Educational technology: Difference between revisions
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As a further example, ubiquitous learning emphasizes an omnipresent learning milieu.<ref name=zhao>{{Cite conference | last = ZHAO | first = XINYOU |author2=WAN XIN |author3=OKAMOTO TOSHIO | title = Adaptive Content Delivery in Ubiquitous Learning Environment | booktitle = The 6th IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Technologies in Education(IEEE WMUTE 2010) | place = Kaohsiung, TAIWAN | date = 2010-04-16 | url = http://www.myresearch.biz/sharefile/file/WMUTE2010.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 2010-07-22 }}</ref> Educational content, pervasively embedded in objects, is all around the learner, who may not even be conscious of the learning process: students may not have to do anything in order to learn, they just have to be there.<ref name=zhao/><ref name="Teaching English as a Second/Foreign Language in a Ubiquitous Learning Environment: A Guide for ESL/EFL Instructors">{{cite book|last=Alsheail|first=Abdulrahman|title=Teaching English as a Second/Foreign Language in a Ubiquitous Learning Environment: A Guide for ESL/EFL Instructors|year=2010|publisher=(Master's Project)|url=http://csuchico-dspace.calstate.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.4/184/5%209%202010%20Abdulrahman%20Alsheail.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref> The combination of [[adaptive learning]], using an individualized interface and materials, which accommodate to an individual, who thus receives personally differentiated instruction, with ubiquitous access to digital resources and learning opportunities in a range of places and at various times, has been termed smart learning.<ref name="Hwang2014">Hwang, G. J. (2014). Definition, framework and research issues of smart learning environments-a context-aware ubiquitous learning perspective. Smart Learning Environments, 1(1), 1-14.</ref><ref name=Kinshuk2016>Kinshuk, Chen, N. S., Cheng, I. L., & Chew, S. W. (2016). Evolution Is not enough: Revolutionizing Current Learning Environments to Smart Learning Environments. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 1-21. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295186361]</ref><ref>Spector, J. M. (2014). Conceptualizing the emerging field of smart learning environments. Smart Learning Environments, 1(1), 1-10.</ref> Smart learning is a component of the [[smart city]] concept.<ref>Andone, D., Holotescu, C., & Grosseck, G. (2014, November). Learning communities in smart cities. Case studies. In Web and Open Access to Learning (ICWOAL), 2014 International Conference on (pp. 1-4). IEEE.</ref><ref>P. Lombardi, S. Giordano, H. Farouh, and W. Yousef, “Modelling the Smart City Performance,” Inno- vation: The European Journal of Social Science Research 25: 2 (2012) 137–149</ref> |
As a further example, ubiquitous learning emphasizes an omnipresent learning milieu.<ref name=zhao>{{Cite conference | last = ZHAO | first = XINYOU |author2=WAN XIN |author3=OKAMOTO TOSHIO | title = Adaptive Content Delivery in Ubiquitous Learning Environment | booktitle = The 6th IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Technologies in Education(IEEE WMUTE 2010) | place = Kaohsiung, TAIWAN | date = 2010-04-16 | url = http://www.myresearch.biz/sharefile/file/WMUTE2010.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 2010-07-22 }}</ref> Educational content, pervasively embedded in objects, is all around the learner, who may not even be conscious of the learning process: students may not have to do anything in order to learn, they just have to be there.<ref name=zhao/><ref name="Teaching English as a Second/Foreign Language in a Ubiquitous Learning Environment: A Guide for ESL/EFL Instructors">{{cite book|last=Alsheail|first=Abdulrahman|title=Teaching English as a Second/Foreign Language in a Ubiquitous Learning Environment: A Guide for ESL/EFL Instructors|year=2010|publisher=(Master's Project)|url=http://csuchico-dspace.calstate.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.4/184/5%209%202010%20Abdulrahman%20Alsheail.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref> The combination of [[adaptive learning]], using an individualized interface and materials, which accommodate to an individual, who thus receives personally differentiated instruction, with ubiquitous access to digital resources and learning opportunities in a range of places and at various times, has been termed smart learning.<ref name="Hwang2014">Hwang, G. J. (2014). Definition, framework and research issues of smart learning environments-a context-aware ubiquitous learning perspective. Smart Learning Environments, 1(1), 1-14.