Hebron

Coordinates: 31°31′43″N 35°05′49″E / 31.52861°N 35.09694°E / 31.52861; 35.09694
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"Al-Khalil" redirects here. For other uses, see Al-Khalil (disambiguation) and Hebron (disambiguation).

Hebron
Hebrew
חברון
View of Hebron with the Cave of the Patriarchs, Palestine Polytechnic University, Old City of Hebron, Tomb of Jesse and Ruth, Sheikh Ali al-Bakka Mosque
and Downtown Hebron
City / Municipality type A (from 1997)
 • Head of MunicipalityTayseer Abu Sneineh[1]
Area
[2]
 • Metropolis
74,102 dunams (74.102 km2 or 28.611 sq mi)
Population
 (2017)[3]
 • Metropolis
201,063
 • Density2,700/km2 (7,000/sq mi)
 • Metro
[4][5]
700,000
Websitewww.hebron-city.ps
Official nameHebron/Al-Khalil Old Town
CriteriaCultural: ii, iv, vi
Reference1565
Inscription2017 (41st Session)
Endangered2017–
Area20.6 ha
Buffer zone152.2 ha

Hebron (

Palestinian[7][8][9][10] city in the southern West Bank, 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of Jerusalem. Hebron is capital of the West Bank's largest governorate, known as Hebron Governorate. With a population of 201,063 in the city limits, the adjacent metropolitan area within the governorate is home to over 700,000 people. Hebron spans across an area of 74.1 square kilometres (28.6 sq mi). It is the third largest city in the country, followed by Gaza and Jerusalem. The city is often considered one of the four holy cities in Judaism as well as in Islam and Christianity
.

It is considered one of the oldest cities in the Levant. According to the

mosque. With the exception of a brief Crusader control, successive Muslim dynasties ruled Hebron from the 6th century CE until the Ottoman Empire's dissolution following World War I, when the city became part of British Mandatory Palestine
.

The

Palestinian National Authority. The city is often described as a "microcosm" of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the Israeli occupation of the West Bank. The 1997 protocol divided the city into two sectors—H1 Hebron, controlled by the Palestinian National Authority, and H2 Hebron, managed by Israeli authorities. All security arrangements and travel permits for local residents are coordinated between the Palestinian Authority and Israel via the COGAT
. The Jewish settlers have their own governing municipal body, the Committee of the Jewish Community of Hebron.

The largest city in the southern West Bank, Hebron is chief commercial and industrial center in the region. It is a busy hub of trade, generating roughly a third of the area's

pottery workshops, metalworking and glassblowing industry. The city is home to numerous shopping malls. The Old City of Hebron features narrow, winding streets, flat-roofed stone houses, and old bazaars. It is recognized as a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO
. Hebron is also known as a regional educational and medical hub.

Etymology

The name "Hebron" appears to trace back to two

Amorite, with a basic sense of 'unite' and connoting a range of meanings from "colleague" to "friend". In the proper name Hebron, the original sense may have been alliance.[12]

The

toponym Ḥebron, understood as ḥaḇer (friend).[17]

History

See also: Timeline of Hebron

Bronze and Iron Age

Archaeological excavations reveal traces of strong fortifications dated to the Early

Kenite element, since the nomadic Kenites are said to have long occupied the city,[23] and Heber is the name for a Kenite clan.[24] In the narrative of the later Hebrew conquest, Hebron was one of two centres under Canaanite control. They were ruled by the three sons of Anak (benê/yelîdê hāʿănaq).[25] or may reflect some Kenite and Kenizzite migration from the Negev to Hebron, since terms related to the Kenizzites appear to be close to Hurrian. This suggests that behind the Anakim legend lies some early Hurrian population.[26] In Biblical lore they are represented as descendants of the Nephilim.[27] The Book of Genesis mentions that it was formerly called Kirjath-arba, or "city of four", possibly referring to the four pairs or couples who were buried there, or four tribes, or four quarters,[28] four hills,[29] or a confederated settlement of four families.[30]

The story of Abraham's purchase of the

Amorite clans who became his ba'alei brit or masters of the covenant.[33]

Excavations at Tel Rumeida
Samson removes gates of Gaza (left) and brings them to Mount Hebron (right). Strassburg (1160–1170), Württemberg State Museum in Stuttgart

The Hebron of the Israelites was centered on what is now known as Tel Rumeida, while its ritual centre was located at Elonei Mamre.[34] Hebrew Bible narrative also describes the city.

It is said to have been wrested from the Canaanites by either

King David called by God to relocate to Hebron and reign from there for some seven years (2 Samuel 2:1–3).[38] It is there that the elders of Israel come to him to make a covenant before Elohim and anoint him king of Israel.[39] It was in Hebron again that Absalom has himself declared king and then raises a revolt against his father David (2 Samuel 15:7–10). It became one of the principal centers of the Tribe of Judah and was classified as one of the six traditional Cities of Refuge.[40]

As is shown by the discovery at

Shepelah and the coastal plain to the west.[42] Lying along trading routes, it remained administratively and politically dependent on Jerusalem for this period.[43]

Classic antiquity

After the destruction of the

Idumean.[49]

Simon Bar Giora, a leader of the Zealots, without bloodshed. The "little town" was later laid to waste by Vespasian's officer Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis.[51] Josephus wrote that he "slew all he found there, young and old, and burnt down the town". After the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, innumerable Jewish captives were sold into slavery at Hebron's Terebinth slave-market.[52][53]

The city was part of the

Sassanid army.[56]

Muslim conquest and Islamic caliphate

Hebron was one of the last cities of Palestine to fall to the Islamic invasion in the 7th century, possibly the reason why Hebron is not mentioned in any traditions of the Arab conquest.[57] When the Rashidun Caliphate established its rule over Hebron in 638, the Muslims converted the Byzantine church at the site of Abraham's tomb into a mosque.[55] It became an important station on the caravan trading route from Egypt, and also as a way-station for pilgrims making the yearly hajj from Damascus.[58] After the fall of the city, Jerusalem's conqueror, Caliph Omar ibn al-Khattab permitted Jewish people to return and to construct a small synagogue within the Herodian precinct.[59]

Catholic bishop

Umayyad period, described the city as unfortified and poor. In his writings he also mentioned camel caravans transporting firewood from Hebron to Jerusalem, which implies there was a presence of Arab nomads in the region at that time.[60] Trade greatly expanded, in particular with Bedouins in the Negev (al-Naqab) and the population to the east of the Dead Sea (Baḥr Lūṭ). According to Anton Kisa, Jews from Hebron (and Tyre) founded the Venetian glass industry in the 9th century.[61]

Hebron was almost absent from Muslim literature before the 10th century.

