-Kheitun in the east.^[250] Urban sprawl had spread onto the surrounding hills by 1945.^[249] The large population increase under Jordanian rule resulted in about 1,800 new houses being built, most of them along the Hebron-Jerusalem highway, stretching northwards for over 3 miles (5 km) at a depth of 600 ft (200m) either way. Some 500 houses were built elsewhere on surrounding rural land. There was less development to the south-east, where housing units extended along the valley for about 1 mile (1.5 km).^[181]

In 1971, with the assistance of the Israeli and Jordanian governments, the Hebron University, an Islamic university, was founded.^[251]^[252]

In an attempt to enhance the view of the

Ibrahami Mosque, Jordan demolished whole blocks of ancient houses opposite its entrance, which also resulted in improved access to the historic site.^[253] The Jordanians also demolished the old synagogue located in the el-Kazzazin quarter. In 1976, Israel recovered the site which had been converted into an animal pen, and by 1989, a settler courtyard had been established there.^[254]

Today, the area along the north–south axis to the east comprises the modern town of Hebron (also called Upper Hebron, Khalil Foq). It was established towards the end of the Ottoman period, its inhabitants being upper and middle class Hebronites who from there from the crowded old city, Balde al-Qadime (also called Lower Hebron, Khalil Takht).[255] The northern part of Upper Hebron includes some up-scale residential districts and also houses the Hebron University, private hospitals and the only two hotels in the city. The main commercial artery of the city is located here, situated along the Jerusalem Road, and includes modern multi-storey shopping malls. Also in this area are villas and apartment complexes built on the krum, rural lands and vineyards, which used to function as recreation areas during the summer months until the early Jordanian period.^[255] The southern part is where the working-class neighbourhoods are located, along with large industrial zones and the Hebron Polytechnic University.^[255]

The main municipal and governmental buildings are located in the centre of the city. This area includes high-rise concrete and glass developments and also some distinct Ottoman era one-storey family houses, adorned with arched entrances, decorative motifs and ironwork. Hebron's domestic appliance and textile markets are located here along two parallel roads which lead to the entrance of the old city.^[255] Many of these have been relocated from the old commercial centre of the city, known as the vegetable market (hesbe), which was closed down by the Israeli military during the 1990s. The vegetable market is now located in the square of Bab el-Zawiye.^[255]

Economy

Hebron is a leading industrial center in Palestine. The presence of

Palestinian Authority

have been a large contributor to the city's economy. Despite having tense relations, Israelis and Palestinians have strong trade relations in Hebron.

From the 1970s to the early 1990s, a third of those who lived in the city worked in the shoe industry. According to the shoe factory owner Tareq Abu Felat, the number reached least 35,000 people and there were more than 1,000 workshops around the city.^[256] Statistics from the Chamber of Commerce in Hebron put the figure at 40,000 people employed in 1,200 shoe businesses.^[257] However, the 1993 Oslo Accords and 1994 Protocol on Economic Relations between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) made it possible to mass import Chinese goods as the Palestinian National Authority, which was created after the Oslo Accords, did not regulate it. They later put import taxes but the Abu Felat, who also is the Palestinian Federation of Leather Industries's chairman, said more is still needed.^[256] The Palestinian government decided to impose an additional tax of 35% on products from China from April 2013.^[257]

90% of the shoes in Palestine are now estimated to come from China, which Palestinian industry workers say are of much lower quality but also much cheaper,^[256] and the Chinese are more aesthetic. Another factor contributing to the decline of the local industry is Israeli restrictions on Palestinian exports.^[257] Today, there are less than 300 workshops in the shoe industry, who only run part-time, and they employ around 3,000–4,000 people. More than 50% of the shoes are exported to Israel, where consumers have a better economy. Less than 25% goes to the Palestinian market, with some going to Jordan, Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries.^[256]

Hebron is major source of import goods to Israel.^[258] Mattresses manufactured in Hebron are exported to Israeli markets in Tel Aviv, Beersheba and Haifa.^[258] Around 17,000 factories and workshops are located throughout the Area H1.^[258] Historically, the traditional glass industry is popular in Hebron.^[258] A new industrial city has been built in Tarqumiyah, which houses more than 140 factories.

Political status

Under the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine passed by the UN in 1947, Hebron was envisaged to become part of an Arab state. While the Jewish leaders accepted the partition plan, the Arab leadership (the Arab Higher Committee in Palestine and the Arab League) rejected it, opposing any partition.^[259]^[260] The aftermath of the 1948 war saw the city occupied and later unilaterally annexed by the kingdom of Jordan in a move supported by local Hebron officials. Following the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel occupied Hebron. In 1997, in accordance with the Hebron Agreement, Israel withdrew from 80 per cent of Hebron which was handed over to the Palestinian Authority. Palestinian police would assume responsibilities in Area H1 and Israel would retain control in Area H2.

An international unarmed observer force—the

Israeli settler, and another instance where an observer was deported after slapped a settler boy.^[217]

Israeli settlements

Ideological background

The post-1967 settlement in Hebron was driven by theological doctrines from the

Or la-Goyim)^[261]

However, this viewpoint has led to religiously motivated violence towards Palestinians, who are viewed negatively. Clashes with Palestinians are seen as contributing to the messianic process, with the belief that Arabs will eventually have to leave. The new settlers have no kin connection to the traditional Old Families of Jewish Hebronites, who strongly oppose their presence.

Kiryat Arba

In 1968, Rabbi

Israeli Supreme Court ruled that Jews have no right to properties they possessed in places like Hebron before 1948 and are not entitled to compensation for their losses.^[174]

Beit Hadassah

Originally named Hesed l'Avraham clinic, Beit Hadassah was constructed in 1893 with donations of Baghdadi Jews families and was the only modern medical facility in Hebron. In 1909, it was renamed after Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America which took responsibility for the medical staff and provided free medical care to all.^[267] In 1979, a group of 15 settler mothers and their 35 children squatted in the Dabouia building in Hebron, exploiting the government's indecision during negotiations with Egypt.^[268] Led by Miriam Levinger, they established a bridgehead for Jewish resettlement and created conflict with Arab shopkeepers.^[269] A retaliatory attack by a Palestinian group resulted in the death of six yeshiva students.^[269] Despite appeals to the Israeli Supreme Court, the settlers remained.^[270] The following year, the government legitimized residency in Hebron and expelled the elected mayor.^[271] This pattern of settlement followed by hostilities with Palestinians was repeated in Tel Rumeida.^[272]^[273]^[268]

Beit Romano

Beit Romano was built and owned by Yisrael Avraham Romano of Constantinople and served Sephardi Jews from Turkey. In 1901, a Yeshiva was established there with a dozen teachers and up to 60 students.^[267] In 1982, Israeli authorities took over a Palestinian education office (Osama Ben Munqez School) and the adjacent bus station. The school was turned into a settlement, and the bus station into a military base against an order of the Israeli Supreme Court.^[264]

Tel Rumeida

In 1807 the immigrant Sephardic Rabbi Haim Yeshua Hamitzri (Haim the Jewish Egyptian) purchased 5 dunams on the outskirts of the city and in 1811 he signed a contract for a 99-year lease on a further 800 dunams of land, which included 4 plots in Tel Rumeida. The plots were administered by his descendant Haim Bajaio after Jews left Hebron. Settlers' claims to this land are based on these precedents, but are dismissed by the rabbi's heir.^[274] In 1984, settlers established a caravan outpost there called (Ramat Yeshai). In 1998, the Government recognized it as a settlement, and in 2001 the Defence Minister approved the building of the first housing units.^[264]

Avraham Avinu

The

Abraham Avinu Synagogue was the physical and spiritual center of its neighborhood and regarded as one of the most beautiful synagogues in Palestine. It was the centre of Jewish worship in Hebron until it was burnt down during the 1929 riots. In 1948 under Jordanian rule, the remaining ruins were razed.^[275]

The Avraham Avinu quarter was established next to the Vegetable and Wholesale Markets on Al-Shuhada Street in the south of the Old City. The vegetable market was closed by the Israeli military and some of the neighbouring houses were occupied by settlers and soldiers. Settlers started to take over the closed Palestinian stores, despite explicit orders of the Israeli Supreme Court that the settlers should vacate these stores and the Palestinians should be allowed to return.^[264]

Further settlement activities

In 2012, Israel Defense Forces called for the immediate removal of a new settlement, because it was seen as a provocation.^[276] The IDF, in accordance with settler demands, requested the removal of a Palestinian flag on a Hebronite rooftop contiguous to settlements, though no rule forbids the practice. According to Palestinians, the IDF negotiated the removal of the flag in exchange for the release of a resident of Hebron from legal custody.^[277] In August 2016, Israel announced its intention to allow settlement building in the military compound of Plugat Hamitkanim in Hebron, which had been expropriated for military purposes in the 1990s.^[278]

In late 2019, the Israeli Defense Minister Naftali Bennett instructed the military administration to inform the Palestinian municipality of the government's intention to reconstruct infrastructure in the old Hebron fruit and vegetable market in order to establish a Jewish neighbourhood there, which would allow for doubling the city's settler population. The area's original residents, who have protected tenancy rights there, were compelled to evacuate the zone after the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre. The original site was under Jewish ownership prior to 1948. The plan proposes that the empty shops remain Palestinian while the units built over them house Jewish Israelis.^[279]^[280]^[281]

Intercommunal violence

Hebron was the one city excluded from the interim agreement of September 1995 to restore rule over all Palestinian West Bank cities to the

Palestinian Authority.^[206] IDF soldiers see their job as being to protect Israeli settlers from Palestinian residents, not to police the Israeli settlers. IDF soldiers are instructed to leave violent Israeli settlers for the police to deal with.^[282]^[283]

A net installed in the Old City to prevent garbage dropped by Israeli settlers into a Palestinian area.^[284]

Since The

Kach party was banned as a result.^[287] The Israeli government also tightened restrictions on the movement of Palestinians in H2, closed their vegetable and meat markets, and banned Palestinian cars on Al-Shuhada Street.^[288] The park near the Cave of the Patriarchs for recreation and barbecues is off-limits for Arab Hebronites.^[289]