</ref><ref name=Kinshuk2016>Kinshuk, Chen, N. S., Cheng, I. L., & Chew, S. W. (2016). Evolution Is not enough: Revolutionizing Current Learning Environments to Smart Learning Environments. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 1-21. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295186361]</ref><ref>Spector, J. M. (2014). Conceptualizing the emerging field of smart learning environments. Smart Learning Environments, 1(1), 1-10.</ref> Smart learning is a component of the [[smart city]] concept.<ref>Andone, D., Holotescu, C., & Grosseck, G. (2014, November). Learning communities in smart cities. Case studies. In Web and Open Access to Learning (ICWOAL), 2014 International Conference on (pp. 1-4). IEEE.</ref><ref>P. Lombardi, S. Giordano, H. Farouh, and W. Yousef, “Modelling the Smart City Performance,” Inno- vation: The European Journal of Social Science Research 25: 2 (2012) 137–149</ref> |
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[[Bernard Luskin]], an educational technology pioneer, advocated that the "e" of e-learning should be interpreted to mean "exciting, energetic, enthusiastic, emotional, extended, excellent, and educational" in addition to "electronic."<ref name="Luskin">{{cite web|title=Think "Exciting": E-Learning and the Big "E"|url=http://www.educause.edu/ero/article/think-exciting-e-learning-and-big-e|author=Bernard Luskin}}</ref> Parks suggested that the "e" should refer to "everything, everyone, engaging, easy".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.askinternational.com/knowledge/articles/eBasic/whatsElearn.html |title=What's the "e" in e-Learning? |author=Eric Parks |publisher=Askinternational.com |accessdate=2013-10-22}}</ref> These broad interpretations focus on new applications and developments, as well as [[learning theory (education)|learning theory]] and [[media psychology]].<ref name="Luskin"/> |
[[Bernard Luskin]], an educational technology pioneer, advocated that the "e" of e-learning should be interpreted to mean "exciting, energetic, enthusiastic, emotional, extended, excellent, and educational" in addition to "electronic."<ref name="Luskin">{{cite web|title=Think "Exciting": E-Learning and the Big "E"|url=http://www.educause.edu/ero/article/think-exciting-e-learning-and-big-e|author=Bernard Luskin}}</ref> Parks suggested that the "e" should refer to "everything, everyone, engaging, easy".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.askinternational.com/knowledge/articles/eBasic/whatsElearn.html |title=What's the "e" in e-Learning? |author=Eric Parks |publisher=Askinternational.com |accessdate=2013-10-22}}</ref> These broad interpretations focus on new applications<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/5-terrific-education-apps-that-put-limitless-knowledge-under-your-fingertips_id84406?&tc=eml|title=5 terrific education apps that put limitless knowledge under your fingertips|access-date=2016-08-24}}</ref> and developments, as well as [[learning theory (education)|learning theory]] and [[media psychology]].<ref name="Luskin"/> |
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==History== |
==History== |
Revision as of 15:11, 24 August 2016
Educational research |
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Disciplines |
Curricular domains |
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Methods |
Educational technology is defined by the Association for Educational Communications and Technology as "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources."[1]
Educational technology refers to the use of both physical hardware and educational theoretics. It encompasses several domains, including
- educational technology as the theory and practice of educational approaches to learning
- educational technology as technological tools and media that assist in the communication of knowledge, and its development and exchange
- educational technology for learning management systems(LMS), such as tools for student and curriculum management, and education management information systems (EMIS)
- educational technology itself as an educational subject; such courses may be called "Computer Studies" or "Information and communications technology (ICT)".
Definition
Richey defined educational technology as "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources."[3] The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) denoted instructional technology as "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning."[4][5][6] As such, educational technology refers to all valid and reliable applied education sciences, such as equipment, as well as processes and procedures that are derived from scientific research, and in a given context may refer to theoretical, algorithmic or heuristic processes: it does not necessarily imply physical technology.
