Sama-Bajau
Austronesian peoples |
The Sama-Bajau include several
The Sama-Bajau are the dominant ethnic group of the islands of Tawi-Tawi. They are also found in other islands of the Sulu Archipelago, coastal areas of Mindanao and other islands in the northern Philippines; as well as northern and eastern Borneo, Sulawesi, and throughout the eastern Indonesian islands.[7] In the Philippines, they are grouped with the religiously similar Moro people. Within the last fifty years, many of the Filipino Sama-Bajau have migrated to neighbouring Sabah and the northern islands of the Philippines, due to the conflict in Mindanao.[8][9] As of 2010, they were the second-largest ethnic group in Sabah.[2][10]
Sama-Bajau have sometimes been called the "Sea Gypsies" or "Sea Nomads", terms that have also been used for non-related ethnic groups with similar traditional lifestyles, such as the
Ethnonym
Sama-Bajau is a collective term, referring to several closely related indigenous people who consider themselves a single distinct bangsa ("ethnic group" or "nation").
Historically in the Philippines, the term Sama referred to the more land-oriented and settled Sama–Bajau groups, while Bajau referred only to more sea-oriented, boat-dwelling, nomadic groups.[14] Even these distinctions are fading as the majority of Sama-Bajau have long since abandoned boat living, most for Sama-style piling houses in the coastal shallows.[13]
Sama is believed to have originated from the Austronesian root word sama meaning "together", "same", or "kin".
British administrators in Sabah classified the Sama-Bajau as "Bajau" and labelled them as such in their birth certificates. Thus, the Sama-Bajau in Malaysia may sometimes self-identify as "Bajau" or even "Malay" (though the preferred term is "Sama"), for political reasons. This is due to the government recognition of the Sama-Bajau as legally
In the 17th-century, the Spanish priest Francisco Combés calls the Sama-Bajau as the Lutao ("[people who] float on water") in his Historia de las Islas de Mindanao, Iolo, y sus adyacentes (1667), and describes them as building houses on the sea because they "hate land". They were described as being the subjects of the Sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao, and they were esteemed for their shipbuilding skills and were commonly hired as crews of warships.[20][21]
History and origin
For most of their history, the Sama-Bajau have been a
Oral traditions
Most of the various oral traditions and tarsila (royal
One such version widely told among the Sama-Bajau of Borneo claims that they descended from
Among the Indonesian Sama-Bajau, on the other hand, their oral histories place more importance on the relationship of the Sama-Bajau with the Sultanate of Gowa rather than Johor. The various versions of their origin myth tell about a royal princess who was washed away by a flood. She was found and eventually married a king or a prince of Gowa. Their offspring then allegedly became the ancestors of the Indonesian Sama-Bajau.[25][30]
However, there are other versions that are more mythological and do not mention a princess. Among the Philippine Sama-Bajau, for example, there is a myth that claims that the Sama-Bajau were accidentally towed into what is now
Modern research on origins
The origin myths claiming descent from Johor or Gowa have been largely rejected by modern scholars, mostly because these kingdoms were established too recently to explain the ethnic divergence.[26][28] Whether the Sama-Bajau are indigenous to their current territories or settled from elsewhere is still contentious.[13] Linguistically, they are distinct from neighbouring populations, especially from the Tausūg who are more closely related to the northern Philippine ethnic groups like the Visayans.[6]
In 1965, the anthropologist David E. Sopher claimed that the Sama-Bajau, along with the
In 1968, the anthropologist Harry Arlo Nimmo, on the other hand, believed that the Sama-Bajau are indigenous to the Sulu Archipelago, Sulawesi, and/or Borneo, and do not share a common origin with the Orang laut. Nimmo proposed that the boat-dwelling lifestyle developed among the ancestors of the Sama-Bajau independently from the Orang laut.[6]
A more recent study in 1985 by the anthropologist Alfred Kemp Pallasen compares the oral traditions with historical facts and linguistic evidence. He puts the date of the