Racial segregation in the city with a road block with Hebrew inscription "מוות לערבים" meaning "*Death to Arabs*"

Over the period of the First Intifada and Second Intifada, the Jewish community was subjected to attacks by Palestinian militants, especially during the periods of the intifadas; which saw 3 fatal stabbings and 9 fatal shootings in between the first and second Intifada (0.9% of all fatalities in Israel and the West Bank) and 17 fatal shootings (9 soldiers and 8 settlers) and 2 fatalities from a bombing during the second Intifada,^[290] and thousands of rounds fired on it from the hills above the Abu-Sneina and Harat al-Sheikh neighbourhoods. On 15 November 2002 12 Israeli soldiers were killed (Hebron Brigade commander Colonel Dror Weinberg and two other officers, 6 soldiers and 3 members of the security unit of Kiryat Arba) in an ambush.^[291] Two Temporary International Presence in Hebron observers were killed by Palestinian gunmen in a shooting attack on the road to Hebron^[292]^[293]^[294] On March 27, 2001, a Palestinian sniper targeted and killed the Jewish baby Shalhevet Pass. The sniper was caught in 2002.^{[citation needed]}

In the 1980s Hebron, became the center of the Jewish

Kach movement, a designated terrorist organization,^[295] whose first operations started there, and provided a model for similar behaviour in other settlements.^[296] Hebron is one of the three West Bank towns from which the majority of suicide bombers originate. In May 2003, three students of the Hebron Polytechnic University carried out three separate suicide attacks.^[297] In August 2003, in what both Islamic groups described as a retaliation, a 29-year-old preacher from Hebron, Raed Abdel-Hamed Mesk, broke a unilateral Palestinian ceasefire by killing 23 and injured over 130 in a bus bombing in Jerusalem.^[298]^[299]

Israeli organization

home demolitions and land expropriation.^[305]

attacked the Islamic University and shot three people dead and injured over thirty others.^[308]

The 1994 Shamgar Commission of Inquiry concluded that Israeli authorities had consistently failed to investigate or prosecute crimes committed by settlers against Palestinians. Hebron IDF commander Noam Tivon said that his foremost concern is to "ensure the security of the Jewish settlers" and that Israeli "soldiers have acted with the utmost restraint and have not initiated any shooting attacks or violence."^[309]

Historic sites

The Old City of Hebron was a declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO on 7 July 2017,^[310] despite opposition from Israeli officials who objected to it not being called Israeli or Jewish.^[311]

The most famous historic site in Hebron is the

Matriarchs. The Isaac Hall now serves as the Ibrahimi mosque, while the Abraham and Jacob Hall serve as a synagogue. The tombs of other biblical figures (Abner ben Ner, Otniel ben Kenaz, Ruth and Jesse

) are also located in the city.

The

Abraham's Oak Holy Trinity Monastery

, consecrated in 1925.

Hebron is one of the few cities to have preserved its

Abraham Avinu Synagogue

in the city's historic Jewish quarter was built in 1540 and restored in 1738.

Religious traditions

Some Jewish traditions regarding

Elizabeth was said to live, the legend implying that it might have been the birthplace of John the Baptist.^[320]^[321]

One Islamic tradition has it that Muhammad alighted in Hebron during his

night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, and the mosque in the city is said to conserve one of his shoes.^[322] Another tradition states that Muhammad arranged for Hebron and its surrounding villages to become part of Tamim al-Dari's domain; this was implemented during Umar's reign as caliph. According to the arrangement, al-Dari and his descendants were only permitted to tax the residents for their land and the waqf of the Ibrahimi Mosque was entrusted to them.^[323]

The simat al-Khalil or "Table of Abraham" is attested to in the writings of the 11th century

raisins.^[324]

According to Tamara Neuman, settlement by a community of Jewish religious fundamentalists has brought about three major changes by (a)redesigning a Palestinian area in terms of biblical imagery and origins: (b) remaking over these revamped religious sites to endow them with an innovative centrality to Jewish worship, that, she argues, effectively erases the diasporic thrust of Jewish tradition; and (c) writing out the overlapping aspects of Judaism, Christianity and Islam in such a way that the possibility of accommodation between the three intertwined traditions is eradicated, while the presence of Palestinians themselves is erased by violent methods.^[325]

Gallery

Al-Ahli Arab Hospital, Hebron
Dura Hospital
A Palestinian woman from Hebron wearing Palestinian traditional dress in 1947
Qidra or Qidreh, is a famous dishes from the city of Hebron
Sunset in Hebron
The Old City of Hebron built in Mamluk era

Twin towns / sister cities

Hebron is

twinned

with:

Amman, (Jordan)
Beyoğlu, (Turkey)
Bursa, (Turkey)
Casablanca, Morocco
Derby, England^[326]
Fez,(Morocco)
Jajmau (India)
Keçiören, (Turkey)
Kraljevo, Serbia^[327]
Medina, (Saudi Arabia)
Saint-Pierre-des-Corps, (France)
Şanlıurfa,(Turkey)
Yiwu, (China)

Notes

^ Y.L. Arbeitman, The Hittite is Thy Mother: An Anatolian Approach to Genesis 23, (1981) pp. 889-1026, argues that an Indo-European root *ar-, with the same meaning as the semitic root ḥbr, namely 'to join' may underlie part of the earlier name Kiryat-Arba ^[26]

Citations

^ "Palestinian terrorist in killing of 6 Jews elected Hebron mayor". Times of Israel. 14 May 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2017.
^ "Hebron City Profile – ARIJ" (PDF).
^ ^a ^b Preliminary Results of the Population, Housing and Establishments Census, 2017 (PDF). Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) (Report). State of Palestine. February 2018. pp. 64–82. Retrieved 2023-10-24.
^ Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index by Josef W. Meri; p.318; "Hebron(Khalil al-Rahman"
^ Kamrava 2010, p. 236.
^ ^a ^b Alimi 2013, p. 178.
^ Rothrock 2011, p. 100.
^ Beilin 2004, p. 59.
^ "Palestinian Residents of Jerusalem". Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research. 2014-08-13. Retrieved 2022-06-12.
^ "West Bank". ATG. 2014-10-22. Retrieved 2022-06-12.
^ ^a ^b Neuman 2018, p. 3
ISBN 978-1-4142-8338-8
.

ISBN 978-0-8143-3366-2
.

^ ^a ^b ^c Scharfstein 1994, p. 124.

^ Dumper 2003, p. 164

^ Salaville 1910, p. 185:'For these reasons after the Arab conquest of 637 Hebron "was chosen as one of the four holy cities of Islam.'

^ Aksan & Goffman 2007, p. 97: 'Suleyman considered himself the ruler of the four holy cities of Islam, and, along with Mecca and Medina, included Hebron and Jerusalem in his rather lengthy list of official titles.'

^ Honigmann 1993, p. 886.

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Hebron | city, West Bank | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-06-11.

ISBN 978-0-19-938723-6
. Hebron is sometimes thought of as a concentrated microcosm of the conflict in Israel/Palestine. Sometimes it is imagined as a microcosm of Israeli occupation in post-1967 territories, sometimes as a microcosm of the settler-colonial project in Palestine, and sometimes as a microcosm of the Jewish state surrounded by Arab enemies.

^ Neuman 2018, p. 4.

^ 'Projected Mid -Year Population for Hebron Governorate by Locality 2017-2021,' Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics 2021

^ Zacharia 2010.

^ Hasasneh 2005.

^ Flusfeder 1997

^ Niesiolowski-Spano 2016, p. 124.

^ Cazelles 1981, p. 195 compares Amorite ḫibru(m). Two roots are in play, ḥbr/ḫbr. The root has magical overtones, and develops pejorative connotations in late Biblical usage.

^ ^a ^b Talmon-Heller, Daniella (2007). "Graves, Relics and Sanctuariese: The Evolution of Syrian Sacred Topography (Eleventh-Thirteenth Centuries)". ARAM Periodical. 19: 606.

Qur'an ("source text". Archived from the original
on October 27, 2009. Retrieved 2007-07-30.)

^ Büssow 2011, p. 194 n.220

^ ^a ^b Sharon 2007, p. 104

^ Negev & Gibson 2001, pp. 225–5.

^ Na'aman 2005, p. 180

^ Towner 2001, pp. 144–45: "[T]he city was a Canaanite royal center long before it became Israelite".

^ Albright 2000, p. 110

^ Na'aman 2005, pp. 77–78

^ Smith 1903, p. 200.

^ Kraeling 1925, p. 179.

^ Na'aman 2005, p. 361 These non-Semitic names perhaps echo either a tradition of a group of elite professional troops (Philistines, Hittites), formed in Canaan whose ascendancy was overthrown by the West-Semitic clan of Caleb. They would have migrated from the Negev,

ISBN 978-0-521-08368-3
.

^ Joshua 10:3, 5, 3–39; 12:10, 13. Na'aman 2005, p. 177 doubts this tradition. "The book of Joshua is not a reliable source for either a historical or a territorial discussion of the Late Bronze Age, and its evidence must be disregarded".

^ Mulder 2004, p. 165

^ Alter 1996, p. 108.

^ Hamilton 1995, p. 126.

^ Finkelstein & Silberman 2001, p. 45.

^ Lied 2008, pp. 154–62, 162

^ Elazar 1998, p. 128: (Genesis.ch. 23)

^ Magen 2007, p. 185.

^ Glick 1994, p. 46, citing Joshua 10:36–42 and the influence this has had on certain settlers in the West Bank.

^ Gottwald 1999, p. 153: "certain conquests claimed for Joshua are elsewhere attributed to single tribes or clans, for example, in the case of Hebron (in Joshua 10:36–37, Hebron's capture is attributed to Joshua; in Judges 1:10 to Judah; in Judges 1:20 and Joshua 14:13–14; 15:13–14" to Caleb.

^ Bratcher & Newman 1983, p. 262.

ISBN 978-0-567-60296-1
.

^ Gottwald 1999, p. 173, citing 2 Samuel, 5:3.

^ Japhet 1993, p. 148. See Joshua 20, 1–7.

^ Hasson 2016

^ Jericke 2003, p. 17

^ Jericke 2003, pp. 26ff., 31.

^ Carter 1999, pp. 96–99 Carter challenges this view on the grounds that it has no archeological support.