Related terms
Given this definition, educational technology is an inclusive term for both the material tools and the theoretical foundations for supporting learning and teaching. Educational technology is not restricted to high technology.[7]
However, modern electronic educational technology is an important part of society today.
Each of these numerous terms has had its advocates, who point up potential distinctive features.[10] However, many terms and concepts in educational technology have been defined nebulously; for example, Fiedler's review of the literature found a complete lack agreement of the components of a personal learning environment.[11] Moreover, Moore saw these terminologies as emphasizing particular features such as digitization approaches, components or delivery methods rather than being fundamentally dissimilar in concept or principle.[10] For example, m-learning emphasizes mobility, which allows for altered timing, location, accessibility and context of learning;[12] nevertheless, its purpose and conceptual principles are those of educational technology.[10]
In practice, as technology has advanced, the particular "narrowly defined" terminological aspect that was initially emphasized by name has blended into the general field of educational technology.
As a further example, ubiquitous learning emphasizes an omnipresent learning milieu.[18] Educational content, pervasively embedded in objects, is all around the learner, who may not even be conscious of the learning process: students may not have to do anything in order to learn, they just have to be there.[18][19] The combination of adaptive learning, using an individualized interface and materials, which accommodate to an individual, who thus receives personally differentiated instruction, with ubiquitous access to digital resources and learning opportunities in a range of places and at various times, has been termed smart learning.[20][21][22] Smart learning is a component of the smart city concept.[23][24]
Bernard Luskin, an educational technology pioneer, advocated that the "e" of e-learning should be interpreted to mean "exciting, energetic, enthusiastic, emotional, extended, excellent, and educational" in addition to "electronic."[25] Parks suggested that the "e" should refer to "everything, everyone, engaging, easy".[26] These broad interpretations focus on new applications[27] and developments, as well as learning theory and media psychology.[25]
History
Helping people learn in ways that are easier, faster, surer, or less expensive can be traced back to the emergence of very early tools, such as paintings on cave walls.
Slide projectors were widely used during the 1950s in educational institutional settings. Cuisenaire rods were devised in the 1920s and saw widespread use from the late 1950s.
In 1960, the
In the mid 1960s
In 1971, Ivan Illich published a hugely influential book called, Deschooling Society, in which he envisioned "learning webs" as a model for people to network the learning they needed. The 1970s and 1980s saw notable contributions in computer-based learning by Murray Turoff and Starr Roxanne Hiltz at the New Jersey Institute of Technology[35] as well as developments at the University of Guelph in Canada.[36] In 1976, Bernard Luskin launched Coastline Community College as a "college without walls" using television station KOCE-TV as a vehicle. In the UK the Council for Educational Technology supported the use of educational technology, in particular administering the government's National Development Programme in Computer Aided Learning[37] (1973–77) and the Microelectronics Education Programme (1980–86).
By the mid-1980s, accessing course content became possible at many college libraries. In computer-based training (CBT) or computer-based learning (CBL), the learning interaction was between the student and computer drills or micro-world simulations.
Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid-1980s. Educational institutions began to take advantage of the new medium by offering distance learning courses using computer networking for information. Early e-learning systems, based on computer-based learning/training often replicated autocratic teaching styles whereby the role of the e-learning system was assumed to be for transferring knowledge, as opposed to systems developed later based on
The Open University in Britain[36] and the University of British Columbia (where Web CT, now incorporated into Blackboard Inc., was first developed) began a revolution of using the Internet to deliver learning,[39] making heavy use of web-based training, online distance learning and online discussion between students.[40] Practitioners such as Harasim (1995)[41] put heavy emphasis on the use of learning networks.
With the advent of World Wide Web in the 1990s, teachers embarked on the method using emerging technologies to employ multi-object oriented sites, which are text-based online virtual reality systems, to create course websites along with simple sets of instructions for its students.