Fatimids.[64] In 1047, Nasir-i-Khusraw described Hebron in his Safarnama as having many villages providing revenues for pious purposes.[65][64] He mentioned a spring flowing from under a stone, with water channeled to a covered tank outside the town.[64] The Sanctuary stood on the town's southern border, enclosed by four walls.[65] Barley was the primary crop, with abundant olives.[65] Visitors were provided with bread, olives, lentils cooked in olive oil, and raisins.[65] Hebron had numerous mills operated by oxen and mules, along with working girls baking bread.[65] The hospitality extended to about three-pound loaves of bread and meals for every arriving person, including up to 500 pilgrims on certain days.[64][65]

The tradition survives to this day in the form of the Takiat Ibrahim soup kitchen, which has been active in providing food for thousands over Ramadan, which coincided with food shortages during the 2024

Seljuk period, the community was headed by Saadia b. Abraham b. Nathan, known as the "haver of the graves of the patriarchs."[67]

Crusader and Ayyubid period

See also: Vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem

The

relics purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, a discovery that excited eager curiosity among all three communities in Palestine, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian.[74][75] Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166 Maimonides visited Hebron and wrote,

On Sunday, 9 Marheshvan (October 17), I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave. On that day, I stood in the cave and prayed, praise be to God, (in gratitude) for everything.[76]

A royal domain, Hebron was handed over to

Kerak and Sebastia (the tomb of John the Baptist).[78] In 1170, Benjamin of Tudela visited Hebron, referred to as in its Frankish name St. Abram de Bron.[79] He mentioned the great church called St. Abram, which was once a Jewish place of worship during the time of Muslim rule.[79] The Gentiles had erected six tombs there, claimed to be those of Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, and Leah.[79] The custodians collected money from pilgrims by presenting these tombs as the tombs of the Patriarchs.[79] However, if a Jew offered a special reward, they would open an iron gate leading to a series of empty caves, until reaching the third cave where the actual sepulchers of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs were said to be located.[79]

The Kurdish Muslim

Richard of Cornwall, brought from England to settle the dangerous feuding between Templars and Hospitallers, whose rivalry imperiled the treaty guaranteeing regional stability stipulated with the Egyptian Sultan As-Salih Ayyub, managed to impose peace on the area. But soon after his departure, feuding broke out and in 1241 the Templars mounted a damaging raid on what was, by now, Muslim Hebron, in violation of agreements.[82]

In 1244, the

Khwarazmians destroyed the town, but left the sanctuary untouched.[56]

Mamluk period

In 1260, after

Na'ib of Gaza and much of coastal and interior Palestine ordered the construction of Jawli Mosque to enlarge the prayer space for worshipers at the Ibrahimi Mosque.[86]

Hebron was visited by important rabbis over the next two centuries, among them

Obadiah ben Abraham Bartenura wrote around 1490:

I was in the Cave of Machpelah, over which the mosque has been built; and the Arabs hold the place in high honour. All the Kings of the Arabs come here to repeat their prayers, but neither a Jew nor an Arab may enter the Cave itself, where the real graves of the Patriarchs are; the Arabs remain above, and let down burning torches into it through a window, for they keep a light always burning there. . Bread and lentil, or some other kind of pulse (seeds of peas or beans), is distributed (by the Muslims) to the poor every day without distinction of faith, and this is done in honour of Abraham.[94]

Early Ottoman period

Hebron in 1839, after a drawing by David Roberts, in The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia

The expansion of the

Sephardi Jews into the Ottoman provinces, and a slow influx of Jews to the Holy Land took place, with notable Sephardi kabbalists settling in Hebron.[95] Over the following two centuries, there was a significant migration of Bedouin tribal groups from the Arabian Peninsula into Palestine. Many settled in three separate villages in the Wādī al-Khalīl, and their descendants later formed the majority of Hebron.[96]

The Jewish community fluctuated between 8–10 families throughout the 16th century, and suffered from severe financial straits in the first half of the century.

Abraham Avinu Synagogue.[98] In 1659, Abraham Pereyra of Amsterdam founded the Hesed Le'Abraham yeshiva in Hebron, which attracted many students.[99] In the early 18th century, the Jewish community suffered from heavy debts, almost quadrupling from 1717 to 1729,[100] and were "almost crushed" from the extortion practiced by the Turkish pashas. In 1773 or 1775, a substantial amount of money was extorted from the Jewish community after a false allegation that the son of a local sheikh was murdered and thrown into a cesspit.[citation needed]> Emissaries from the community were frequently sent overseas to solicit funds.[101][102] During the Ottoman period, the dilapidated patriarchs' tombs were restored to a semblance of dignity.[103] Ali Bey, in Muslim disguise, was one of the few Westerners to gain access. In 1807 he reported that the sepulchres were covered with carpets of green silk embroidered in gold and those of the wives were covered in red silk.The sultans of Constantinople furnished these carpets, which were renewed from time to time. Ali Bey counted nine, one over the other, on the sepulchre of Abraham.[104] Hebron also became known for its glass production, based on Bedouin trade networks that brought up minerals from the Dead Sea. The industry is mentioned in travel literature in 19th century written by Western travellers to Palestine. Ulrich Jasper Seetzen noted during his travels in Palestine in 1808–09 that 150 persons were employed in the glass industry in Hebron,[105] based on 26 kilns.[106] In 1833, a report on the town in the weekly paper of the London-based Religious Tract Society wrote that Hebron had numerous well-provisioned shops and produced glass lamps which were exported to Egypt.[107] Early 19th-century travellers also noted Hebron's flourishing agriculture. It was a major exporter of dibse, grape sugar,[108] from the famous Dabookeh grapestock characteristic of Hebron.[109]

Northern Hebron in the mid-19th century (1850s)

An

at least five were killed.[114]
In 1838, the total population was estimated at 10,000.[112] When the government of Ibrahim Pasha fell in 1841, the local clan leader Abd ar-Rahman Amr once again resumed the reins of power as the Sheik of Hebron. Due to his extortionate demands for cash from the local population, most of the Jewish population fled to Jerusalem.[115] In 1846, the Ottoman Governor-in-chief of Jerusalem (serasker), Kıbrıslı Mehmed Emin Pasha, waged a campaign to subdue rebellious sheiks in the Hebron area, and while doing so, allowed his troops to sack the town. Though it was widely rumoured that he secretly protected Abd ar-Rahman,[116] the latter was deported together with other local leaders (such as Muslih al-'Azza of Bayt Jibrin), but he managed to return to the area in 1848.[117]

According to Hillel Cohen, the attacks on Jews in this particular period are an exception that proves the rule, that one of the easiest place for Jews to live in the world were in the various countries of the Ottoman Empire. In the mid-eighteenth century, rabbi Abraham Gershon of Kitov wrote from Hebron that:"the gentiles here very much love the Jews. When there is a brit milah (circumcision ceremony) or any other celebration, their most important men come at night and rejoice with the Jews and clap hands and dance with the Jews, just like the Jews'."[118]

Late Ottoman period

A display of Hebron glass

By 1850, the Jewish population consisted of 45–60 Sephardic families, some 40 born in the town, and a 30-year-old Ashkenazic community of 50 families, mainly Polish and Russian,

World Fair of 1873 in Vienna
.

A report from the consul of the French Consulate in Jerusalem in 1886 suggests that glass-making remained an important source of income for Hebron, with four factories earning 60,000 francs yearly.[132] While the economy of other cities in Palestine was based on solely on trade, the economy of Hebron was more diverse, including agriculture and livestock herding, along with glassware manufacturing and processing of hides. This was because the most fertile lands were situated within the city limits.[133] Even so, Hebron had an image of being unproductive and an "asylum for the poor and the spiritual".[134] While the wealthy merchants of Nablus built fine mansions, housing in Hebron consisted of semi-peasant dwellings.[133]

Hebron was described as 'deeply Bedouin and Islamic',[135] and 'bleakly conservative' in its religious outlook,[136] with a strong tradition of hostility to Jews.[137][138] It had a reputation for religious zeal in jealously protecting its sites from Jews and Christians, although the Jewish and Christian communities seem to have been an integral part of the local economy.[96] As income from commerce declined and tax revenues diminished significantly, the Ottoman government left Hebron to manage its own affairs for the most part, making it "one of the most autonomous regions in late Ottoman Palestine."[139] The Jewish community was under French protection until 1914. The Jewish presence itself was divided between the traditional Sephardi community, whose members spoke Arabic and adopted Arab dress, and the more recent influx of Ashkenazi Jews. They prayed in different synagogues, sent their children to different schools, lived in different quarters and did not intermarry. The community was largely Orthodox and anti-Zionist.[140][141]