^ Lemaire 2006, p. 419

^ Jericke 2003, p. 19.

Josephus Flavius, Antiquities of the Jews
, Bk. 12, ch.8, para.6.

^ Duke 2010, pp. 93–94 is sceptical.'This should be considered a raid on Hebron instead of a conquest based on subsequent events in the book of I Maccabees.'

^ Duke 2010, p. 94

^ Jericke 2003, p. 17:'Spätestens in römischer Zeit ist die Ansiedlung im Tal beim heutigen Stadtzentrum zu finden'.

^ Josephus 1860, p. 701 Josephus, The Jewish War, Bk 4, ch. 9, p. 9.

^ Schürer, Millar & Vermes 1973, p. 553 n.178 citing Jerome, in Zachariam 11:5; in Hieremiam 6:18; Chronicon paschale.

^ Hezser 2002, p. 96.

^ Norwich 1999, p. 285

^ ^a ^b Salaville 1910, p. 185

^ Gil 1997, pp. 56–57 cites the late testimony of two monks, Eudes and Arnoul CE 1119–1120:'When they (the Muslims) came to Hebron they were amazed to see the strong and handsome structures of the walls and they could not find an opening through which to enter, then the Jews happened to come, who lived in the area under the former rule of the Greeks (that is the Byzantines), and they said to the Muslims: give us (a letter of security) that we may continue to live (in our places) under your rule (literally-amongst you) and permit us to build a synagogue in front of the entrance (to the city). If you will do this, we shall show you where you can break in. And it was so'.

^ Büssow 2011, p. 195

^ Hiro 1999, p. 166.

^ Frenkel, 2011, p.28–29

^ Forbes 1965, p. 155, citing Anton Kisa et al.,Das Glas im Altertum, 1908.

^ Gil 1997, pp. 205

^ Al-Muqaddasi 2001, pp. 156–57. For an older translation see Le Strange 1890, pp. 309–10

^ Le Strange 1890, pp. 310–11

^ Le Strange 1890, p. 315

^ Singer 2002, p. 148.

^ Zbeedat 2024.

^ Gil 1997, p. 206

^ Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 78:'The Castle of St. Abraham' was the generic Crusader name for Hebron.'

^ Israel tourguide, Avraham Lewensohn, 1979. p. 222.

^ Murray 2000, p. 107

Arsuf, north of Jaffa
, who had been wounded by Godfrey's own forces during the siege of the port, and later returned by the Muslims to Godfrey as a token of good will.

^ Runciman 1965b, p. 4

^ Le Strange 1890, pp. 317–18

^ Kohler 1896, pp. 447ff.

^ Runciman 1965b, p. 319.

^ Kraemer 2001, p. 422.

^ Boas 1999, p. 52.

^ Richard 1999, p. 112.

^ Benjamin 1907, p. 25.

^ Gil 1997, p. 207. Note to editors. This account, always in Moshe Gil, refers to two distinct events, the Arab conquest from Byzantium, and the Kurdish-Arab conquest from Crusaders. In both the manuscript is a monkish chronicle, and the words used, and event described is identical. We may have a secondary source confusion here.

^ Sharon 2003, p. 297.

^ Runciman 1965c, p. 219

^ Micheau 2006, p. 402

^ Murphy-O'Connor 1998, p. 274.

^ Sharon 1997, pp. 117–18.

^ Dandis, Wala. History of Hebron. 2011-11-07. Retrieved on 2012-03-02.

^ Meri 2004, pp. 362–63.

^ Kosover 1966, p. 5.

^ David 2010, p. 24.

^ Lamdan 2000, p. 102.

^ Robinson & Smith 1856, pp. 440–42, n.1.

^ Singer 2002, p. 148

^ Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 458.

^ Berger 2012, p. 246..

^ Green 2007, pp. xv–xix.

^ ^a ^b Büssow 2011, p. 195.

^ David 2010, p. 24. Tahrir registers document 20 households in 1538/9, 8 in 1553/4, 11 in 1562 and 1596/7. Gil however suggests the tahrir records of the Jewish population may be understated.

^ Schwarz 1850, p. 397

^ Perera 1996, p. 104.

^ Barnay 1992, pp. 89–90 gives the figures of 12,000 quadrupling to 46,000 Kuruş.

^ Marcus 1996, p. 85. In 1770, they received financial assistance from North American Jews which amounted in excess of £100.

^ Van Luit 2009, p. 42. In 1803, the rabbis and elders of the Jewish community were imprisoned after failing to pay their debts. In 1807 the community did however succeed in purchasing a 5-dunam (5,000 m²) plot where Hebron's wholesale market stands today.

^ Conder 1830, p. 198.

^ Conder 1830, p. 198. The source was a manuscript, The Travels of Ali Bey, vol. ii, pp. 232–33.

^ Schölch 1993, p. 161.

^ Büssow 2011, p. 198

^ WV 1833, p. 436.

^ Shaw 1808, p. 144

^ Finn 1868, p. 39.

^ Krämer 2011, p. 68

^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, pp. 6–11, esp. p. 8

^ ^a ^b ^c Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 88.

^ Schwarz 1850, p. 403.

^ Schwarz 1850, pp. 398–99.

^ Schwarz 1850, pp. 398–400

^ Finn 1878, pp. 287ff.

^ Schölch 1993, pp. 234–35.

^ Cohen 2015, p. 15.

^ Schwarz 1850, p. 401

^ Wilson 1847, pp. 355–381, 372:The rabbi of the Ashkenazi community, who said they numbered 60 mainly Polish and Russian emigrants, professed no knowledge of the Sephardim in Hebron (p.377).

^ Sicker 1999, p. 6.

^ Büssow 2011, pp. 198–99.

^ Wilson 1847, p. 379.

^ Wilson 1881, p. 195 mentions a different set of names, the Quarter of the Cloister Gate (Harat Bab ez Zawiyeh);the Quarter of the Sanctuary (Haret el Haram), to the south-east.

^ Schölch 1993, pp. 236–37.

^ Finn 1878, pp. 305–308.

^ ^a ^b Shragai 2008.

^ History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, Volume 2, Isaac Samuel Emmanuel, Suzanne A. Emmanuel, American Jewish Archives, 1970. p. 754: "Between 1869 and 1871 Hebron was plagued with a severe drought. Food was so scarce that the little available sold for ten times the normal value. Although the rains came in 1871, there was no easing of the famine, for the farmers had no seed to sow. The [Jewish] community was obliged to borrow money from non-Jews at exorbitant interest rates in order to buy wheat for their fold. Their leaders finally decided to send their eminent Chief Rabbi Eliau [Soliman] Mani to Egypt to obtain relief."

^ Khalidi 1998, p. 218.

^ ^a ^b Conder 1879, p. 79

^ Schölch 1993, pp. 161–62 quoting David Delpuget Les Juifs d´Alexandrie, de Jaffa et de Jérusalem en 1865, Bordeaux, 1866, p. 26.

^ Schölch 1993, pp. 161–62.

^ ^a ^b Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14

^ Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14: "Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and well into the twentieth, Hebron was a peripheral, "borderline" community, attracting poor itinerant peasants and those with Sufi inclinations from its environs. The tradition of shorabat Sayyidna Ibrahim, a soup kitchen surviving into the present day and supervised by the awqaf, and that of the Sufi zawaya gave the city a reputation for being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual, cementing the poor cast of a town supporting the unproductive and the needy (Ju'beh 2003). This reputation was bound to shed a conservative, dull cast on the city, a place not known for high living, dynamism, or innovativeness."

^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 41

^ Gorenberg 2007, p. 145.

^ Laurens 1999, p. 508.

^ Renan 1864, p. 93 remarked of the town that it was 'one of the bulwarks of Semitic ideas, in their most austere form.'

^ Büssow 2011, p. 199.

^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 92.

^ Campos 2007, pp. 55–56

^ Kupferschmidt 1987, pp. 110–11.

^ J. B. Barron, ed. Palestine, Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922. Government of Palestine, page 9

ISBN 978-90-04-09790-2
.

^ Cohen 2008, p. 64.

^ Kupferschmidt 1987, p. 82: "In any event, after his appointment, Abd al-Hayy al-Khatib not only played a prominent role in the disturbances of 1929, but, in general, appeared as one of the few loyal adherents of Hajj Amin in that town."

^ Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14.

^ Cohen 2008, pp. 19–20.

^ Ilan Ben Zion, 'Eyeing Nepal, experts warn Israel is unprepared for its own Big One,' The Times of Israel 27 April 2015.

^ Kupferschmidt 1987, p. 237

^ Wein 1993, pp. 138–39,

^ Bauman 1994, p. 22

^ Krämer 2011, p. 232.

^ Segev 2001, p. 318.

^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 92

^ Post-holocaust and anti-semitism – Issues 40–75 – Page 35 Merkaz ha-Yerushalmi le-ʻinyene tsibur u-medinah, Temple University. Center for Jewish Community Studies – 2006: "After the 1929 riots in Mandatory Palestine, the non-Jewish French writer Albert Londres asked him why the Arabs had murdered the old, pious Jews in Hebron and Safed, with whom they had no quarrel. The mayor answered: "In a way you behave like in a war. You don't kill what you want. You kill what you find. Next time they will all be killed, young and old." Later on, Londres spoke again to the mayor and tested him ironically by saying: "You cannot kill all the Jews. There are 150,000 of them." Nashashibi answered "in a soft voice, 'Oh no, it'll take two days."

^ Segev 2001, pp. 325–26: The Zionist Archives preserves lists of Jews who were saved by Arabs; one list contains 435 names.

^ Republic, The New (May 7, 2008). "The Tangled Truth". The New Republic.

^ Campos 2007, pp. 56–57

^ ^a ^b Chaim Levinsohn, 'Israel Supreme Court Rules Hebron Jews Can't Reclaim Lands Lost After 1948 ,' Haaretz 18 February 2011.

^ The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews, Benny Morris – 2003. pp. 186–87.

^ Thomas A Idinopulos, Jerusalem, 1994, p. 300, "So severe were the Jordanian restrictions against Jews gaining access to the old city that visitors wishing to cross over from west Jerusalem...had to produce a baptismal certificate."