Text book publishers also explored ways to utilize both the Internet and CD ROM technology as an extension to traditional learning. In 1994, Simon and Schuster was the one of first to pioneer in this area, launching the New Media Group through its then Higher-Ed subsidiary Prentice Hall. Among the New Media Group’s members was future
By 1994, the first online high school had been founded. In 1997, Graziadei described criteria for evaluating products and developing technology-based courses that include being portable, replicable, scalable, affordable, and having a high probability of long-term cost-effectiveness.[44]
Improved Internet functionality enabled new schemes of communication with multimedia or webcams. The National Center for Education Statistics estimate the number of K-12 students enrolled in online distance learning programs increased by 65 percent from 2002 to 2005, with greater flexibility, ease of communication between teacher and student, and quick lecture and assignment feedback.
According to a 2008 study conducted by the U.S Department of Education, during the 2006-2007 academic year about 66% of postsecondary public and private schools participating in student financial aid programs offered some distance learning courses; records show 77% of enrollment in for-credit courses with an online component.[45] In 2008, the Council of Europe passed a statement endorsing e-learning's potential to drive equality and education improvements across the EU.[46]
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is between learners and instructors, mediated by the computer. In contrast, CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while CMC involves educator/tutor facilitation and requires scenarization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge management tasks.
Students growing up in this digital age have extensive exposure to a variety of media.[47][48] Major high-tech companies such as Google, Verizon and Microsoft have funded schools to provide them the ability to teach their students through technology, in the hope that this would lead to improved student performance.[49]
Theory
Various
Behaviorism
This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century based on animal learning experiments by
Cognitivism
Constructivism
Educational psychologists distinguish between several types of
Practice
The extent to which e-learning assists or replaces other learning and teaching approaches is variable, ranging on a continuum from none to fully
Synchronous and asynchronous
E-learning may either be synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous learning occurs in real-time, with all participants interacting at the same time, while asynchronous learning is self-paced and allows participants to engage in the exchange of ideas or information without the dependency of other participants′ involvement at the same time.
Synchronous learning refers to the exchange of ideas and information with one or more participants during the same period. Examples are face-to-face discussion, online real-time live teacher instruction and feedback, Skype conversations, and chat rooms or virtual classrooms where everyone is online and working collaboratively at the same time. Since students are working collaboratively, synchronized learning helps students create an open mind because they have to listen and learn from their peers. Synchronized learning fosters online awareness and improves many students' writing skills.[66]
On the other hand, the technological convergence of the mass media is the result of a long adaptation process of their communicative resources to the evolutionary changes of each historical moment. Thus, the new media became (plurally) an extension of the traditional media on the cyberspace, allowing to the public access information in a wide range of digital devices.[69] In other words, it is a cultural virtualization of human reality as a result of the migration from physical to virtual space (mediated by the ICTs), ruled by codes, signs and particular social relationships, inside and outside classroom. Forwards, arise instant ways of synchronous and asynchronous communication, interaction and possible quick access to information, in which we are no longer mere senders, but also producers, reproducers, co-workers and providers. New technologies also help to “connect” people from different cultures outside the virtual space, what was unthinkable fifty years ago. In this giant relationships web, we mutually absorb each other’s beliefs, customs, education, values, laws and habits, cultural legacies perpetuated by a physical-virtual dynamics in constant metamorphosis (ibidem).
Linear learning
Computer-based training (CBT) refers to self-paced learning activities delivered on a computer or handheld device such as a tablet or smartphone. CBT initially delivered content via CD-ROM, and typically presented content linearly, much like reading an online book or manual. For this reason, CBT is often used to teach static processes, such as using software or completing mathematical equations. Computer-based training is conceptually similar to web-based training (WBT) which are delivered via Internet using a web browser.
Assessing learning in a CBT is often by assessments that can be easily scored by a computer such as multiple choice questions, drag-and-drop, radio button, simulation or other interactive means. Assessments are easily scored and recorded via online software, providing immediate end-user feedback and completion status. Users are often able to print completion records in the form of certificates.
CBTs provide learning stimulus beyond traditional learning methodology from textbook, manual, or classroom-based instruction. CBTs can be a good alternative to printed learning materials since rich media, including videos or animations, can be embedded to enhance the learning.