British Mandate

British loyalty meeting in Hebron, July 1940

The British

Haj Amin, supported the Muslim National Associations and had good contacts with the Zionists.[145] Later, al-Khaṭīb became one of the few loyal followers of Haj Amin in Hebron.[146] During the late Ottoman period, a new ruling elite had emerged in Palestine. They later formed the core of the growing Arab nationalist movement in the early 20th century. During the Mandate period, delegates from Hebron constituted only 1 per cent of the political leadership.[147] The Palestinian Arab decision to boycott the 1923 elections for a Legislative Council was made at the fifth Palestinian Congress, after it was reported by Murshid Shahin (an Arab pro-Zionist activist) that there was intense resistance in Hebron to the elections.[148] Almost no house in Hebron remained undamaged when an earthquake struck Palestine on July 11, 1927.[149]

The Cave of the Patriarchs continued to remain officially closed to non-Muslims, and reports that entry to the site had been relaxed in 1928 were denied by the Supreme Muslim Council.[150]

At this time following attempts by the

Palestinian Arab revolt (April 23, 1936) the British Government decided to move the Jewish community out of Hebron as a precautionary measure to secure its safety. The sole exception was the 8th generation Hebronite Ya'akov ben Shalom Ezra, who processed dairy products in the city, blended in well with its social landscape and resided there under the protection of friends. In November 1947, in anticipation of the UN partition vote, the Ezra family closed its shop and left the city.[159] Yossi Ezra has since tried to regain his family's property through the Israeli courts.[160]

Jordanian period

Hebron in the 1960s under Jordanian rule

At the beginning of the

Jordanian military control. The armistice agreement between Israel with Jordan intended to allow Israeli Jewish pilgrims to visit Hebron, but, as Jews of all nationalities were forbidden by Jordan into the country, this did not occur.[162][163]

In December 1948, the Jericho Conference, held by Jordan, was convened to decide the future of the West Bank. Hebron notables, headed by mayor Muhamad 'Ali al-Ja'bari, voted in favour of becoming part of Jordan and to recognise Abdullah I of Jordan as their king. The subsequent unilateral annexation benefited the Arabs of Hebron, who during the 1950s, played a significant role in the economic development of Jordan.[164][165]

Although a significant number of people relocated to Jerusalem from Hebron during the Jordanian period,[166] Hebron itself saw a considerable increase in population with 35,000 settling in the town.[167] During this period, signs of the previous Jewish presence in Hebron were removed.[168]

Israeli occupation

Constructed in 1893, this former Jewish clinic in central Hebron now forms part of an Israeli settlement.

After the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel occupied Hebron along with the rest of the West Bank, establishing a military government to rule the area. In an attempt to reach a land for peace deal, Yigal Allon proposed that Israel annex 45% of the West Bank and return the remainder to Jordan.[169] According to the Allon Plan, the city of Hebron would lie in Jordanian territory, and in order to determine Israel's own border, Allon suggested building a Jewish settlement adjacent to Hebron.[170] David Ben-Gurion also considered that Hebron was the one sector of the conquered territories that should remain under Jewish control and be open to Jewish settlement.[171] Apart from its symbolic message to the international community that Israel's rights in Hebron were, according to Jews, inalienable,[172] settling Hebron also had theological significance in some quarters.[173] For some, the capture of Hebron by Israel had unleashed a messianic fervor.[174]

2018 United Nations map of the area, showing the Israeli occupation arrangements.

Survivors and descendants of the prior community are mixed. Some support the project of Jewish redevelopment, others commend living in peace with Hebronite Arabs, while a third group recommend a full pullout.[175] Descendants supporting the latter views have met with Palestinian leaders in Hebron.[176] In 1997 one group of descendants dissociated themselves from the settlers by calling them an obstacle to peace.[176] On May 15, 2006, a member of a group who is a direct descendant of the 1929 refugees[177] urged the government to continue its support of Jewish settlement, and allow the return of eight families evacuated the previous January from homes they set up in emptied shops near the Avraham Avinu neighborhood.[175] Beit HaShalom, established in 2007 under disputed circumstances, was under court orders permitting its forced evacuation.[178][179][180][181] All the Jewish settlers were expelled on December 3, 2008.[182]

Israeli soldiers patrol an open-air market.

Immediately after the 1967 war, mayor al-Ja'bari had unsuccessfully promoted the creation of an autonomous Palestinian entity in the West Bank, and by 1972, he was advocating for a confederal arrangement with Jordan instead. al-Ja'bari nevertheless consistently fostered a conciliatory policy towards Israel.[183] He was ousted by Fahad Qawasimi in the 1976 mayoral election, which marked a shift in support towards pro-PLO nationalist leaders.[184] Supporters of Jewish settlement within Hebron see their program as the reclamation of an important heritage dating back to Biblical times, which was dispersed or, it is argued, stolen by Arabs after the massacre of 1929.[185][186] The purpose of settlement is to return to the 'land of our forefathers',[187] and the Hebron model of reclaiming sacred sites in Palestinian territories has pioneered a pattern for settlers in Bethlehem and Nablus.[188] Many reports, foreign and Israeli, are sharply critical of the behaviour of Hebronite settlers.[189][190]

Sheik Farid Khader heads the Ja'bari tribe, consisting of some 35,000 people, which is considered one of the most important tribes in Hebron. For years, members of the Ja'bari tribe were the mayors of Hebron. Khader regularly meets with settlers and Israeli government officials and is a strong opponent of both the concept of Palestinian State and the Palestinian Authority itself. Khader believes that Jews and Arabs must learn to coexist.

Tomb of the Patriarchs.[192] The event provided a major motivation for settlers near Hebron to join the Jewish Underground.[193]

In the 1980s Hebron, became the center of the Jewish

attacked the Islamic University and shot three people dead and injured over thirty others.[195] The 1994 Shamgar Commission of Inquiry concluded that Israeli authorities had consistently failed to investigate or prosecute crimes committed by settlers against Palestinians. Hebron IDF commander Noam Tivon said that his foremost concern is to "ensure the security of the Jewish settlers" and that Israeli "soldiers have acted with the utmost restraint and have not initiated any shooting attacks or violence".[196]

Division of Hebron

Main article: Israeli–Palestinian conflict in Hebron
Hebron Agreement, Palestinian cities were placed under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, with the exception of Hebron,[8] which was split into two sectors: H1 is controlled by the Palestinian Authority and H2 – which includes the Old City of Hebron – remained under the military control of Israel.[197][205] Around 120,000 Palestinians live in H1, while around 30,000 Palestinians along with around 700 Israelis remain under Israeli military control in H2. As of 2009, a total of 86 Jewish families lived in Hebron.[206] The IDF (Israel Defense Forces) may not enter H1 unless under Palestinian escort. Palestinians cannot approach areas where settlers live without special permits from the IDF.[207] The Jewish settlement is widely considered to be illegal by the international community, although the Israeli government disputes this.[208]

Old City of Hebron
A net installed in the Old City to prevent garbage dropped by Israeli settlers into a Palestinian area.[209]