From Zamboanga, some members of these people adopted an exclusively seaborne culture and spread outwards in the 10th century towards Basilan, Sulu, Borneo, and Sulawesi.[32][34] They arrived in Borneo in the 11th century.[28] This hypothesis is currently the most widely accepted among specialists studying the Austronesian peoples. This would also explain why even boat-dwelling Sama-Bajau still practice agricultural rituals, despite being exclusively fishermen.[34] Linguistic evidence further points to Borneo as the ultimate origin of the proto-Sama-Bajau people.[11]
A genetic study of three groups—the Derawan of Northeast Borneo, the Kotabaru of Southeast Borneo, and the Kendari of Southeast Sulawesi—suggested that their origin was in southern Sulawesi. Their ethnogenesis is estimated to have dated back to around the 4th century AD by an admixture event between the
A 2021 genetic study discovered a unique genetic signal among the Sama-Bajau of the Philippines and Indonesia. This genetic signal (called the "Sama ancestry" by the authors) identifies them as descendants of an ancient migration of
Historical records
The epic poem Darangen of the Maranao people record that among the ancestors of the hero Bantugan is a Maranao prince who married a Sama-Bajau princess. Estimated to have happened in 840 AD, it is the oldest account of the Sama-Bajau. It further corroborates the fact that they predate the arrival of the Tausūg settlers and are indigenous to the Sulu archipelago and parts of Mindanao.[26]
Sama-Bajau were first recorded by European explorers in 1521 by
Sama-Bajau were often widely mentioned in connection to
The
During the
Modern Sama-Bajau
Modern Sama-Bajau are generally regarded as peaceful, hospitable, and cheerful people, despite their humble circumstances. However, a significant number are also illiterate, uneducated, and impoverished, due to their nomadic lifestyle.[19]
The number of modern Sama-Bajau who are born and live primarily at sea is diminishing. Cultural assimilation and modernisation are regarded as the main causes.[6] Particularly blamed is the dissolution of the Sultanate of Sulu, the traditional patron of the Sama-Bajau for bartering fish for farm goods. The money-based fish markets which replaced the seasonal trade around mooring points necessitates a more land-based lifestyle for greater market penetration.[34] In Malaysia, some hotly debated government programs have also resettled Bajau to the mainland.[23]
The Sama-Bajau in the Sulu Archipelago were historically discriminated against by the dominant
This discrimination and the continuing violence in
The ancestral roaming and fishing grounds of the Sama-Bajau straddled the borders of the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. And they have sometimes voyaged as far as theSama-Bajau fishermen are often associated with illegal and destructive practices, like
With the loss of their traditional fishing grounds, some refugee groups of Sama-Bajau in the Philippines are forced to resort to begging (agpangamu in Sinama), particularly diving for coins thrown by inter-island ferry passengers (angedjo). Other traditional sources of income include selling grated cassava (magliis), mat-weaving (ag-tepoh), and jewellery-making (especially from pearls). Recently, there have been more efforts by local governments in the Philippines to rehabilitate Sama-Bajau refugees and teach them livelihood skills.[19][36][50] In 2016, the Philippine Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources started a project for distributing fishing boats, gear, and other livelihood materials among Sama-Bajau communities in Luzon. This was largely the result of raised awareness and an outpouring of support after a photo of a Sama-Bajau beggar, Rita Gaviola (dubbed the "Badjao Girl"), went viral in the Philippines.[51][52][53]
One Tausug Muslim who was interviewed insulted the Bajau people, who are also Muslim but he declared the Bajau as non-Muslim and compared killing a Bajau to killing a monkey, saying it was not worth the effort for a juramentado to attack Bajau.[54][55] There are Tausug in Sulu who takfir the Bajau and declared them as non-Muslims despite them following Islam and discriminate against them due to their lifestyle.[56] In Indonesia many discriminate against them with false stereotypes, accusing them of using love potions on women and were untrustworthy.[57]
Subgroups