However, CBTs pose some learning challenges. Typically, the creation of effective CBTs requires enormous resources. The software for developing CBTs (such as Flash or Adobe Director) is often more complex than a subject matter expert or teacher is able to use. The lack of human interaction can limit both the type of content that can be presented and the type of assessment that can be performed, and may need supplementation with online discussion or other interactive elements.
Collaborative learning
Collaborative apps allow students and teachers to interact while studying. An example is MathChat, which allows cooperative problem solving and answer feedback.[77] Some apps can also provide an opportunity to revise or learn new topics independently in a simulated classroom environment. A popular example is Khan Academy,[78] which offers material in math, biology, chemistry, economics, art history and many others. It has the advantage of blending learning styles as the app offers many videos for visual and auditory learners, as well as exercises and tasks to solve for the kinesthetic learners. Other apps are designed after games, which provide a fun way to revise. When the experience is enjoyable the students become more engaged. Games also usually come with a sense of progression, which can help keep students motivated and consistent while trying to improve. Examples of educational games are Dragon Box, Mind Snacks, Code Spells and many more.[79]
Classroom 2.0 refers to online
Further, many researchers distinguish between collaborative and cooperative approaches to group learning. For example, Roschelle and Teasley (1995) argue that "cooperation is accomplished by the division of labour among participants, as an activity where each person is responsible for a portion of the problem solving", in contrast with collaboration that involves the "mutual engagement of participants in a coordinated effort to solve the problem together."[83]
Media
Educational media and tools can be used for:
- task structuring support: help with how to do a task (procedures and processes),
- access to knowledge bases (help user find information needed)
- alternate forms of knowledge representation (multiple representations of knowledge, e.g. video, audio, text, image, data)
Numerous types of physical technology are currently used:
Audio and video
Radio offers a synchronous educational vehicle, while streaming audio over the internet with webcasts and podcasts can be asynchronous. Classroom microphones, often wireless, can enable learners and educators to interact more clearly.
Video technology
Computers, tablets and mobile devices
Collaborative learning is a group-based learning approach in which learners are mutually engaged in a coordinated fashion to achieve a learning goal or complete a learning task. With recent developments in smartphone technology, the processing powers and storage capabilities of modern mobiles allow for advanced development and use of apps. Many app developers and education experts have been exploring smartphone and tablet apps as a medium for collaborative learning.
Computers and tablets enable learners and educators to access websites as well as programs such as Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, PDF files, and images. Many mobile devices support m-learning.
Mobile devices such as
OpenCourseWare (OCW) gives free public access to information used in undergraduate and graduate programs. Participating institutions are MIT[91][92] and Harvard, Princeton, Stanford, University of Pennsylvania, and University of Michigan.[93]
Google Classroom allows instructors to create, administer, and grade assignments. While Google Classroom ultimately strives to create a paperless learning environment, there are many different types of learner; a learning environment like the one that Google Classroom projects does not work for everyone.[citation needed]
Social networks
Group webpages,
Webcams
Whiteboards
Screencasting
Screencasting allows users to share their screens directly from their browser and make the video available online so that other viewers can stream the video directly.[103] The presenter thus has the ability to show their ideas and flow of thoughts rather than simply explain them as simple text content. In combination with audio and video, the educator can mimic the one-on-one experience of the classroom. Learners have an ability to pause and rewind, to review at their own pace, something a classroom cannot always offer.
Virtual classroom
A
A virtual classroom provides the opportunity for students to receive direct instruction from a qualified teacher in an interactive environment. Learners can have direct and immediate access to their instructor for instant feedback and direction. The virtual classroom provides a structured schedule of classes, which can be helpful for students who may find the freedom of asynchronous learning to be overwhelming. In addition, the virtual classroom provides a social learning environment that replicates the traditional "brick and mortar" classroom. Most virtual classroom applications provide a recording feature. Each class is recorded and stored on a server, which allows for instant playback of any class over the course of the school year. This can be extremely useful for students to retrieve missed material or review concepts for an upcoming exam. Parents and auditors have the conceptual ability to monitor any classroom to ensure that they are satisfied with the education the learner is receiving.