Over the period of the First Intifada and Second Intifada, the Jewish community was subjected to attacks by Palestinian militants, especially during the periods of the intifadas; which saw 3 fatal stabbings and 9 fatal shootings in between the first and second Intifada (0.9% of all fatalities in Israel and the West Bank) and 17 fatal shootings (9 soldiers and 8 settlers) and 2 fatalities from a bombing during the second Intifada,[210] and thousands of rounds fired on it from the hills above the Abu-Sneina and Harat al-Sheikh neighbourhoods. On November 15, 2002, 12 Israeli soldiers were killed (Hebron Brigade commander Colonel Dror Weinberg and two other officers, 6 soldiers and 3 members of the security unit of Kiryat Arba) in an ambush.[211] Two Temporary International Presence in Hebron observers were killed by Palestinian gunmen in a shooting attack on the road to Hebron[212][213][214] On March 27, 2001, a Palestinian sniper targeted and killed the Jewish baby Shalhevet Pass. The sniper was caught in 2002.[citation needed] Hebron is one of the three West Bank towns from which the majority of suicide bombers originate. In May 2003, three students of the Hebron Polytechnic University carried out three separate suicide attacks.[215] In August 2003, in what both Islamic groups described as a retaliation, a 29-year-old preacher from Hebron, Raed Abdel-Hamed Mesk, broke a unilateral Palestinian ceasefire by killing 23 and injured over 130 in a bus bombing in Jerusalem.[216][217] In 2007, the Palestinian population in H2 declined due to Israeli security measures such as extended curfews, strict restrictions on movement,[218] the closure of Palestinian businesses and settler harassment.[219][220][221][222] Palestinians are barred from using Al-Shuhada Street, a principal commercial thoroughfare that is locally nicknamed "Apartheid Street" as a result.[207][223]

Israeli organization

home demolitions and land expropriation.[229] In 2017, Temporary International Presence in Hebron (TIPH) issued a confidential report covering their 20 years of work in Hebron. The report, based in part on over 40,000 incidents reported during this period, stated that Israel violated international law in Hebron and has breached the rights of residents as established by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The report claimed that Israel violated Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention, which prohibits the deportation of civilians from occupied territory. Israeli settlement in Hebron was also cited as a violation.[230]

Demographics

In 1820, it was reported that there were about 1,000 Jews in Hebron.[231] In 1838, Hebron had an estimated 1,500 taxable Muslim households, in addition to 41 Jewish tax-payers. Taxpayers consisted here of male heads of households who owned even a very small shop or piece of land. 200 Jews and one Christian household were under 'European protections'. The total population was estimated at 10,000.[112] In 1842, it was estimated that about 400 Arab and 120 Jewish families lived in Hebron, the latter having been diminished in number following the destruction of 1834.[232]

Hebron had a population of 201,063 Palestinians in 2017,[3] and seven hundred Jewish settlers concentrated on the outskirts of its Old City. Roughly 20% of the city, including 35,000 Palestinians, under Israeli military administration, lives in the region of H2 Hebron.[233] Hebron is capital of the Hebron Governorate. With adjoining governorate, the city forms a metropolitan area, known as Hebron metropolitan area, with an estimated population of around 782,227 as of 2021.[234] It is third largest metropolitan area in Palestine, followed by Gaza and Jerusalem.[234]

Hebron is also home to several ethnic minority and foreign diaspora communities.[235] Kurds have been living in the city since Saladin's conquest of Palestine.[235] Along with Jerusalem and Gaza, the city is also home to Palestinians of Kurdish descent.[235] Nearly a third of the population of Hebron, is considered to be of Kurdish background.[235] The Kurdish Quarter, known as Harat al-Akrad, still exists today.[235] Hebron is also home to a small Samaritan community, after Nablus.[236]

Geography

Grape farming in Hebron

Hebron is situated on the southern

above sea level.[237] Hebron is located 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of Jerusalem, 60.1 kilometres (37.3 mi) east of Gaza, 43 kilometres (27 mi) southeest of Beersheba and 68.4 kilometres (42.5 mi) northeast of Tel Aviv, both in Israel and 89.8 kilometres (55.8 mi) northeast of Amman, Jordan.[237] The city is surrounded by Bani Na'im and Dura to the east, Halhul to the north, Taffuh to the west and Yatta to the south.[238][237] The Israeli–controlled H2 region is located in the eastern region of the city.[237]

It is one of the highest cities in the area and was, until the 19th century, considered the highest city in the Middle East.[237] With the governorate and metropolitan area, it forms about 19% of the West Bank total area.[239] The city is surrounded by several mountains and hills, including the Hebron Hills (Jabal al–Khalil) and Mount Nabi Yunis.[237][240] The Mount Nabi Yunis, situated north of the city, is the highest point in Palestine, with an altitude of 1,030 metres (3,380 ft).[241] While the Hebron Hills is southern part of the wider Judaean Mountains, which spreads throughout Israel and Palestine and have an altitude of 1,026 m (3,366 ft).[242] The two larger settlements whose population exceeds 7000 sit on the hills overlooking the Hebron's eastern quarters – Kirayt Arba and Givat Harsina.[243] Wadi al–Quff near Hebron is one of the largest natural reserves in Palestine.[244] Located towards northeast of the city, it is surrounded by nearby towns and villages of Tarqumia, Halhoul, Beit Kahel and Beit Ola.[244] The natural reserve covers up an area of 3.73 square kilometres (920 acres).[244] Wadi al–Quff Natural reserve is home to some of the rare species of animals and plants.[244]

Hebron is located on fertile mountainous area, making the city agriculturally rich, thus giving it a strategic importance.[237] This is the reason for Hebron, today being a hub for cultivation of fruits and vineyards.[245] The alternative sources of water network is cisterns.[238] There are ten springs and three wells in the city.[238] The water of springs and wells are not currently used.[238][237] The Hebron River (Wadi al–Khalil), known as Nahal Hebron in Hebrew located along the region of Judea and Negev, is one of the water sources for the city.[246][237] Currently the river is polluted, mainly due to the generation of waste, mostly by the industrial areas, situated on the city's east and south.[246][237]

Climate

The climate in Hebron is temperate and the mean year-round temperature ranges between 15 and 16° (an average of 7° in winter and 21° in summer).[247] Annual precipitations average around 502 mm.[247] Hebron has a Mediterranean, hot summer climate (Classification: Csa).[247] The city's yearly temperature is 22.74 °C (72.93 °F) and it is 0.14% higher than Palestine's averages.[247] It typically receives about 15.72 millimeters (0.62 inches) of precipitation and has 39.47 rainy days (10.81% of the time) annually, during January and February.[247][248]