The Sama-Bajau are fragmented into highly diverse subgroups. They have never been politically united and are usually subject to the land-based political groups of the areas they settle, such as the
Most subgroups of Sama-Bajau name themselves after the place they originated from (usually an island).[28][31][34] Each subgroup speaks a distinct language or dialect that are usually mutually intelligible with their immediate neighbouring subgroup in a continuous linguistic chain.[34] In the Philippines, the Sama-Bajau can be divided into three general groups based on where they settle:[18][32]
- Sama Bihing or Sama Lipid – The "shoreline Sama" or "littoral Sama". These are the Sama-Bajau which traditionally lived in stilt houses in shallows and coastal areas. An example is the Sama Simunul. They are originally from the larger islands of Tawi-Tawi.[18][32] They have a more flexible lifestyle than the Sama-Gimba (Dilaut Origin) and will farm when there is available land. They usually act as middlemen in trade between the Sama Dilaut and other land-based peoples.[32]
- Sama Dea, Sama Deya, or Sama Darat – The "land Sama". These are the Sama-Bajau which traditionally lived in island interiors. Some examples are the Sama Sibutu and the Sama Sanga-Sanga. They are usually farmers who cultivate rice, sweet potato, cassava, and coconuts for copra through traditional slash-and-burn agriculture (in contrast to the plow agriculture technology brought by the Tausūg). They are originally from the larger islands of Tawi-Tawi and Pangutaran.[18][28][32] In the Philippines, the Sama Dea will often completely differentiate themselves from the Sama Dilaut.[58]
- Sama Dilaut, Sama Mandilaut, Sama Pala'u, or Bajau Laut – The "sea Sama" or "ocean Sama". In the Philippines, the preferred ethnonym is Sama Dilaut;Bongao.[59] They are the Sama-Bajau subgroup most commonly called "Bajau", though Filipino Sama Dilaut considers it offensive.[58] They sometimes call themselves the "Sama To'ongan" (literally "true Sama" or "real Sama"), to distinguish themselves from the land-dwelling Sama-Bajau subgroups.[15] A recent study shows that the Sama-Dilaut people of the Philippines have Indian or South Asian ancestry.[24]
Other minor Sama-Bajau groups named after islands of origin include the Sama Bannaran, Sama Davao, Sama Zamboanga Sikubung, Sama Tuaran, Sama Semporna, Sama Sulawesi, Sama Simunul, Sama Tabawan, Sama Tandubas (or Sama Tando' Bas), and Sama Ungus Matata.[28] Mixed-heritage Sama-Bajau and Tausūg communities are sometimes known as "Bajau Suluk" in Malaysia.[8][60] People of multiple ethnic parentage may further identify with a three-part self-description, such as "Bajau Suluk Dusun".[61] The following are the major subgroups usually recognised as distinct:
- Bajo (Indonesia) – Also known as "Same'" (or simply "Sama") by the Bugis; and "Turijene" or "Taurije'n" (literally "people of the water"), "Bayo", or "Bayao" by the Makassar.[15][62] They are Sama-Bajau groups who settled in Sulawesi and Kalimantan, Indonesia through the Makassar Strait from as early as the 16th century.[6][63][64] They have spread further into nearby islands, including the Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku Islands, and Raja Ampat Islands.[17]
- Banguingui (Philippines, Malaysia) – Also known as "Sama Balangingi", "Sama Balanguingui", or "Sama Bangingi". Native to the Philippines. Some have recently migrated to Sabah. They are sometimes considered distinct from other Sama-Bajau. They have a more martial-oriented society and were once part of regular
- East Coast Bajau (Philippines, Malaysia) – are Sama Dilaut who settled in the eastern coast of Sabah, particularly around Semporna. They still identify themselves as Bajau Laut or Sama Laut. Though they are called East Coast Bajau to distinguish them from the Sama Kota Belud of western Sabah.[66] They are also known by the exonym "Pala'u" ("boat-dwelling" in Sinama), but it is sometimes considered derogatory. Some have retained their original boat-dwelling lifestyle, but many others have built homes on land. They are known for the colourful annual Regatta Lepa festival, which occurs from 24 to 26 April.[67]
- Samal (Philippines, Malaysia) – "Samal" (also spelled "Siamal" or "Siyamal") is a Tausūg and
- Ubian (Philippines, Malaysia) – Originated from the island of South Ubian in Tawi-Tawi, Philippines, and make up the largest Sama-Bajau subgroup in Sabah. They reside in sizeable minorities living around the towns of Kudat and Semporna in Sabah, Malaysia.