In
Augmented reality (AR) provides students and teachers the opportunity to create layers of digital information, that includes both virtual world and real world elements, to interact with in real time. There are already a variety of apps which offer a lot of variations and possibilities.
E-learning authoring tools
E-learning authoring tools are software or online services that enable users to create courses, simulations, or other educational experiences. These tools typically support conventional, presentation-like courses, and may enable screen recording, multimedia, interactivity, quizzes, and non-linear or adaptive approaches.[105] An example of an e-learning authoring tools is Adobe Captivate.
Typing software
Typing software allows users to practice their typing skills. Some of these programs include Typing Instructor, Typing Master, and Mavis Beacon Keyboarding Kidz.
Learning management system
A learning management system (LMS) is software used for delivering, tracking and managing training and education. For example, an LMS tracks attendance, time on task, and student progress. Educators can post announcements, grade assignments, check on course activity, and participate in class discussions. Students can submit their work, read and respond to discussion questions, and take quizzes.[94] An LMS may allow teachers, administrators, students, and permitted additional parties (such as parents if appropriate) to track various metrics. LMSs range from systems for managing training/educational records to software for distributing courses over the Internet and offering features for online collaboration. The creation and maintenance of comprehensive learning content requires substantial initial and ongoing investments of human labor. Effective translation into other languages and cultural contexts requires even more investment by knowledgeable personnel.[106]
Internet-based
Learning content management system
A
A recent trend in LCMSs is to address this issue through crowdsourcing (cf.SlideWiki[110]).
Computer-aided assessment
Electronic performance support system
An electronic performance support system (EPSS) is, according to Barry Raybould, "a computer-based system that improves worker productivity by providing on-the-job access to integrated information, advice, and learning experiences".[111] Gloria Gery defines it as "an integrated electronic environment that is available to and easily accessible by each employee and is structured to provide immediate, individualized on-line access to the full range of information, software, guidance, advice and assistance, data, images, tools, and assessment and monitoring systems to permit job performance with minimal support and intervention by others."[112][113]
Learning objects
Content
Content and design architecture issues include pedagogy and learning object re-use. One approach looks at five aspects:[114]
- Fact – unique data (e.g. symbols for Excel formula, or the parts that make up a learning objective)
- Concept – a category that includes multiple examples (e.g. Excel formulas, or the various types/theories of instructional design)
- Process – a flow of events or activities (e.g. how a spreadsheet works, or the five phases in ADDIE)
- Procedure – step-by-step task (e.g. entering a formula into a spreadsheet, or the steps that should be followed within a phase in ADDIE)
- Strategic principle – task performed by adapting guidelines (e.g. doing a financial projection in a spreadsheet, or using a framework for designing learning environments)
Pedagogical elements
Pedagogical elements are defined as structures or units of educational material. They are the educational content that is to be delivered. These units are independent of format, meaning that although the unit may be delivered in various ways, the pedagogical structures themselves are not the textbook, web page,
Learning objects standards
Much effort has been put into the technical reuse of electronically based teaching materials and in particular creating or re-using
Settings
Preschool
Various forms of electronic media are a feature of preschool life.[115] Although parents report a positive experience, the impact of such use has not been systematically assessed.[115]
The age when a given child might start using a particular technology such as a cellphone or computer might depend on matching a technological resource to the recipient's developmental capabilities, such as the age-anticipated stages labeled by Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget.[116] Parameters, such as age-appropriateness, coherence with sought-after values, and concurrent entertainment and educational aspects, have been suggested for choosing media.[117]
K–12
E-learning is utilized by public
E-learning is increasingly being utilized by students who may not want to go to traditional brick and mortar schools due to severe allergies or other medical issues, fear of school violence and school bullying and students whose parents would like to homeschool but do not feel qualified.[118] Online schools create a haven for students to receive a quality education while almost completely avoiding these common problems. Online charter schools also often are not limited by location, income level or class size in the way brick and mortar charter schools are.[119]
E-learning also has been rising as a supplement to the traditional classroom. Students with special talents or interests outside of the available curricula use e-learning to advance their skills or exceed grade restrictions.[120] Some online institutions connect students with instructors via web conference technology to form a digital classroom.