^ Armstrong, Karen, Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, 1997, "Only clergy, diplomats, UN personnel, and a few privileged tourists were permitted to go from one side to the other. The Jordanians required most tourists to produce baptismal certificates—to prove they were not Jewish ... ."

^ Robins 2004, pp. 71–72

ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5
.

^ The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Sir H. A. R. Gibb 1980. p. 337.

^ ^a ^b Efrat 1984, p. 192

^ Auerbach 2009, p. 79: "Under Jordanian rule, the last vestiges of a Jewish historical presence in Hebron were obliterated. The Avraham Avinu synagogue, already in ruins, was razed; a pen for goats, sheep, and donkeys was built on the site."

^ Gorenberg 2007, pp. 80–83.

^ Gorenberg 2007, pp. 138–39

^ Sternhell 1999, p. 333

^ Sternhell 1999, p. 337:'In building this new Jewish town, one was sending a message to the international community: for the Jews, the sites connected with Jewish history are inalienable, and if later, for circumstantial reasons, the state of Israel is obliged to give one or another of them up, the step is not considered final.'

^ Gorenberg 2007, p. 151: 'David's kingdom was a model for the messianic kingdom. David began in Hebron, so settling Hebron would lead to final redemption.'

^ Segev 2008, p. 698: "Hebron was considered a holy city; the massacre of Jews there in 1929 was imprinted on national memory along with the great pogroms of Eastern Europe. The messianic fervor that characterized the Hebron settlers was more powerful than the awakening that led people to settle in East Jerusalem: while Jerusalem had already been annexed, the future of Hebron was still unclear."

^ ^a ^b The Jerusalem Post. "Field News 10/2/2002 Hebron Jews' offspring divided over city's fate Archived 2011-08-16 at the Wayback Machine", 2006-05-16

^ ^a ^b The Philadelphia Inquirer. "Hebron descendants decry actions of current settlers They are kin of the Jews ousted in 1929", 1997-03-03

^ Shragai, Nadav (2007-12-26). "80 years on, massacre victims' kin reclaims Hebron house". Haaretz. Retrieved 2008-02-07.

^ Shargai, Nadav (September 26, 2007). "Gov't bans Hebron settlers from winterizing controversial house". Haaretz. Archived from the original on Aug 3, 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

^ Katz, Yaakov. "Jpost". Jpost. Archived from the original on 2012-01-11. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

^ Shragai, Nadav; Zarchin, Tomer (17 Nov 2008). "Settlers threaten 'Amona'-style riots over Hebron eviction". Haaretz. Archived from the original on May 22, 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

^ Harel, Amos (November 20, 2008). "Hebron settler mob caught on video clashing with IDF troops". Haaretz. Archived from the original on Apr 20, 2010. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

Jerusalem Post
, December 4, 2008

^ Charles Reynell (1972). The Economist. Vol. 242. Economist Newspaper Limited.

^ Mattar 2005, p. 255

^ Bouckaert 2001, p. 14

^ Rubenberg 2003, pp. 162–63)

^ Kellerman 1993, p. 89

^ Rubenberg 2003, p. 187.

Boston Globe, July 31, 2002;Amos Harel and Jonathan Lis, "Minister's Aide Calls Hebron Riots a 'Pogrom',' Haaretz
31 July 2002. p. 409, notes 55, 56.

^ The Scotsman 2002.

^ "Jewish presence in Hebron is an indisputable historical fact". Israel Hayom. 2011-11-04. Retrieved 2013-03-26.

^ ^a ^b Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 443

^ "Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron". United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine. Non-UN document. January 17, 1997. Archived from the original on October 24, 2007.

^ Gurkow, Lazer. "Chabad.org". Chabad.org. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

^ ^a ^b Janine Zacharia (March 8, 2010). "Letter from the West Bank: In Hebron, renovation of holy site sets off strife". The Washington Post.

^ "The Geneva Convention". BBC News. 10 December 2009. Retrieved 27 September 2011.

^ "B'Tselem – Press Releases – 31 Dec. 2007: B'Tselem: 131 Palestinians who did not participate in the hostilities killed by Israel's security forces in 2007". Btselem.org. 2007-12-31. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

^ "Israeli NGO issues damning report on situation in Hebron". Agence France-Presse. ReliefWeb. August 19, 2003. Archived from the original on October 21, 2007. Retrieved March 30, 2007.

^ "Hebron, Area H-2: Settlements Cause Mass Departure of Palestinians" (PDF). B'Tselem. August 2003. "In total, 169 families lived on the three streets in September 2000, when the intifada began. Since then, seventy-three families—forty-three percent—have left their homes."

^ "Palestine Refugees: a challenge for the International Community". United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East. ReliefWeb. October 10, 2006. Archived from the original on October 17, 2006. Settler violence has forced out over half the Palestinian population in some neighborhoods in the downtown area of Hebron. This once bustling community is now eerily deserted, and presents a harrowing existence for those few Palestinians who dare to remain or who are too deep in poverty to move elsewhere.

^ "Ghost Town: Israel's Separation Policy and Forced Eviction of Palestinians from the Center of Hebron". B'Tselem. May 2007.

^ Hope in Hebron. David Shulman, New York Review of Books, 22 March 2013:
″Those who still live on Shuhada Street can't enter their own homes from the street. Some use the rooftops to go in and out, climbing from one roof to another before issuing into adjacent homes or alleys. Some have cut gaping holes in the walls connecting their homes to other (often deserted) houses and thus pass through these buildings until they can exit into a lane outside or up a flight of stairs to a passageway on top of the old casba market. According to a survey conducted by the human-rights organization B'Tselem in 2007, 42 per cent of the Palestinian population in the city center of Hebron (area H2)—some 1,014 families—have abandoned their homes and moved out, most of them to area H1, now under Palestinian control.″

^ ^a ^b "Confidential 20-year monitoring report: Israel regularly breaks int'l law in Hebron". haaretz.com. 2018-12-17. Retrieved 2018-12-17.

^ ^a ^b Turner 1820, p. 261

^ Frederick Adolphus Packard; American Sunday-School Union (1842). The Union Bible Dictionary. American Sunday-School Union. p. 304. About four hundred families of Arabs dwell in Hebron, and about one hundred and twenty families of Jews; the latter having been greatly reduced in number by a bloody battle in 1834, between them and the troops of Ibrahim Pasha.

ISBN 978-1-4008-6779-0
.

^ רבי חיים יוסף דוד אזולאי, Meir Benayhu, Mosad Harav Kook, 1959.

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Hebron". Jewish Virtual Library.

^ The Missionary Herald. Board. 1825. p. 65.

ISBN 978-1-4047-8796-4
.

^ William McClure Thomson, The Land and the Book, Southern Palestine and Jerusalem, p.275

^ Robinson, p. 88

ISBN 978-965-260-001-1
. Plate III – 13.Journal entry 17 March 1839.

^ James A. Huie (1840). The history of the Jews, from the taking of Jerusalem by Titus to the present time [by J.A. Huie]. p. 242.

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d PEF Survey of Western Palestine, Volume III, p.309

ISBN 978-0-405-10302-5
.

^ Alexander Scholch (Schölch), 'The Demographic Development of Palestine, 1850-1882,' International Journal of Middle East Studies Vol. 17, No. 4 (Nov., 1985), pp. 485-505,p.486

^ The Friend. Vol. 54–55. The Friend. 1881. p. 333.

ISBN 978-1-56821-123-7
.

^ Barron, 1923, Table V, Sub-district of Hebron, p. 10

ISBN 978-1-4067-3834-6
.

^ Village Statistics (PDF). 1938. p. 52.

^ Government of Palestine (1945), A Survey of Palestine, Vol. 1, p. 151

^ First Census, Government of Jordan. 1964, p. 06

^ West Bank, Volume 1 Table I – West Bank population according to 1967 census and Jordanian 1961 census, Levy Economics Institute

^ West Bank, Volume 1 Table 4 – Population by religion, sex, age, and type of settlement, Levy Economics Institute

^ "Palestinian Census 1997". Archived from the original on November 15, 2010.

^ Palestinian security forces deploy in Hebron 25/10/2008 gives about 500 as of October 2008

^ The last official census in 2007 gave 165,000.2007 Locality Population Statistics Archived 2010-12-10 at the Wayback Machine Hebron Governorate Population, Housing and Establishment Census 2007. Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS).

^ "Climate Bulletin". Palestinian Meteorological Department. Retrieved January 23, 2023.

^ ^a ^b De Cesari 2009, pp. 235–36

^ Journal of a deputation sent to the East by the committee of the Malta Protestant college, in 1849: containing an account of the present state of the Oriental nations, including their religion, learning, education, customs, and occupations, Volume 2, J. Nisbet and co., 1854. p. 395.

^ Büssow 2011, p. 202

^ Efrat 1984, p. 191

^ ^a ^b Kedar 2000, pp. 112–13

^ Brill 1993, p. 887

^ About Founder of Hebron University Archived 2012-10-16 at the Wayback Machine, Hebron University, 2010–2011.

^ A ghetto state of ghettos: Palestinians under Israeli citizenship, Mary Boger, City University of New York. Sociology – 2008. p. 93: "The development of the Islamic Movement in Israel owes much to the Israeli and Jordanian governments who collaborated to establish an Islamic University in al-Khalil (Hebron), headed by Shaykh Muhammad Ali al-Ja'bari a prominent anti-PLO leader who served as minister in Jordan and in the internal circle of kings Abd-allah and Husayn, who are known to have befriended the Israeli occupation."

^ Ricca 2007, p. 177

^ Auerbach 2009, p. 79

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e De Cesari 2009, pp. 230–33

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "The decline of Hebron's shoe industry". Al Jazeera. 4 April 2015.

^
Al Monitor. 13 March 2013.^{[permanent dead link}
]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Hebron, the wealthiest, most high-tech Palestinian Authority City". the Jewish Community of Hebron. Retrieved 2024-03-03.

ISBN 978-0-7146-3120-2
.

ISBN 978-0-8179-3291-6
.

^ ^a ^b Hanne Eggen Røislien, 'Living with Contradiction: Examining the Worldview of the Jewish Settlers in Hebron,' Archived 2015-10-02 at the Wayback Machine IJCV, Vol.1 (2) 2007, pp.169–184, pp.181–182.

^ Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Jewish Terrorism in Israel, Columbia University Press, 2011 p.72.

^ Gorenberg 2007, p. 356

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Occupation in Hebron Archived 2016-01-05 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 10–12. Alternative Information Center, 2004

^ Gorenberg 2007, pp. 205, 359.

^ Lustick 1988, p. 205 n.1

^ ^a ^b Auerbach 2009, p. 60

^
ISBN 978-0-812-29482-8
pp.79–80.

^ ^a ^b Perera 1996, pp. 178: 'As I made my way to the Machpelah, I passed a curious scene. The Hadassah hospital of Hebron, which is Arab-administered, had been taken over by Israeli women of Kiryat Arba, the new settlement on the hill overlooking the city. Miriam Levinger, wife of Moshe Levinger, the militant right-wing rabbi who founded Kiryat Arba, was screaming in her Brooklyn-accented Hebrew at the Palestinian police, who were – very politely – attempting to remove the women from the hospital grounds.'

doi:10.1525/jps.2003.33.1.68
.

^ Kretzmer 2002, pp. 117–18

^ Falah 1985, p. 253

^ Bouckaert 2001, p. 86

^ Platt 2012, pp. 79–80.

^ Auerbach 2009, pp. 40, 45, 79

^ Levinson, Chaim. "IDF brass calls for immediate removal of new Hebron settlement." Haaretz Newspaper. 2 April 2012.

^ Chaim Levinson, 'Following settlers' demand, IDF removes Palestinian flag from Hebron roof,' Haaretz, March 17, 2014

^ 'Watchdog: Expansion of Hebron settlements amounts to 'right of return for Jews only,' Archived 2016-09-17 at the Wayback Machine Ma'an News Agency 22 August 2016.

^ Hagar Shezaf, 'Israel Plans New Jewish Neighborhood in Hebron's Arab Market,' Haaretz 1 December 2019

^ Elisha Ben Kimon, Yoav Zitun, Elior Levy, Bennett plans building Jewish neighborhood in Hebron Ynet 1 December 2019

^ Yumna Patel,'Israel's plan to build new settlement atop Hebron market evokes painful memories for residents,' Mondoweiss 4 December 2019

^ Haaretz, 22 June 2020, In Hebron, Protecting Palestinians is Not an Israeli Soldier's Job

^ Haaretz, 3 Feb. 2020, Jared Kushner Does Not See the Brutal Occupation I Helped Carry Out: As a Former Soldier, I Enforced Two Separate Legal Systems for Israelis and Palestinians--The Trump Plan Wants to Make This Reality Permanent

^ Ward, Hazel (May 23, 2011). "West Bank B&B in Hebron's Old City fully booked". The Australian. Archived from the original on 2012-09-12. Retrieved November 18, 2022.

^ Nabeel Abraham, What About The Victims? Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, Lies of Our Times, May 1994, pp 3–6.

^ Bovard 2004, p. 265. Meir Tayar, commander of the Hebron Border Police at the time testified that, 'Instructions are to take cover, wait until the clip is empty or the gun jams and then overpower him. Even if I had been there (in the mosque), I could not have done anything-there were special orders.'

^ Commission of Inquiry 1994.

^ Freedland 2012, p. 23.

^ Levy 2012

Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs
. 24 September 2000. Retrieved 2007-04-13.

^ Harel 2002.

^ Two Norwegian observers killed near Hebron: Israeli TV Archived 2007-10-21 at the Wayback Machine, ABC News online, March 27, 2002.

^ Published: 7:31PM GMT 26 Mar 2002 (2002-03-26). "Telegraph". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 2009-11-12.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

^ Two TIPH members killed near Hebron Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine, Temporary International Presence in the City of Hebron website, March 27, 2002.

^ Cordesman 2006, p. 135.

^ Pedahzur & Perliger 2011, p. 92:Cf.'the most palpable expressions of Kahanism in recent decades can be found in Hebron' p. 74.

ISBN 978-0-19-929797-9
.

^ Chris McGreal, 'Palestinian suicide bomber kills 20 and shatters peace process,' The Guardian 20 August 2003

Sydney Morning Herald 21 August 2003. Hamas claimed it marked the anniversary of Denis Michael Rohan
's attempt to burn the Al-Aqsa mosque. Islamic Jihad claimed it was in revenge for the killing of a leader, Ahmed Sidr, in Hebron.

^ "Hebron, Area H-2: Settlements Cause Mass Departure of Palestinians".

^ "Mounting Human Rights Crisis in Hebron". Archived from the original on 2008-11-15. Retrieved 2010-03-29.

^ "Israeli human rights group slams Hebron settlers".

^ Bouckaert 2001, pp. 5, 40–43, 48, 71–72

^ Freedland 2012, p. 22.

^ "History/Mission of CPT". Christian Peacemaker Teams. Archived from the original on 2008-10-11.

^ Cohen 1985, p. 105

^ Feige 2009, p. 158

^ Without Prejudice: The Eaford International Review of Racial Discrimination. International Organization for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination – 1987. p. 81.

^ [2] Archived 2009-08-03 at the Wayback Machine Jerusalem Post, October 6, 2000 "IDF: Palestinians offer $2,000 for 'martyrs'"

^ Adamczyk, Ed (7 July 2017). "UNESCO declares Hebron, West Bank, a world heritage site". UPI. Retrieved 7 July 2017.

^ "Israelis outraged by UNESCO decision on Hebron holy site". ABC News. Associated Press. 7 July 2017. Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2017.

^ Finn 1868, p. 184:'the great oak of Sibta, commonly called Abraham's oak by most people except the Jews, who do not believe in any Abraham's oak there. The great patriarch planted, indeed, a grove at Beersheba; but the "Eloné Mamre" they declare to have been "plains," not "oaks," (which would be Alloné Mamre,) and to have been situated northwards instead of westwards from the present Hebron.'

ISBN 978-9953-36-064-5
.

^ ^a ^b Vilnay 1973, pp. 170–72

^ Miscellanies of divinitie: divided into three books Edward Kellet, 1633. p. 223: "Sixthly, the field of Damascus, where the red earth lieth, of which they report Adam was formed; which earth is tough, and may be wrought like wax, and lieth close by Hebron."

^ Neuman 2018, p. 1

ISBN 978-90-04-16519-9
.

ISBN 978-0-7661-4308-1.^{[permanent dead link}
]

ISBN 978-0-8276-0064-5
.

^ Craveri 1967, p. 25.

^ Milman 1840, p. 49.

^ Gil 1997, p. 100.

^ Levi della Vida 1993, p. 648

ISBN 978-1-136-49894-7
.

^ Neuman 2018, p. 5: "This narrowed or fundamentalist focus involves three further changes that are also useful for framing this study: the first is that religiously inscribed space, particularly the remaking of many Palestinian areas into a geography of biblical sites and origins, has been given a new significance in the construction of a distinct Jewish (settler) identity. Spatial reorganization has also resulted in a range of incremental practices included under the rubric of religion that link up with this process of inscription— including renaming, reenvisioning, and rebuilding. These practices in turn support and magnify resolute place-based attachments. The second shift is that these remade biblical sites, specifically in Hebron and within the Tomb of the Patriarchs itself, are being given a new centrality in Jewish observance, one that largely cancels out the exilic orientation of Jewish tradition. They give rise to a form of Jewish observance focusing on exact origins and specific graves to the exclusion of a more characteristic yearning for the messianic future. Third, the final change entails writing out the many historical convergences between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam reflected in the traditions themselves so as to eliminate possibilities for accommodating difference, while using Jewish observance and forms of direct violence in order to erase the presence of an existing Palestinian population."

^ History made as Derby becomes 'sister city' of Hebron, Palestine Archived 2015-09-23 at the Wayback Machine, Derby Telegraph

^ [3], Kraljevo City

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ArchNet.org. "Hebron". Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: MIT School of Architecture and Planning. Archived from the original on 2014-01-05.

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[27] Y.L. Arbeitman, The Hittite is Thy Mother: An Anatolian Approach to Genesis 23, (1981) pp. 889-1026, argues that an Indo-European root *ar-, with the same meaning as the semitic root ḥbr, namely 'to join' may underlie part of the earlier name Kiryat-Arba ^[26]

[ElectedMayor-1] "Palestinian terrorist in killing of 6 Jews elected Hebron mayor". Times of Israel. 14 May 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2017.

[2] "Hebron City Profile – ARIJ" (PDF).

[PrelimCensus2017-3] Preliminary Results of the Population, Housing and Establishments Census, 2017 (PDF). Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) (Report). State of Palestine. February 2018. pp. 64–82. Retrieved 2023-10-24.

[4] Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index by Josef W. Meri; p.318; "Hebron(Khalil al-Rahman"

[5] Kamrava 2010, p. 236.

[Alimi_2013_178-6] Alimi 2013, p. 178.

[7] Rothrock 2011, p. 100.

[8] Beilin 2004, p. 59.

[9] "Palestinian Residents of Jerusalem". Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research. 2014-08-13. Retrieved 2022-06-12.

[:1-10] "West Bank". ATG. 2014-10-22. Retrieved 2022-06-12.

[Neuman_2018_3-11] Neuman 2018, p. 3

[12] ISBN 978-1-4142-8338-8
.

[13] ISBN 978-0-8143-3366-2
.

[Scharfstein_124-14] Scharfstein 1994, p. 124.

[15] Dumper 2003, p. 164

[16] Salaville 1910, p. 185:'For these reasons after the Arab conquest of 637 Hebron "was chosen as one of the four holy cities of Islam.'

[17] Aksan & Goffman 2007, p. 97: 'Suleyman considered himself the ruler of the four holy cities of Islam, and, along with Mecca and Medina, included Hebron and Jerusalem in his rather lengthy list of official titles.'

[18] Honigmann 1993, p. 886.

[:0-19] "Hebron | city, West Bank | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-06-11.

[20] ISBN 978-0-19-938723-6
. Hebron is sometimes thought of as a concentrated microcosm of the conflict in Israel/Palestine. Sometimes it is imagined as a microcosm of Israeli occupation in post-1967 territories, sometimes as a microcosm of the settler-colonial project in Palestine, and sometimes as a microcosm of the Jewish state surrounded by Arab enemies.