- West Coast Bajau (Malaysia) – Also known as "Sama Kota Belud". Native to the western coast of Sabah, particularly around Kota Belud. They prefer to call themselves by the general ethnonym "Sama", not "Bajau"; and their neighbours, the Dusuns also call them "Sama". British administrators originally defined them as "Bajau". They are referred to as West Coast Bajau in Malaysia to distinguish them from the Sama Dilaut of eastern Sabah and the Sulu Archipelago.[66] They are known for having a traditional horse culture.[58]
The following are subgroups that do not self-identify as Sama, although they are culturally related to the Sama people and speak a
- Abaknon (Philippines) – a subgroup from Balabac). In the 1300s, they refused to convert to Islam and submit to the rule of the Moro sultanates. Led by a datu named Abak, their people left the island, eventually reaching and settling the island now known as Capul.[70][71]
- Jama Mapun (Philippines) – sometimes known by the exonyms 'Sama Mapun", "Sama Kagayan", or "Bajau Kagayan". They are from the island of
- Yakan (Philippines) – Found in the mountainous interior of the island of Folk Islam.[5]
Languages
The Sama–Bajau peoples speak some ten languages of the Sama–Bajau subgroup of the Western Malayo-Polynesian language family.[74] Sinama is the most common name for these languages, but they are also called Bajau, especially in Malaysia. Most Sama-Bajau can speak multiple languages.[11]
The Sama-Bajau languages were once classified under the
In 2006, the linguist
Sama-Bajau languages are usually written in the
Culture
Religion
Religion can vary among the Sama-Bajau subgroups; from strict adherence to
Among the modern coastal Sama-Bajau of Malaysia, claims to religious piety and learning are an important source of individual prestige. Some of the Sama-Bajau lack mosques and must rely on the shore-based communities such as those of the more Islamised or
The ancient Sama-Bajau were
Other objects of reverence are spirits known as umboh ("ancestor", also variously spelled omboh, m'boh, mbo', etc.).
The construction and launch of sailing vessels are ritualised, and the vessels are believed to have a spirit known as Sumangâ ("guardian", literally "one who deflects attacks").[45] The umboh are believed to influence fishing activities, rewarding the Sama-Bajau by granting good luck favours known as padalleang and occasionally punishing by causing serious incidents called busong.[48][80]
Traditional Sama-Bajau communities may have
One important religious event among the Sama-Bajau is the annual feast known as pag-umboh or magpaay-bahaw, an offering of thanks to Umboh Tuhan.[28][31][34] In this ceremony, newly harvested rice (paay-bahaw) are dehusked (magtaparahu) while Islamic prayers (duaa) are recited. They are dried (magpatanak) and are then laid out in small conical piles symbolic of mountains (bud) on the living room floor (a process known as the "sleeping of rice"). After two or three nights, two-thirds are set aside for making sweet rice meals (panyalam), while one-third is set aside for making sweet rice cakes (durul).[31][34] Additional prayers (zikir), which includes calling the names of ancestors out loud, are offered to the Umboh after the rice meals have been prepared. Pag-umboh is a solemn and formal affair.[31]
Another annual religious ceremony among the boat-dwelling Sama Dilaut is the pagkanduli (literally "festive gathering").
The trance dancing is called mag-igal and involves female and male and igal jinn, called the jinn denda and jinn lella respectively. The jinn denda perform the first dance known as igal limbayan under the dangkan tree, with the eldest leading. They are performed with intricate movements of the hands, usually with metal fingernail extensions called sulingkengkeng. If the dance and music are pleasing, the bansa are believed to take possession of the dancers, whereupon the wali jinn will assist in releasing them at the end of the dance.