Climate data for Hebron, Palestine (2007-2018)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 24.5
(76.1) 		25.0
(77.0) 		31.0
(87.8) 		34.0
(93.2) 		36.0
(96.8) 		37.6
(99.7) 		36.8
(98.2) 		39.0
(102.2) 		36.0
(96.8) 		34.5
(94.1) 		29.5
(85.1) 		26.6
(79.9) 		39.0
(102.2)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 11.4
(52.5) 		13.2
(55.8) 		16.5
(61.7) 		20.7
(69.3) 		25.0
(77.0) 		27.5
(81.5) 		29.2
(84.6) 		29.4
(84.9) 		27.8
(82.0) 		24.4
(75.9) 		20.0
(68.0) 		14.9
(58.8) 		21.7
(71.0)
Daily mean °C (°F) 8.3
(46.9) 		10.0
(50.0) 		12.3
(54.1) 		15.8
(60.4) 		19.6
(67.3) 		22.0
(71.6) 		23.7
(74.7) 		23.9
(75.0) 		22.1
(71.8) 		19.5
(67.1) 		14.8
(58.6) 		10.7
(51.3) 		16.9
(62.4)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 5.4
(41.7) 		6.6
(43.9) 		8.6
(47.5) 		11.4
(52.5) 		15.3
(59.5) 		17.5
(63.5) 		19.2
(66.6) 		19.6
(67.3) 		17.8
(64.0) 		15.9
(60.6) 		11.3
(52.3) 		7.0
(44.6) 		13.0
(55.3)
Record low °C (°F) −3.8
(25.2) 		−2.0
(28.4) 		−1.0
(30.2) 		3.0
(37.4) 		6.6
(43.9) 		11.0
(51.8) 		14.0
(57.2) 		15.0
(59.0) 		12.0
(53.6) 		9.6
(49.3) 		4.0
(39.2) 		−2.5
(27.5) 		−3.8
(25.2)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 138.2
(5.44) 		108.6
(4.28) 		49.9
(1.96) 		15.4
(0.61) 		4.7
(0.19) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		1.4
(0.06) 		18.8
(0.74) 		40.1
(1.58) 		95.1
(3.74) 		472.0
(18.58)
Average rainy days 10.0 9.0 5.2 3.5 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 2.6 5.4 7.7 45.4
Average
relative humidity
(%) 		73.0 69.5 63.9 56.3 52.4 55.0 56.5 60.6 68.0 66.6 67.8 71.2 63.4
Mean monthly sunshine hours 164.3 156.7 214.5 261.3 313.1 337.9 363.8 346.9 279.3 243.2 186.5 165.7 3,033.2
Percentage possible sunshine 52 51 59 68 74 80 85 85 77 70 60 53 69
Source: Palestinian Meteorological Department[249]

Urban development

Shah Faisal, the king of Saudi Arabia
from 1964 to 1975

Historically, the city consisted of four densely populated quarters: the

Ibrahimi Mosque, the Silk Merchant Quarter (Haret Kheitun) to the south and the Sheikh Quarter (Haret al-Sheikh) to the north.[250] It is believed the basic urban structure of the city had been established by the Mamluk period, during which time the city also had Jewish, Christian and Kurdish quarters.[251]
In the mid 19th-century, Hebron was still divided into four quarters, but the Christian quarter had disappeared.
Cave of Machpelah, the Haret Kheitun (the Jewish Quarter, Haret el-Yahud), the Haret el-Sheikh and the Druze Quarter.[252] As Hebron's population gradually increased, inhabitants preferred to build upwards rather than leave the safety of their neighbourhoods.[250] By the 1880s, better security provided by the Ottoman authorities allowed the town to expand and a new commercial centre, Bab el-Zawiye, emerged.[253] As development continued, new spacious and taller structures were built to the north-west.[254] In 1918, the town consisted of dense clusters of residential dwellings along the valley, rising onto the slopes above it.[255] By the 1920s, the town was made up of seven quarters: el-Sheikh and Bab el-Zawiye to the west, el-Kazzazin, el-Akkabi and el-Haram in the centre, el-Musharika to the south and el-Kheitun in the east.[256] Urban sprawl had spread onto the surrounding hills by 1945.[255]

Sunset in the sky of Hebron Ras al-Jura

The large population increase under Jordanian rule resulted in about 1,800 new houses being built, most of them along the

Ibrahami Mosque, Jordan demolished whole blocks of ancient houses opposite its entrance, which also resulted in improved access to the historic site.[259] The Jordanians also demolished the old synagogue located in the el-Kazzazin Quarter. In 1976, Israel recovered the site, which had been converted into an animal pen, and by 1989, a settler courtyard had been established there.[260]

Today, the area along the north–south axis to the east comprises the modern city of Hebron (also called Upper Hebron, Khalil Foq).[261] It was established towards the end of the Ottoman period, its inhabitants being upper and middle class Hebronites who moved there from the crowded old city, Balde al-Qadime (also called Lower Hebron, Khalil Takht).[262] The northern part of Upper Hebron includes some up-scale residential districts and also houses the Hebron University, private hospitals and the only two luxury hotels in the city.[261] The main commercial artery of the city is located here, situated along the Jerusalem Road, and includes modern multi-storey shopping malls.[261] Also in this area are villas and apartment complexes built on the krum, rural lands and vineyards, which used to function as recreation areas during the summer months until the early Jordanian period.[262] The southern part is where the working-class neighbourhoods are located, along with large industrial zones and the Hebron Polytechnic University.[262] The main municipal and governmental buildings are located in the centre of the city.[261] This area includes high-rise concrete and glass developments and also some distinct Ottoman era one-storey family houses, adorned with arched entrances, decorative motifs and ironwork. Hebron's domestic appliance and textile markets are located here along two parallel roads that lead to the entrance of the old city.[262] Many of these have been relocated from the old commercial centre of the city, known as the vegetable market (hesbe), which was closed down by the Israeli military during the 1990s.[261] The vegetable market is now located in the square of Bab el-Zawiye.[262]

Panoramic view of residential area of Hebron

Economy

A loom at work making keffiyeh at the Hirbawi factory in Hebron.
Industrial area of Hebron

Hebron is a leading commercial and industrial center in the Levantine region.[263] The presence of minerals and resources in surroundings have increased the city's value.[263] It emerged as in important trade hub in the West Bank.[263] Hebron is most productive region in the country after Jerusalem–Bethlehem–Ramallah area. The H1 Area, which is under control of Palestinian Authority have been a large contributor to the city's economy.[263] Despite having tense relations, Israelis and Palestinians have strong trade relations in Hebron.[263] The city is popular for its ceramics and glass industry.[264]

It is the source of 60% of stone and marble resources in the West Bank.

Palestinian government decided to impose an additional tax of 35% on products from China from April 2013.[266]

90% of the shoes in Palestine are now estimated to come from China, which Palestinian industry workers say are of much lower quality but also much cheaper,

Arab countries.[265]

Hebron glass in a market

The most advanced printing press in the Middle East is in Hebron.[263] Hebron is major source of import goods to Israel.[263] Mattresses manufactured in Hebron are exported to Israeli markets in Tel Aviv, Beersheba and Haifa.[263] Around 17,000 factories and workshops are located throughout the Area H1.[263] Historically, the traditional glass industry is popular in Hebron.[263] A new industrial city has been built in Tarqumiyah, which houses more than 140 factories. Royal Industrial Trading operates a pipe manufacturing plant in Hebron, which is spread across an area of 40,000 square metres (9.9 acres) and employs over 650 people.[267] In 2021, an electronic recycling factory was opened in Idhna and operates to this day.[268] The European Union and the World Bank proposed to construct a regional water treatment plant, which will treat existing sewage stream coming from 80% of the city.[269] The city is a hub for the jewelry industry and houses approximately 70 jewelry factories employing over 1500 workers.[270]

Super Nimer company manufactures sanitary ware products and water network from its factory, whose area ranges from 30,000 square metres (7.4 acres) to 45,000 square metres (11 acres).

COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine, Hebron rapidly transformed into a medical supplies manufacturing hub, with numerous factories installing and commissioning new production lines for the product and was approved by the Ministry of National Economy.[272]

Political status

Official 1997 agreement map of Palestinian controlled H1 and Israeli controlled H2.
Illustration showing areas H1 and H2 and adjacent Israeli settlements
1997 Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron

Under the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine passed by the UN in 1947, Hebron was envisaged to become part of an Arab state. While the Jewish leaders accepted the partition plan, the Arab leadership (the Arab Higher Committee in Palestine and the Arab League) rejected it, opposing any partition.[273][274] The aftermath of the 1948 war saw the city occupied and later unilaterally annexed by the kingdom of Jordan in a move supported by local Hebron officials. Following the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel occupied Hebron. In 1997, in accordance with the Hebron Agreement, Israel withdrew from 80 per cent of Hebron, which was handed over to the Palestinian Authority. Palestinian police would assume responsibilities in Area H1 and Israel would retain control in Area H2.