[FOOTNOTENeuman20184-21] Neuman 2018, p. 4.

[PNIC-22] 'Projected Mid -Year Population for Hebron Governorate by Locality 2017-2021,' Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics 2021

[23] Zacharia 2010.

[24] Hasasneh 2005.

[25] Flusfeder 1997

[FOOTNOTENiesiolowski-Spano2016124-26] Niesiolowski-Spano 2016, p. 124.

[28] Cazelles 1981, p. 195 compares Amorite ḫibru(m). Two roots are in play, ḥbr/ḫbr. The root has magical overtones, and develops pejorative connotations in late Biblical usage.

[:2-29] Talmon-Heller, Daniella (2007). "Graves, Relics and Sanctuariese: The Evolution of Syrian Sacred Topography (Eleventh-Thirteenth Centuries)". ARAM Periodical. 19: 606.

[30] Qur'an ("source text". Archived from the original
on October 27, 2009. Retrieved 2007-07-30.)

[31] Büssow 2011, p. 194 n.220

[Sharon_2007_104-32] Sharon 2007, p. 104

[33] Negev & Gibson 2001, pp. 225–5.

[34] Na'aman 2005, p. 180

[35] Towner 2001, pp. 144–45: "[T]he city was a Canaanite royal center long before it became Israelite".

[36] Albright 2000, p. 110

[37] Na'aman 2005, pp. 77–78

[38] Smith 1903, p. 200.

[39] Kraeling 1925, p. 179.

[40] Na'aman 2005, p. 361 These non-Semitic names perhaps echo either a tradition of a group of elite professional troops (Philistines, Hittites), formed in Canaan whose ascendancy was overthrown by the West-Semitic clan of Caleb. They would have migrated from the Negev,

[41] ISBN 978-0-521-08368-3
.

[42] Joshua 10:3, 5, 3–39; 12:10, 13. Na'aman 2005, p. 177 doubts this tradition. "The book of Joshua is not a reliable source for either a historical or a territorial discussion of the Late Bronze Age, and its evidence must be disregarded".

[43] Mulder 2004, p. 165

[44] Alter 1996, p. 108.

[45] Hamilton 1995, p. 126.

[46] Finkelstein & Silberman 2001, p. 45.

[47] Lied 2008, pp. 154–62, 162

[48] Elazar 1998, p. 128: (Genesis.ch. 23)

[49] Magen 2007, p. 185.

[50] Glick 1994, p. 46, citing Joshua 10:36–42 and the influence this has had on certain settlers in the West Bank.

[51] Gottwald 1999, p. 153: "certain conquests claimed for Joshua are elsewhere attributed to single tribes or clans, for example, in the case of Hebron (in Joshua 10:36–37, Hebron's capture is attributed to Joshua; in Judges 1:10 to Judah; in Judges 1:20 and Joshua 14:13–14; 15:13–14" to Caleb.

[52] Bratcher & Newman 1983, p. 262.

[FritzDavies19962-53] ISBN 978-0-567-60296-1
.

[54] Gottwald 1999, p. 173, citing 2 Samuel, 5:3.

[55] Japhet 1993, p. 148. See Joshua 20, 1–7.

[56] Hasson 2016

[57] Jericke 2003, p. 17

[58] Jericke 2003, pp. 26ff., 31.

[59] Carter 1999, pp. 96–99 Carter challenges this view on the grounds that it has no archeological support.

[60] Lemaire 2006, p. 419

[61] Jericke 2003, p. 19.

[62] Josephus Flavius, Antiquities of the Jews
, Bk. 12, ch.8, para.6.

[63] Duke 2010, pp. 93–94 is sceptical.'This should be considered a raid on Hebron instead of a conquest based on subsequent events in the book of I Maccabees.'

[64] Duke 2010, p. 94

[65] Jericke 2003, p. 17:'Spätestens in römischer Zeit ist die Ansiedlung im Tal beim heutigen Stadtzentrum zu finden'.

[66] Josephus 1860, p. 701 Josephus, The Jewish War, Bk 4, ch. 9, p. 9.

[67] Schürer, Millar & Vermes 1973, p. 553 n.178 citing Jerome, in Zachariam 11:5; in Hieremiam 6:18; Chronicon paschale.

[68] Hezser 2002, p. 96.

[69] Norwich 1999, p. 285

[Salaville_1910_185-70] Salaville 1910, p. 185

[71] Gil 1997, pp. 56–57 cites the late testimony of two monks, Eudes and Arnoul CE 1119–1120:'When they (the Muslims) came to Hebron they were amazed to see the strong and handsome structures of the walls and they could not find an opening through which to enter, then the Jews happened to come, who lived in the area under the former rule of the Greeks (that is the Byzantines), and they said to the Muslims: give us (a letter of security) that we may continue to live (in our places) under your rule (literally-amongst you) and permit us to build a synagogue in front of the entrance (to the city). If you will do this, we shall show you where you can break in. And it was so'.

[72] Büssow 2011, p. 195

[73] Hiro 1999, p. 166.

[74] Frenkel, 2011, p.28–29

[75] Forbes 1965, p. 155, citing Anton Kisa et al.,Das Glas im Altertum, 1908.

[76] Gil 1997, pp. 205

[77] Al-Muqaddasi 2001, pp. 156–57. For an older translation see Le Strange 1890, pp. 309–10

[78] Le Strange 1890, pp. 310–11

[79] Le Strange 1890, p. 315

[80] Singer 2002, p. 148.

[FOOTNOTEZbeedat2024-81] Zbeedat 2024.

[82] Gil 1997, p. 206

[83] Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 78:'The Castle of St. Abraham' was the generic Crusader name for Hebron.'

[84] Israel tourguide, Avraham Lewensohn, 1979. p. 222.

[85] Murray 2000, p. 107

[86] Arsuf, north of Jaffa
, who had been wounded by Godfrey's own forces during the siege of the port, and later returned by the Muslims to Godfrey as a token of good will.

[87] Runciman 1965b, p. 4

[88] Le Strange 1890, pp. 317–18

[89] Kohler 1896, pp. 447ff.

[90] Runciman 1965b, p. 319.

[91] Kraemer 2001, p. 422.

[92] Boas 1999, p. 52.

[93] Richard 1999, p. 112.

[94] Benjamin 1907, p. 25.

[95] Gil 1997, p. 207. Note to editors. This account, always in Moshe Gil, refers to two distinct events, the Arab conquest from Byzantium, and the Kurdish-Arab conquest from Crusaders. In both the manuscript is a monkish chronicle, and the words used, and event described is identical. We may have a secondary source confusion here.

[96] Sharon 2003, p. 297.

[97] Runciman 1965c, p. 219

[98] Micheau 2006, p. 402

[99] Murphy-O'Connor 1998, p. 274.

[100] Sharon 1997, pp. 117–18.

[101] Dandis, Wala. History of Hebron. 2011-11-07. Retrieved on 2012-03-02.

[102] Meri 2004, pp. 362–63.

[103] Kosover 1966, p. 5.

[104] David 2010, p. 24.

[105] Lamdan 2000, p. 102.

[106] Robinson & Smith 1856, pp. 440–42, n.1.

[107] Singer 2002, p. 148

[108] Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 458.

[109] Berger 2012, p. 246..

[FOOTNOTEGreen2007xv–xix-110] Green 2007, pp. xv–xix.

[Büssow_2011_195-111] Büssow 2011, p. 195.

[112] David 2010, p. 24. Tahrir registers document 20 households in 1538/9, 8 in 1553/4, 11 in 1562 and 1596/7. Gil however suggests the tahrir records of the Jewish population may be understated.

[113] Schwarz 1850, p. 397

[114] Perera 1996, p. 104.

[115] Barnay 1992, pp. 89–90 gives the figures of 12,000 quadrupling to 46,000 Kuruş.

[116] Marcus 1996, p. 85. In 1770, they received financial assistance from North American Jews which amounted in excess of £100.

[117] Van Luit 2009, p. 42. In 1803, the rabbis and elders of the Jewish community were imprisoned after failing to pay their debts. In 1807 the community did however succeed in purchasing a 5-dunam (5,000 m²) plot where Hebron's wholesale market stands today.

[118] Conder 1830, p. 198.

[119] Conder 1830, p. 198. The source was a manuscript, The Travels of Ali Bey, vol. ii, pp. 232–33.

[120] Schölch 1993, p. 161.

[121] Büssow 2011, p. 198

[122] WV 1833, p. 436.

[123] Shaw 1808, p. 144

[124] Finn 1868, p. 39.

[125] Krämer 2011, p. 68

[126] Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, pp. 6–11, esp. p. 8

[Robinson_88-127] Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 88.

[128] Schwarz 1850, p. 403.

[129] Schwarz 1850, pp. 398–99.

[130] Schwarz 1850, pp. 398–400

[131] Finn 1878, pp. 287ff.

[132] Schölch 1993, pp. 234–35.

[FOOTNOTECohen201515-133] Cohen 2015, p. 15.

[134] Schwarz 1850, p. 401

[135] Wilson 1847, pp. 355–381, 372:The rabbi of the Ashkenazi community, who said they numbered 60 mainly Polish and Russian emigrants, professed no knowledge of the Sephardim in Hebron (p.377).

[136] Sicker 1999, p. 6.

[137] Büssow 2011, pp. 198–99.

[138] Wilson 1847, p. 379.

[139] Wilson 1881, p. 195 mentions a different set of names, the Quarter of the Cloister Gate (Harat Bab ez Zawiyeh);the Quarter of the Sanctuary (Haret el Haram), to the south-east.

[140] Schölch 1993, pp. 236–37.

[141] Finn 1878, pp. 305–308.

[Shragai_2008-142] Shragai 2008.

[143] History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, Volume 2, Isaac Samuel Emmanuel, Suzanne A. Emmanuel, American Jewish Archives, 1970. p. 754: "Between 1869 and 1871 Hebron was plagued with a severe drought. Food was so scarce that the little available sold for ten times the normal value. Although the rains came in 1871, there was no easing of the famine, for the farmers had no seed to sow. The [Jewish] community was obliged to borrow money from non-Jews at exorbitant interest rates in order to buy wheat for their fold. Their leaders finally decided to send their eminent Chief Rabbi Eliau [Soliman] Mani to Egypt to obtain relief."