The bansa are not feared as they are regarded as spirits of ancestors. Temporarily serving as hosts for the bansa while dancing to music is regarded as a "gift" by the living Sama Dilaut to their ancestors. After the igal limbayan, the wali jinn will invite the audience to participate, to celebrate, and to give their thanks. The last dance is the igal lellang, with four jinn lella performing a warrior dance, whereupon the participants will proceed to the kama'toolang grove. There they will perform rituals and dance (this time with male and female dancers together), symbolically "inviting" Dayang Dayang Mangilai to come with them back to the dangkan tree. Further games and celebrations are held under the original dangkan tree before the celebrants say their farewells to the spirits. Unlike pag-umboh, pagkanduli is a joyous celebration, involving singing, dancing, and joking among all participants. It is the largest festive event among the Sama Dilaut communities.[31]
Aside from pagkanduli and magpaay-bahaw, public dances called magigal jinn may occur. During these celebrations, the igal jinn may be consulted for a public séance and nightly trance dancing.[84] In times of epidemics, the igal jinn is called upon to remove illness-causing spirits from the community. They do this by setting a "spirit boat" adrift in the open sea beyond the village or anchorage.
Boat dwelling
A few Sama-Bajau still live traditionally. They live in houseboats (
These mooring points are usually presided over by an elder or headsman. The mooring points are close to sources of water or culturally significant locations like island cemeteries. There are periodic gatherings of Sama-Bajau clans usually for various ceremonies like weddings or festivals. They generally do not sail more than 40 km (24.85 mi) from their "home" moorage.[6][27] They periodically trade goods with the land-based communities of other Sama-Bajau and other ethnic groups.[27] Sama-Bajau groups may routinely cross the borders of the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia for fishing, trading, or visiting relatives.[13][19][28][87]
Sama-Bajau women also use a traditional sun-protecting powder called burak or borak, made from water weeds, rice, and spices.[88]
Music, dance, and arts
Sama-Bajau traditional songs are handed down orally through generations. The songs are usually sung during marriage celebrations (kanduli pagkawin), accompanied by dance (pang-igal) and musical instruments like pulau (flute), gabbang (xylophone), tagunggo' (kulintang gongs), biula (violin), and in modern times, electronic keyboards.[31] There are several types of Sama-Bajau traditional songs, they include: isun-isun, runsai, najat, syair, nasid, bua-bua anak, and tinggayun.[15][89]
Among the more specific examples of Sama-Bajau songs are three love songs collectively referred to as Sangbayan. These are Dalling Dalling, Duldang Duldang, and Pakiring Pakiring.
In visual arts, Sama-Bajau have an ancient tradition of carving and sculpting known as
Horse culture
The more settled land-based West Coast Bajau are expert
Society
Though some Sama-Bajau headsmen have been given honorific titles like "
Biological characteristics
Free-diving adaptations
Sama-Bajau are noted for their exceptional abilities in
More than a thousand years of subsistence
Depictions in popular culture
It has been suggested by some researchers that the Sama-Bajau people's visits to Arnhem Land gave rise to the accounts of the mysterious Baijini people in the myths of Australia's Yolngu Aboriginals.[98]
In 2010, the newly discovered
The Sama-Bajau have also been the subject of several films. They include:
- Badjao (1957) – A Filipino film directed by Lamberto V. Avellana
- Bajau Laut: Nomads of the Sea (2008) – A Singaporean TV documentary produced by Matthew Malpelli.
- The Mirror Never Lies (2011) Indonesian film directed by Kamila Andini
- Thy Womb (2012) – A Filipino drama film directed by Brillante Mendoza
- Bohe': Sons of the Waves (2013) – A Filipino short film produced by Nadjoua and Linda Bansil
- Anak ng Badjao (1987) – A Filipino Film directed by Jose Antonio Alonzo and Jerry O. Tironazona
- Sahaya (2019) – A Filipino TV series directed by Zig Dulay
Notable Sama-Bajau
Politics
- Mat Salleh (Datu Muhammad Salleh) – Sabah warrior from Inanam, Kota Kinabalu, during the British administration of North Borneo.
- .
- Tun Said Keruak – The seventh Governor of Sabah and the fourth Chief Minister of Sabah from Kota Belud.
- Tun Sakaran Dandai – The eighth Governor of Sabah and also the eighth Chief Minister of Sabah from Semporna.
- Ahmadshah Abdullah – The ninth Governor of Sabah from Inanam, Kota Kinabalu.
- Senator in the Dewan Negara.