An international unarmed observer force—the

Israeli settler, and another instance where an observer was deported after slapped a settler boy.[230]

The post-1967 settlement in Hebron was driven by theological doctrines from the

Or la-Goyim).[275]
This viewpoint has resulted in numerous violent clashes with Palestinians, which some settlers see as contributing to the messianic process.

Occupation and settlements

In 1968, Rabbi

Israeli Supreme Court ruled that Jews have no right to properties they possessed in places like Hebron before 1948 and are not entitled to compensation for their losses.[160] Originally named Hesed l'Avraham, Beit Hadassah was constructed in 1893 with donations of Baghdadi Jewish families and was the only modern medical facility in Hebron. In 1909, it was renamed after Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America, which took responsibility for the medical staff and provided free medical care to all.[281] In 1979, a group of 15 settler mothers and their 35 children squatted in the Dabouia building in Hebron, exploiting the government's indecision during negotiations with Egypt.[282] Led by Miriam Levinger, they established a bridgehead for Jewish resettlement and created conflict with Arab shopkeepers.[283] A retaliatory attack by a Palestinian group resulted in the death of six yeshiva students.[283] Despite appeals to the Israeli Supreme Court, the settlers remained.[284] The following year, the government legitimized residency in Hebron and expelled the elected mayor.[285] This pattern of settlement followed by hostilities with Palestinians was repeated in Tel Rumeida.[286][287][282]

Abraham Avinu Synagogue in 1925

The

Jewish Egyptian) purchased 5 dunams on the outskirts of the city and in 1811 he signed a contract for a 99-year lease on a further 800 dunams of land, which included 4 plots in Tel Rumeida. The plots were administered by his descendant Haim Bajaio after Jews left Hebron. Settlers' claims to this land are based on these precedents, but are dismissed by the rabbi's heir.[289] In 1984, settlers established a caravan outpost there called Ramat Yeshai. In 1998, the government recognized it as a settlement, and in 2001 the Defence Minister approved the building of the first housing units.[278]

In 2012, Israel Defense Forces called for the immediate removal of a new settlement, because it was seen as a provocation.[290] The IDF, in accordance with settler demands, requested the removal of a Palestinian flag on a Hebronite rooftop contiguous to settlements, though no rule forbids the practice. According to Palestinians, the IDF negotiated the removal of the flag in exchange for the release of a resident of Hebron from legal custody.[291] In August 2016, Israel announced its intention to allow settlement building in the military compound of Plugat Hamitkanim in Hebron, which had been expropriated for military purposes in the 1990s.[292] In late 2019, the Israeli Defense Minister Naftali Bennett instructed the military administration to inform the Palestinian municipality of the government's intention to reconstruct infrastructure in the old Hebron fruit and vegetable market in order to establish a Jewish neighbourhood there, which would allow for doubling the city's settler population. The area's original residents, who have protected tenancy rights there, were compelled to evacuate the zone after the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre. The original site was under Jewish ownership prior to 1948. The plan proposes that the empty shops remain Palestinian while the units built over them house Jewish Israelis.[293][294][295]

Culture

Tourism

Main article: Old City of Hebron
Souk in Old City of Hebron

Hebron is home to numerous mosques, synagogues, churches, parks, palaces, castles and forts.[296] The Old City of Hebron was a declared a Palestinian World Heritage Site by UNESCO on 7th July 2017.[297] The move caused controversies and faced opposition from Israeli officials who objected to it being called as Palestinian site, instead of Israeli.[298][296] It is one of the best preserved sites of the Mamluk era.[296]

Hebron is also home to several sites for Christian worship, with numerous churches located around the city.

Abraham's Oak Holy Trinity Monastery, consecrated in 1925.[296] Hebron is one of the few cities to have preserved its Mamluk architecture.[296] Many structures were built during the period, especially Sufi zawiyas.[300][296]

Other sites:

Religious traditions

Russian Orthodox Monastery in Hebron

Some Jewish traditions regarding

Elizabeth was said to live, the legend implying that it might have been the birthplace of John the Baptist.[308][309]

One Islamic tradition has it that

raisins.[312]

According to Tamara Neuman, settlement by a community of Jewish religious fundamentalists has brought about three major changes by redesigning a Palestinian area in terms of biblical imagery and origins: remaking over these revamped religious sites to endow them with an innovative centrality to Jewish worship, that, she argues, effectively erases the diasporic thrust of Jewish tradition; and writing out the overlapping aspects of Judaism, Christianity and Islam in such a way that the possibility of accommodation between the three intertwined traditions is eradicated, while the presence of Palestinians themselves is erased by violent methods.[313]

  • Al-Ahli Arab Hospital, Hebron
    Al-Ahli Arab Hospital, Hebron
  • Dura Hospital
    Dura Hospital
  • A Palestinian woman from Hebron wearing Palestinian traditional dress in 1947
    A Palestinian woman from Hebron wearing Palestinian traditional dress in 1947
  • Qidra or Qidreh, is a famous dishes from the city of Hebron
    Qidra or Qidreh, is a famous dishes from the city of Hebron

Twin towns / sister cities

Hebron is

twinned
with:

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Y.L. Arbeitman, The Hittite is Thy Mother: An Anatolian Approach to Genesis 23, (1981) pp. 889-1026, argues that an Indo-European root *ar-, with the same meaning as the semitic root ḥbr, namely 'to join' may underlie part of the earlier name Kiryat-Arba,[11]