[144] Khalidi 1998, p. 218.

[ConderCR1879-145] Conder 1879, p. 79

[146] Schölch 1993, pp. 161–62 quoting David Delpuget Les Juifs d´Alexandrie, de Jaffa et de Jérusalem en 1865, Bordeaux, 1866, p. 26.

[147] Schölch 1993, pp. 161–62.

[Taraki_Giacaman-148] Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14

[Taraki_Giacaman2-149] Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14: "Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and well into the twentieth, Hebron was a peripheral, "borderline" community, attracting poor itinerant peasants and those with Sufi inclinations from its environs. The tradition of shorabat Sayyidna Ibrahim, a soup kitchen surviving into the present day and supervised by the awqaf, and that of the Sufi zawaya gave the city a reputation for being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual, cementing the poor cast of a town supporting the unproductive and the needy (Ju'beh 2003). This reputation was bound to shed a conservative, dull cast on the city, a place not known for high living, dynamism, or innovativeness."

[150] Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 41

[151] Gorenberg 2007, p. 145.

[152] Laurens 1999, p. 508.

[153] Renan 1864, p. 93 remarked of the town that it was 'one of the bulwarks of Semitic ideas, in their most austere form.'

[154] Büssow 2011, p. 199.

[155] Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 92.

[156] Campos 2007, pp. 55–56

[157] Kupferschmidt 1987, pp. 110–11.

[158] J. B. Barron, ed. Palestine, Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922. Government of Palestine, page 9

[CP7fYghBFQC_1936,_p._887-159] ISBN 978-90-04-09790-2
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[160] Cohen 2008, p. 64.

[161] Kupferschmidt 1987, p. 82: "In any event, after his appointment, Abd al-Hayy al-Khatib not only played a prominent role in the disturbances of 1929, but, in general, appeared as one of the few loyal adherents of Hajj Amin in that town."

[Tarākī_2006_12–14-162] Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14.

[163] Cohen 2008, pp. 19–20.

[164] Ilan Ben Zion, 'Eyeing Nepal, experts warn Israel is unprepared for its own Big One,' The Times of Israel 27 April 2015.

[165] Kupferschmidt 1987, p. 237

[166] Wein 1993, pp. 138–39,

[167] Bauman 1994, p. 22

[168] Krämer 2011, p. 232.

[169] Segev 2001, p. 318.

[170] Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 92

[171] Post-holocaust and anti-semitism – Issues 40–75 – Page 35 Merkaz ha-Yerushalmi le-ʻinyene tsibur u-medinah, Temple University. Center for Jewish Community Studies – 2006: "After the 1929 riots in Mandatory Palestine, the non-Jewish French writer Albert Londres asked him why the Arabs had murdered the old, pious Jews in Hebron and Safed, with whom they had no quarrel. The mayor answered: "In a way you behave like in a war. You don't kill what you want. You kill what you find. Next time they will all be killed, young and old." Later on, Londres spoke again to the mayor and tested him ironically by saying: "You cannot kill all the Jews. There are 150,000 of them." Nashashibi answered "in a soft voice, 'Oh no, it'll take two days."

[172] Segev 2001, pp. 325–26: The Zionist Archives preserves lists of Jews who were saved by Arabs; one list contains 435 names.

[173] Republic, The New (May 7, 2008). "The Tangled Truth". The New Republic.

[174] Campos 2007, pp. 56–57

[Levinsohn2011-175] Chaim Levinsohn, 'Israel Supreme Court Rules Hebron Jews Can't Reclaim Lands Lost After 1948 ,' Haaretz 18 February 2011.

[176] The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews, Benny Morris – 2003. pp. 186–87.

[177] Thomas A Idinopulos, Jerusalem, 1994, p. 300, "So severe were the Jordanian restrictions against Jews gaining access to the old city that visitors wishing to cross over from west Jerusalem...had to produce a baptismal certificate."

[178] Armstrong, Karen, Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, 1997, "Only clergy, diplomats, UN personnel, and a few privileged tourists were permitted to go from one side to the other. The Jordanians required most tourists to produce baptismal certificates—to prove they were not Jewish ... ."

[179] Robins 2004, pp. 71–72

[180] ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5
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[181] The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Sir H. A. R. Gibb 1980. p. 337.

[Efrat_1984_192-182] Efrat 1984, p. 192

[183] Auerbach 2009, p. 79: "Under Jordanian rule, the last vestiges of a Jewish historical presence in Hebron were obliterated. The Avraham Avinu synagogue, already in ruins, was razed; a pen for goats, sheep, and donkeys was built on the site."

[184] Gorenberg 2007, pp. 80–83.

[185] Gorenberg 2007, pp. 138–39

[186] Sternhell 1999, p. 333

[187] Sternhell 1999, p. 337:'In building this new Jewish town, one was sending a message to the international community: for the Jews, the sites connected with Jewish history are inalienable, and if later, for circumstantial reasons, the state of Israel is obliged to give one or another of them up, the step is not considered final.'

[188] Gorenberg 2007, p. 151: 'David's kingdom was a model for the messianic kingdom. David began in Hebron, so settling Hebron would lead to final redemption.'

[189] Segev 2008, p. 698: "Hebron was considered a holy city; the massacre of Jews there in 1929 was imprinted on national memory along with the great pogroms of Eastern Europe. The messianic fervor that characterized the Hebron settlers was more powerful than the awakening that led people to settle in East Jerusalem: while Jerusalem had already been annexed, the future of Hebron was still unclear."

[jpt-190] The Jerusalem Post. "Field News 10/2/2002 Hebron Jews' offspring divided over city's fate Archived 2011-08-16 at the Wayback Machine", 2006-05-16

[agf-191] The Philadelphia Inquirer. "Hebron descendants decry actions of current settlers They are kin of the Jews ousted in 1929", 1997-03-03

[shragai-192] Shragai, Nadav (2007-12-26). "80 years on, massacre victims' kin reclaims Hebron house". Haaretz. Retrieved 2008-02-07.

[193] Shargai, Nadav (September 26, 2007). "Gov't bans Hebron settlers from winterizing controversial house". Haaretz. Archived from the original on Aug 3, 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

[194] Katz, Yaakov. "Jpost". Jpost. Archived from the original on 2012-01-11. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

[195] Shragai, Nadav; Zarchin, Tomer (17 Nov 2008). "Settlers threaten 'Amona'-style riots over Hebron eviction". Haaretz. Archived from the original on May 22, 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

[196] Harel, Amos (November 20, 2008). "Hebron settler mob caught on video clashing with IDF troops". Haaretz. Archived from the original on Apr 20, 2010. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

[197] Jerusalem Post
, December 4, 2008

[198] Charles Reynell (1972). The Economist. Vol. 242. Economist Newspaper Limited.

[199] Mattar 2005, p. 255

[200] Bouckaert 2001, p. 14

[201] Rubenberg 2003, pp. 162–63)

[202] Kellerman 1993, p. 89

[203] Rubenberg 2003, p. 187.

[204] Boston Globe, July 31, 2002;Amos Harel and Jonathan Lis, "Minister's Aide Calls Hebron Riots a 'Pogrom',' Haaretz
31 July 2002. p. 409, notes 55, 56.

[205] The Scotsman 2002.

[206] "Jewish presence in Hebron is an indisputable historical fact". Israel Hayom. 2011-11-04. Retrieved 2013-03-26.

[Kimmerling_2003_443-207] Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 443

[208] "Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron". United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine. Non-UN document. January 17, 1997. Archived from the original on October 24, 2007.

[209] Gurkow, Lazer. "Chabad.org". Chabad.org. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

[hebron-wp-210] Janine Zacharia (March 8, 2010). "Letter from the West Bank: In Hebron, renovation of holy site sets off strife". The Washington Post.

[BBC_GC4-211] "The Geneva Convention". BBC News. 10 December 2009. Retrieved 27 September 2011.

[212] "B'Tselem – Press Releases – 31 Dec. 2007: B'Tselem: 131 Palestinians who did not participate in the hostilities killed by Israel's security forces in 2007". Btselem.org. 2007-12-31. Retrieved 2009-11-12.

[213] "Israeli NGO issues damning report on situation in Hebron". Agence France-Presse. ReliefWeb. August 19, 2003. Archived from the original on October 21, 2007. Retrieved March 30, 2007.

[214] "Hebron, Area H-2: Settlements Cause Mass Departure of Palestinians" (PDF). B'Tselem. August 2003. "In total, 169 families lived on the three streets in September 2000, when the intifada began. Since then, seventy-three families—forty-three percent—have left their homes."

[215] "Palestine Refugees: a challenge for the International Community". United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East. ReliefWeb. October 10, 2006. Archived from the original on October 17, 2006. Settler violence has forced out over half the Palestinian population in some neighborhoods in the downtown area of Hebron. This once bustling community is now eerily deserted, and presents a harrowing existence for those few Palestinians who dare to remain or who are too deep in poverty to move elsewhere.

[btselem2007-216] "Ghost Town: Israel's Separation Policy and Forced Eviction of Palestinians from the Center of Hebron". B'Tselem. May 2007.

[217] Hope in Hebron. David Shulman, New York Review of Books, 22 March 2013:
″Those who still live on Shuhada Street can't enter their own homes from the street. Some use the rooftops to go in and out, climbing from one roof to another before issuing into adjacent homes or alleys. Some have cut gaping holes in the walls connecting their homes to other (often deserted) houses and thus pass through these buildings until they can exit into a lane outside or up a flight of stairs to a passageway on top of the old casba market. According to a survey conducted by the human-rights organization B'Tselem in 2007, 42 per cent of the Palestinian population in the city center of Hebron (area H2)—some 1,014 families—have abandoned their homes and moved out, most of them to area H1, now under Palestinian control.″

[20yrs-218] "Confidential 20-year monitoring report: Israel regularly breaks int'l law in Hebron". haaretz.com. 2018-12-17. Retrieved 2018-12-17.