- Osu Sukam (Tan Sri Datuk Seri Panglima Osu bin Sukam) – The twelfth Chief Minister of Sabah from Papar.
- Mohd Nasir Tun Sakaran (Dato' Mohd Nasir bin Tun Sakaran Dandai) – Sabah politician from Semporna.
- Shafie Apdal (Dato' Seri Hj Mohd Shafie Bin Apdal) – The fifteenth Chief Minister of Sabah from Semporna.
- Pandikar Amin Mulia – Speaker of the Dewan Rakyat, former Member of Parliament of Malaysia from Kota Belud.
- Askalani Abdul Rahim (Datuk Askalani Bin Abdul Rahim) – Former Minister of Culture, Youth and Sports from Semporna.
- Abdul Rahman Dahlan – Former Cabinet Minister from Tuaran as well the former Member of Parliament in the Dewan Rakyat for the constituency of Kota Belud from 2008 to 2018.
- Isnaraissah Munirah Majilis – Member of Parliament of Kota Belud in the Dewan Rakyat (also half Kadazan-Dusun ancestry on paternal side).
- Manis Muka Mohd Darah – Former Member of Sabah State Legislative Assembly for Bugaya.
- Sultan Ombra Amilbangsa - From Simunul, in what is now the province of Tawi-Tawi. He was a member of the National Assembly of the Philippines from 1935 to 1938, and from 1943 to 1944, and the Philippines House of Representatives from 1945 to 1949, and from 1951 to 1961. In 1961, he filed House Bill No. 5682, for the granting of independence to the Province of Sulu as a sovereign nation due to what he felt was the negligence of the central government over the concerns of his province. He married Dayang-Dayang Hadji Piandao Kiram, niece and adopted daughter of Sultan Jamalul Kiram II. He succeeded as Sulu Sultan from 1936 to 1964.
Arts and entertainment
- Haja Amina Appi — Filipino master mat weaver and teacher from Ungos Matata, Tandubas, Tawi-Tawi; recipient of the Philippine National Living Treasures Award.[100]
- AF2(Aizam Mat Saman) – Malaysian singer and actor, great-nephew of Tun Ahmadshah Abdullah (his grandmother is the elder sister of the latter) from Inanam, Kota Kinabalu.
- Sitti – Filipino singer.
- Zizi Kirana – Malaysian rapper from Semporna.
- TV3from Likas, Kota Kinabalu.
- Wawa Zainal – Malaysian actress from Lahad Datu.
- Azwan Kombos – Malaysian actor from Kota Belud.[102][103]
- Rita Gaviola[104] – Filipino actress in the Pinoy Big Brother Season 7.[105]
Sports
- Bana Sailani – A Filipino Olympic swimmer who represented the Philippines in the 1956 Summer Olympics, the 1958 Asian Games (where he won 5 bronze medals, and 1 silver), and the 1960 Summer Olympics. He was more popularly known as Bapa' Banana.[106]
- Estino Taniyu – A Malaysian swimmer from the Royal Malaysian Navy who swam across the English Channel in 13 hours, 45 minutes, and 45 seconds on 21 September 2012.[107]
- Matlan Marjan – Former Malaysian football player and the former Sabah FA captain from Kota Belud.
- Eldio "Imam" Gulisan – A Filipino Home Game.
- Zainizam Marjan – Former Malaysian football player, younger brother of Matlan from Kota Belud.
See also
- Lumad
- Gaya Island
- Orang laut
- Sama–Bajaw languages
- Sea Gypsies, a disambiguation page
Notes
- Australoid "race"is antiquated. Most modern literature refer to these peoples as the Australo-Melanesians. However, their exact relationship within their member groups and with other ethnic groups in Asia and Oceania is still debated.
- .
References
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{{cite journal}}
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Further reading
Newspapers
- Journey in Borneo with Bajaus by Réhahn
- More information on the Bajaus at the BBC
- The last of the sea nomads at The Guardian
- The sea gypsies of Sulu at the Khaleej Times
Books
- François-Robert Zacot (2009). Peuple nomade de la mer, les Badjos d'Indonésie, éditions Pocket, collection Terre Humaine, Paris