Citations

  1. ^ "Palestinian terrorist in killing of 6 Jews elected Hebron mayor". The Times of Israel. May 14, 2017. Retrieved May 17, 2017.
  2. ^ "Hebron City Profile – ARIJ" (PDF).
  3. ^
    State of Palestine
    . February 2018. pp. 64–82. Retrieved October 24, 2023.
  4. ^ "Women Led Enterprise: Strategies to Revive Hebron's Economy".
  5. ^ https://molg.pna.ps/uploads/files/Hebron%20Urban%20Area%20Factsheet_sj_2cd2433c7a70461fb7ecf3c2ef2058a9.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  6. ^ Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index by Josef W. Meri; p. 318; "Hebron(Khalil al-Rahman"
  7. ^ Kamrava 2010, p. 236.
  8. ^ a b Alimi 2013, p. 178.
  9. ^ Rothrock 2011, p. 100.
  10. ^ Beilin 2004, p. 59.
  11. ^ Niesiolowski-Spano 2016, p. 124.
  12. ^ Cazelles 1981, p. 195 compares Amorite ḫibru(m). Two roots are in play, ḥbr/ḫbr. The root has magical overtones, and develops pejorative connotations in late Biblical usage.
  13. ^ a b Talmon-Heller, Daniella (2007). "Graves, Relics and Sanctuariese: The Evolution of Syrian Sacred Topography (Eleventh-Thirteenth Centuries)". ARAM Periodical. 19: 606.
  14. Qur'an ("source text". Archived from the original
    on October 27, 2009. Retrieved July 30, 2007.)
  15. ^ Büssow 2011, p. 194 n.220
  16. ^ Khalidi, Walid. Before Their Diaspora : A Photographic History of the Palestinians, 1876-1948. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1991, 61.
  17. ^ a b Sharon 2007, p. 104
  18. ^ Negev & Gibson 2001, pp. 225–5.
  19. ^ Na'aman 2005, p. 180
  20. ^ Towner 2001, pp. 144–45: "[T]he city was a Canaanite royal center long before it became Israelite".
  21. ^ Albright 2000, p. 110
  22. ^ Na'aman 2005, pp. 77–78
  23. ^ Smith 1903, p. 200.
  24. ^ Kraeling 1925, p. 179.
  25. ^ Na'aman 2005, p. 361 These non-Semitic names perhaps echo either a tradition of a group of elite professional troops (Philistines, Hittites), formed in Canaan whose ascendancy was overthrown by the West-Semitic clan of Caleb. They would have migrated from the Negev,
  26. ISBN 978-0-521-08368-3
    .
  27. ^ Joshua 10:3, 5, 3–39; 12:10, 13. Na'aman 2005, p. 177 doubts this tradition. "The book of Joshua is not a reliable source for either a historical or a territorial discussion of the Late Bronze Age, and its evidence must be disregarded".
  28. ^ Mulder 2004, p. 165
  29. ^ Alter 1996, p. 108.
  30. ^ Hamilton 1995, p. 126.
  31. ^ Finkelstein & Silberman 2001, p. 45.
  32. ^ Lied 2008, pp. 154–62, 162
  33. ^ Elazar 1998, p. 128: (Genesis.ch. 23)
  34. ^ Magen 2007, p. 185.
  35. ^ Glick 1994, p. 46, citing Joshua 10:36–42 and the influence this has had on certain settlers in the West Bank.
  36. ^ Gottwald 1999, p. 153: "certain conquests claimed for Joshua are elsewhere attributed to single tribes or clans, for example, in the case of Hebron (in Joshua 10:36–37, Hebron's capture is attributed to Joshua; in Judges 1:10 to Judah; in Judges 1:20 and Joshua 14:13–14; 15:13–14" to Caleb.
  37. ^ Bratcher & Newman 1983, p. 262.
  38. ISBN 978-0-567-60296-1
    .
  39. ^ Gottwald 1999, p. 173, citing 2 Samuel, 5:3.
  40. ^ Japhet 1993, p. 148. See Joshua 20, 1–7.
  41. ^ Hasson 2016
  42. ^ Jericke 2003, p. 17
  43. ^ Jericke 2003, pp. 26ff., 31.
  44. ^ Carter 1999, pp. 96–99 Carter challenges this view on the grounds that it has no archeological support.
  45. ^ Lemaire 2006, p. 419
  46. ^ Jericke 2003, p. 19.
  47. Josephus Flavius, Antiquities of the Jews
    , Bk. 12, ch.8, para.6.
  48. ^ Duke 2010, pp. 93–94 is sceptical.'This should be considered a raid on Hebron instead of a conquest based on subsequent events in the book of I Maccabees.'
  49. ^ Duke 2010, p. 94
  50. ^ Jericke 2003, p. 17:'Spätestens in römischer Zeit ist die Ansiedlung im Tal beim heutigen Stadtzentrum zu finden'.
  51. ^ Josephus 1860, p. 701 Josephus, The Jewish War, Bk 4, ch. 9, p. 9.
  52. ^ Schürer, Millar & Vermes 1973, p. 553 n.178 citing Jerome, in Zachariam 11:5; in Hieremiam 6:18; Chronicon paschale.
  53. ^ Hezser 2002, p. 96.
  54. ^ Norwich 1999, p. 285
  55. ^ a b Scharfstein 1994, p. 124.
  56. ^ a b Salaville 1910, p. 185
  57. ^ Gil 1997, pp. 56–57 cites the late testimony of two monks, Eudes and Arnoul CE 1119–1120:'When they (the Muslims) came to Hebron they were amazed to see the strong and handsome structures of the walls and they could not find an opening through which to enter, then the Jews happened to come, who lived in the area under the former rule of the Greeks (that is the Byzantines), and they said to the Muslims: give us (a letter of security) that we may continue to live (in our places) under your rule (literally-amongst you) and permit us to build a synagogue in front of the entrance (to the city). If you will do this, we shall show you where you can break in. And it was so'.
  58. ^ Büssow 2011, p. 195
  59. ^ Hiro 1999, p. 166.
  60. ^ Frenkel, 2011, p. 28–29
  61. ^ Forbes 1965, p. 155, citing Anton Kisa et al., Das Glas im Altertum, 1908.
  62. ^ Gil 1997, pp. 205
  63. ^ a b c d e f Al-Muqaddasi 2001, pp. 156–57. For an older translation see Le Strange 1890, pp. 309–10
  64. ^ a b c d Le Strange 1890, p. 315
  65. ^ a b c d e f Singer 2002, p. 148.
  66. ^ Zbeedat 2024.
  67. ^ Gil 1997, p. 206
  68. ^ Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 78:"'The Castle of St. Abraham' was the generic Crusader name for Hebron."
  69. ^ Avraham Lewensohn. Israel tourguide, 1979. p. 222.
  70. ^ Murray 2000, p. 107
  71. Arsuf, north of Jaffa
    , who had been wounded by Godfrey's own forces during the siege of the port, and later returned by the Muslims to Godfrey as a token of good will.
  72. ^ Runciman 1965b, p. 4
  73. ^ Le Strange 1890, pp. 317–18
  74. ^ Kohler 1896, pp. 447ff.
  75. ^ Runciman 1965b, p. 319.
  76. ^ Kraemer 2001, p. 422.
  77. ^ Boas 1999, p. 52.
  78. ^ Richard 1999, p. 112.
  79. ^ a b c d e Benjamin 1907, p. 25.
  80. ^ Gil 1997, p. 207. Note to editors. This account, always in Moshe Gil, refers to two distinct events, the Arab conquest from Byzantium, and the Kurdish-Arab conquest from Crusaders. In both the manuscript is a monkish chronicle, and the words used, and event described is identical. We may have a secondary source confusion here.
  81. ^ Sharon 2003, p. 297.
  82. ^ Runciman 1965c, p. 219
  83. ^ Micheau 2006, p. 402
  84. ^ Murphy-O'Connor 1998, p. 274.
  85. ^ Sharon 1997, pp. 117–18.
  86. ^ Dandis, Wala. History of Hebron. 2011-11-07. Retrieved on 2012-03-02.
  87. ^ Meri 2004, pp. 362–63.
  88. ^ Kosover 1966, p. 5.
  89. ^ David 2010, p. 24.
  90. ^ Lamdan 2000, p. 102.
  91. ^ Robinson & Smith 1856, pp. 440–42, n.1.
  92. ^ Singer 2002, p. 148
  93. ^ Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 458.
  94. ^ Berger 2012, p. 246..
  95. ^ Green 2007, pp. xv–xix.
  96. ^ a b Büssow 2011, p. 195.
  97. ^ David 2010, p. 24. Tahrir registers document 20 households in 1538/9, 8 in 1553/4, 11 in 1562 and 1596/7. Gil however suggests the tahrir records of the Jewish population may be understated.
  98. ^ Schwarz 1850, p. 397
  99. ^ Perera 1996, p. 104.
  100. ^ Barnay 1992, pp. 89–90 gives the figures of 12,000 quadrupling to 46,000 Kuruş.
  101. ^ Marcus 1996, p. 85. In 1770, they received financial assistance from North American Jews, which amounted in excess of £100.
  102. ^ Van Luit 2009, p. 42. In 1803, the rabbis and elders of the Jewish community were imprisoned after failing to pay their debts. In 1807, the community did succeed in purchasing a 5-dunam (5,000 m2) plot where Hebron's wholesale market stands today.