[Turnerp261-219] Turner 1820, p. 261

[PackardUnion1842-220] Frederick Adolphus Packard; American Sunday-School Union (1842). The Union Bible Dictionary. American Sunday-School Union. p. 304. About four hundred families of Arabs dwell in Hebron, and about one hundred and twenty families of Jews; the latter having been greatly reduced in number by a bloody battle in 1834, between them and the troops of Ibrahim Pasha.

[LewisCohen2015-221] ISBN 978-1-4008-6779-0
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[224] The Missionary Herald. Board. 1825. p. 65.

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[226] William McClure Thomson, The Land and the Book, Southern Palestine and Jerusalem, p.275

[p.88-227] Robinson, p. 88

[228] ISBN 978-965-260-001-1
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[229] James A. Huie (1840). The history of the Jews, from the taking of Jerusalem by Titus to the present time [by J.A. Huie]. p. 242.

[auto-230] PEF Survey of Western Palestine, Volume III, p.309

[231] ISBN 978-0-405-10302-5
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[232] Alexander Scholch (Schölch), 'The Demographic Development of Palestine, 1850-1882,' International Journal of Middle East Studies Vol. 17, No. 4 (Nov., 1985), pp. 485-505,p.486

[233] The Friend. Vol. 54–55. The Friend. 1881. p. 333.

[234] ISBN 978-1-56821-123-7
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[Census1922-235] Barron, 1923, Table V, Sub-district of Hebron, p. 10

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[237] Village Statistics (PDF). 1938. p. 52.

[238] Government of Palestine (1945), A Survey of Palestine, Vol. 1, p. 151

[239] First Census, Government of Jordan. 1964, p. 06

[240] West Bank, Volume 1 Table I – West Bank population according to 1967 census and Jordanian 1961 census, Levy Economics Institute

[241] West Bank, Volume 1 Table 4 – Population by religion, sex, age, and type of settlement, Levy Economics Institute

[PCBS97-242] "Palestinian Census 1997". Archived from the original on November 15, 2010.

[Jewish-243] Palestinian security forces deploy in Hebron 25/10/2008 gives about 500 as of October 2008

[PCBS-244] The last official census in 2007 gave 165,000.2007 Locality Population Statistics Archived 2010-12-10 at the Wayback Machine Hebron Governorate Population, Housing and Establishment Census 2007. Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS).

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[De_Cesari_2009_235–236-246] De Cesari 2009, pp. 235–36

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[248] Büssow 2011, p. 202

[249] Efrat 1984, p. 191

[Kedar_2000_112–113-250] Kedar 2000, pp. 112–13

[251] Brill 1993, p. 887

[252] About Founder of Hebron University Archived 2012-10-16 at the Wayback Machine, Hebron University, 2010–2011.

[253] A ghetto state of ghettos: Palestinians under Israeli citizenship, Mary Boger, City University of New York. Sociology – 2008. p. 93: "The development of the Islamic Movement in Israel owes much to the Israeli and Jordanian governments who collaborated to establish an Islamic University in al-Khalil (Hebron), headed by Shaykh Muhammad Ali al-Ja'bari a prominent anti-PLO leader who served as minister in Jordan and in the internal circle of kings Abd-allah and Husayn, who are known to have befriended the Israeli occupation."

[254] Ricca 2007, p. 177

[255] Auerbach 2009, p. 79

[De_Cesari_2009_230–233-256] De Cesari 2009, pp. 230–33

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[263] Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Jewish Terrorism in Israel, Columbia University Press, 2011 p.72.

[264] Gorenberg 2007, p. 356

[AIC_2004_10-12-265] Occupation in Hebron Archived 2016-01-05 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 10–12. Alternative Information Center, 2004

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[267] Lustick 1988, p. 205 n.1

[HebronJews-268] Auerbach 2009, p. 60

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[:3-270] Perera 1996, pp. 178: 'As I made my way to the Machpelah, I passed a curious scene. The Hadassah hospital of Hebron, which is Arab-administered, had been taken over by Israeli women of Kiryat Arba, the new settlement on the hill overlooking the city. Miriam Levinger, wife of Moshe Levinger, the militant right-wing rabbi who founded Kiryat Arba, was screaming in her Brooklyn-accented Hebrew at the Palestinian police, who were – very politely – attempting to remove the women from the hospital grounds.'

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[272] Kretzmer 2002, pp. 117–18

[273] Falah 1985, p. 253

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[276] Auerbach 2009, pp. 40, 45, 79

[277] Levinson, Chaim. "IDF brass calls for immediate removal of new Hebron settlement." Haaretz Newspaper. 2 April 2012.

[278] Chaim Levinson, 'Following settlers' demand, IDF removes Palestinian flag from Hebron roof,' Haaretz, March 17, 2014

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[280] Hagar Shezaf, 'Israel Plans New Jewish Neighborhood in Hebron's Arab Market,' Haaretz 1 December 2019

[281] Elisha Ben Kimon, Yoav Zitun, Elior Levy, Bennett plans building Jewish neighborhood in Hebron Ynet 1 December 2019

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[283] Haaretz, 22 June 2020, In Hebron, Protecting Palestinians is Not an Israeli Soldier's Job

[284] Haaretz, 3 Feb. 2020, Jared Kushner Does Not See the Brutal Occupation I Helped Carry Out: As a Former Soldier, I Enforced Two Separate Legal Systems for Israelis and Palestinians--The Trump Plan Wants to Make This Reality Permanent

[285] Ward, Hazel (May 23, 2011). "West Bank B&B in Hebron's Old City fully booked". The Australian. Archived from the original on 2012-09-12. Retrieved November 18, 2022.

[286] Nabeel Abraham, What About The Victims? Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, Lies of Our Times, May 1994, pp 3–6.

[287] Bovard 2004, p. 265. Meir Tayar, commander of the Hebron Border Police at the time testified that, 'Instructions are to take cover, wait until the clip is empty or the gun jams and then overpower him. Even if I had been there (in the mosque), I could not have done anything-there were special orders.'

[288] Commission of Inquiry 1994.

[289] Freedland 2012, p. 23.

[290] Levy 2012

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[292] Harel 2002.

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[296] Cordesman 2006, p. 135.

[297] Pedahzur & Perliger 2011, p. 92:Cf.'the most palpable expressions of Kahanism in recent decades can be found in Hebron' p. 74.

[298] ISBN 978-0-19-929797-9
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[299] Chris McGreal, 'Palestinian suicide bomber kills 20 and shatters peace process,' The Guardian 20 August 2003

[300] Sydney Morning Herald 21 August 2003. Hamas claimed it marked the anniversary of Denis Michael Rohan
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[301] "Hebron, Area H-2: Settlements Cause Mass Departure of Palestinians".

[302] "Mounting Human Rights Crisis in Hebron". Archived from the original on 2008-11-15. Retrieved 2010-03-29.

[303] "Israeli human rights group slams Hebron settlers".

[HRW-storm-304] Bouckaert 2001, pp. 5, 40–43, 48, 71–72

[FOOTNOTEFreedland201222-305] Freedland 2012, p. 22.

[306] "History/Mission of CPT". Christian Peacemaker Teams. Archived from the original on 2008-10-11.

[307] Cohen 1985, p. 105

[308] Feige 2009, p. 158

[309] Without Prejudice: The Eaford International Review of Racial Discrimination. International Organization for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination – 1987. p. 81.

[310] [2] Archived 2009-08-03 at the Wayback Machine Jerusalem Post, October 6, 2000 "IDF: Palestinians offer $2,000 for 'martyrs'"

[OldTownofHebron-311] Adamczyk, Ed (7 July 2017). "UNESCO declares Hebron, West Bank, a world heritage site". UPI. Retrieved 7 July 2017.

[ABC_UNESCO-312] "Israelis outraged by UNESCO decision on Hebron holy site". ABC News. Associated Press. 7 July 2017. Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2017.

[313] Finn 1868, p. 184:'the great oak of Sibta, commonly called Abraham's oak by most people except the Jews, who do not believe in any Abraham's oak there. The great patriarch planted, indeed, a grove at Beersheba; but the "Eloné Mamre" they declare to have been "plains," not "oaks," (which would be Alloné Mamre,) and to have been situated northwards instead of westwards from the present Hebron.'

[314] ISBN 978-9953-36-064-5
.

[Vilnay_1973_170–172-315] Vilnay 1973, pp. 170–72

[316] Miscellanies of divinitie: divided into three books Edward Kellet, 1633. p. 223: "Sixthly, the field of Damascus, where the red earth lieth, of which they report Adam was formed; which earth is tough, and may be wrought like wax, and lieth close by Hebron."

[317] Neuman 2018, p. 1

[318] ISBN 978-90-04-16519-9
.

[319] ISBN 978-0-7661-4308-1.^{[permanent dead link}
]

[320] ISBN 978-0-8276-0064-5
.

[321] Craveri 1967, p. 25.

[322] Milman 1840, p. 49.

[323] Gil 1997, p. 100.

[324] Levi della Vida 1993, p. 648

[325] ISBN 978-1-136-49894-7
.

[326] Neuman 2018, p. 5: "This narrowed or fundamentalist focus involves three further changes that are also useful for framing this study: the first is that religiously inscribed space, particularly the remaking of many Palestinian areas into a geography of biblical sites and origins, has been given a new significance in the construction of a distinct Jewish (settler) identity. Spatial reorganization has also resulted in a range of incremental practices included under the rubric of religion that link up with this process of inscription— including renaming, reenvisioning, and rebuilding. These practices in turn support and magnify resolute place-based attachments. The second shift is that these remade biblical sites, specifically in Hebron and within the Tomb of the Patriarchs itself, are being given a new centrality in Jewish observance, one that largely cancels out the exilic orientation of Jewish tradition. They give rise to a form of Jewish observance focusing on exact origins and specific graves to the exclusion of a more characteristic yearning for the messianic future. Third, the final change entails writing out the many historical convergences between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam reflected in the traditions themselves so as to eliminate possibilities for accommodating difference, while using Jewish observance and forms of direct violence in order to erase the presence of an existing Palestinian population."

[327] History made as Derby becomes 'sister city' of Hebron, Palestine Archived 2015-09-23 at the Wayback Machine, Derby Telegraph

[328] [3], Kraljevo City

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