  103. ^ Conder 1830, p. 198.
  104. ^ Conder 1830, p. 198. The source was a manuscript, The Travels of Ali Bey, vol. ii, pp. 232–33.
  105. ^ Schölch 1993, p. 161.
  106. ^ Büssow 2011, p. 198
  107. ^ WV 1833, p. 436.
  108. ^ Shaw 1808, p. 144
  109. ^ Finn 1868, p. 39.
  110. ^ Krämer 2011, p. 68
  111. ^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, pp. 6–11, esp. p. 8
  112. ^ a b c Robinson & Smith 1856, p. 88.
  113. ^ Schwarz 1850, p. 403.
  114. ^ Schwarz 1850, pp. 398–99.
  115. ^ Schwarz 1850, pp. 398–400
  116. ^ Finn 1878, pp. 287ff.
  117. ^ Schölch 1993, pp. 234–35.
  118. ^ Cohen 2015, p. 15.
  119. ^ Schwarz 1850, p. 401
  120. ^ Wilson 1847, pp. 355–381, 372:The rabbi of the Ashkenazi community, who said they numbered 60 mainly Polish and Russian emigrants, professed no knowledge of the Sephardim in Hebron (p. 377).
  121. ^ Sicker 1999, p. 6.
  122. ^ Büssow 2011, pp. 198–99.
  123. ^ Wilson 1847, p. 379.
  124. ^ Wilson 1881, p. 195 mentions a different set of names, the Quarter of the Cloister Gate (Harat Bab ez Zawiyeh);the Quarter of the Sanctuary (Haret el Haram), to the south-east.
  125. ^ Schölch 1993, pp. 236–37.
  126. ^ Finn 1878, pp. 305–308.
  127. ^ a b Shragai 2008.
  128. ^ Isaac Samuel Emmanuel, Suzanne A. Emmanuel. History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, Volume 2. American Jewish Archives. 1970. p. 754: "Between 1869 and 1871 Hebron was plagued with a severe drought. Food was so scarce that the little available sold for ten times the normal value. Although the rains came in 1871, there was no easing of the famine, for the farmers had no seed to sow. The [Jewish] community was obliged to borrow money from non-Jews at exorbitant interest rates in order to buy wheat for their fold. Their leaders finally decided to send their eminent Chief Rabbi Eliau [Soliman] Mani to Egypt to obtain relief."
  129. ^ Khalidi 1998, p. 218.
  130. ^ a b Conder 1879, p. 79
  131. ^ Schölch 1993, pp. 161–62 quoting David Delpuget Les Juifs d'Alexandrie, de Jaffa et de Jérusalem en 1865, Bordeaux, 1866, p. 26.
  132. ^ Schölch 1993, pp. 161–62.
  133. ^ a b Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14
  134. ^ Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14: "Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and well into the twentieth, Hebron was a peripheral, "borderline" community, attracting poor itinerant peasants and those with Sufi inclinations from its environs. The tradition of shorabat Sayyidna Ibrahim, a soup kitchen surviving into the present day and supervised by the awqaf, and that of the Sufi zawaya gave the city a reputation for being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual. (Ju'beh 2003).
  135. ^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 41
  136. ^ Gorenberg 2007, p. 145.
  137. ^ Laurens 1999, p. 508.
  138. ^ Renan 1864, p. 93 remarked of the town that it was "one of the bulwarks of Semitic ideas, in their most austere form".
  139. ^ Büssow 2011, p. 199.
  140. ^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 92.
  141. ^ Campos 2007, pp. 55–56
  142. ^ Kupferschmidt 1987, pp. 110–11.
  143. ^ J. B. Barron, ed. Palestine, Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922. Government of Palestine, page 9
  144. ISBN 978-90-04-09790-2
    .
  145. ^ Cohen 2008, p. 64.
  146. ^ Kupferschmidt 1987, p. 82: "In any event, after his appointment, Abd al-Hayy al-Khatib not only played a prominent role in the disturbances of 1929, but, in general, appeared as one of the few loyal adherents of Hajj Amin in that town."
  147. ^ Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14.
  148. ^ Cohen 2008, pp. 19–20.
  149. ^ Ilan Ben Zion (April 27, 2015). "Eyeing Nepal, experts warn Israel is unprepared for its own Big One". The Times of Israel.
  150. ^ Kupferschmidt 1987, p. 237
  151. ^ Wein 1993, pp. 138–39,
  152. ^ Bauman 1994, p. 22
  153. ^ Krämer 2011, p. 232.
  154. ^ Segev 2001, p. 318.
  155. ^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003, p. 92
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  157. ^ Segev 2001, pp. 325–26: The Zionist Archives preserves lists of Jews who were saved by Arabs; one list contains 435 names.
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  162. ^ Thomas A Idinopulos, Jerusalem, 1994, p. 300, "So severe were the Jordanian restrictions against Jews gaining access to the old city that visitors wishing to cross over from west Jerusalem...had to produce a baptismal certificate."
  163. ^ Armstrong, Karen, Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, 1997, "Only clergy, diplomats, UN personnel, and a few privileged tourists were permitted to go from one side to the other. The Jordanians required most tourists to produce baptismal certificates—to prove they were not Jewish ... ."
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  173. ^ Gorenberg 2007, p. 151: "David's kingdom was a model for the messianic kingdom. David began in Hebron, so settling Hebron would lead to final redemption."
  174. ^ Segev 2008, p. 698: "Hebron was considered a holy city; the massacre of Jews there in 1929 was imprinted on national memory along with the great pogroms of Eastern Europe. The messianic fervor that characterized the Hebron settlers was more powerful than the awakening that led people to settle in East Jerusalem: while Jerusalem had already been annexed, the future of Hebron was still unclear."
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    "Those who still live on Shuhada Street can't enter their own homes from the street. Some use the rooftops to go in and out, climbing from one roof to another before issuing into adjacent homes or alleys. Some have cut gaping holes in the walls connecting their homes to other (often deserted) houses and thus pass through these buildings until they can exit into a lane outside or up a flight of stairs to a passageway on top of the old casba market. According to a survey conducted by the human-rights organization B'Tselem in 2007, 42 per cent of the Palestinian population in the city center of Hebron (area H2)—some 1,014 families—have abandoned their homes and moved out, most of them to area H1, now under Palestinian control."
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  258. ^ A ghetto state of ghettos: Palestinians under Israeli citizenship, Mary Boger, City University of New York. Sociology – 2008. p. 93: "The development of the Islamic Movement in Israel owes much to the Israeli and Jordanian governments who collaborated to establish an Islamic University in al-Khalil (Hebron), headed by Shaykh Muhammad Ali al-Ja'bari a prominent anti-PLO leader who served as minister in Jordan and in the internal circle of kings Abd-allah and Husayn, who are known to have befriended the Israeli occupation."
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  293. ^ Hagar Shezaf (December 1, 2019). "Israel Plans New Jewish Neighborhood in Hebron's Arab Market". Haaretz.
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  299. ^ Finn 1868, p. 184:'the great oak of Sibta, commonly called Abraham's oak by most people except the Jews, who do not believe in any Abraham's oak there. The great patriarch planted, indeed, a grove at Beersheba; but the "Eloné Mamre" they declare to have been "plains", not "oaks", (which would be Alloné Mamre,) and to have been situated northwards instead of westwards from the present Hebron.'
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Sources

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