National private schools are also available online. These provide the benefits of e-learning to students in states where charter online schools are not available. They also may allow students greater flexibility and exemption from state testing.
Virtual education in
Higher education
Online college course enrollment has seen a 29% increase in enrollment with nearly one third of all college students, or an estimated 6.7 million students are currently enrolled in online classes.[122][123] In 2009, 44 percent of post-secondary students in the USA were taking some or all of their courses online, which was projected to rise to 81 percent by 2014.[124]
Although a large proportion of
Although
Private organizations also offer classes, such as Udacity, with free computer science classes, and Khan Academy, with over 3,900 free micro-lectures available via YouTube. Distributed open collaborative course (DOCC) sees itself as a counter-movement to MOOC, emphasizing decentralized teaching.[130] University of the People is a non-profit accredited online university. Coursera offers online courses. According to Fortune magazine, over a million people worldwide have enrolled in free online courses.[131]
Corporate and professional
Companies with spread out
Public health
There is an important need for recent, reliable, and high-quality health information to be made available to the public as well as in summarized form for public health providers.
ADHD
There has also been a growing interest in e-learning as a beneficial educational method for students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). With the growing popularity in e-learning among K-12 and higher education, the opportunity to take online classes is becoming increasingly important for students of all ages.[137] However, students with ADHD and special needs face different learning demands compared to the typical developing learner. This is especially significant considering the dramatic rise in ADHD diagnoses in the last decade among both children and adults.[138] Compared to the traditional face-to-face classroom, e-learning and virtual classrooms require a higher level of executive functions, which is the primary deficit associated with ADHD.[139] Although ADHD is not specifically named in the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, students with ADHD who have symptoms that interfere with their learning or ability may be eligible for assistive technology. Some examples of the resources that may help interest students and adults with ADHD consist of, computer software, brain games, timers, calendars, voice recognition devices, screen magnifiers, and talking books.[140]
Wolf lists 12 executive function skills necessary for students to succeed in postsecondary education: plan, set goals, organize, initiate, sustain attention/effort, flexibility, monitor, use feedback, structure, manage time, manage materials, and follow through.[141] These skills, along with strong independent and self-regulated learning, are especially pronounced in the online environment and as many ADHD students suffer from a deficit in one or more of these executive functions, this presents a significant challenge and accessibility barrier to the current e-learning approach.[142][143]
Some have noted that current e-learning models are moving towards applying a constructivism learning theory[144] that emphasizes a learner-centered environment[145] and postulates that everyone has the ability to construct their own knowledge and meaning through a process of problem solving and discovery.[146] However, some principles of constructivism may not be appropriate for ADHD learners; these principles include active learning, self-monitoring, motivation, and strong focus.[144]
Despite the limitations, students with special needs, including ADHD, have expressed an overall enthusiasm for e-learning and have identified a number e-learning benefits, including: availability of online course notes, materials and additional resources; the ability to work at an independent pace and spend extra time spent formulating thoughtful responses in class discussions; help in understanding course lecture/content; ability to review lectures multiple times; and enhanced access to and communication with the course instructor.[142][147]
Disabilities
The design of e-learning platforms in ways that enable universal access has received attention from several directions, including the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). WAI provides universal formatting standards for websites so they can remain accessible to people with disabilities. For example, developing or adopting e-learning material can enable accessibility for people with visual impairment.[148][149] The Perkins School for the Blind offers learning resources tailored for the visually impaired, including webcasts, webinars, downloadable science activities, and an online library that has access to over 40,000 resource materials on blindness and deaf blindness.[150]
Online education may appear to be a promising alternative for students with physical and sensory disabilities because they get to work at their own pace and in their own home. However, not all online programs are equal when it comes to their resources for students with disabilities. Students with disabilities who wish to enroll in online education must either be able to advocate for themselves and their own rights or have a person whom is willing to advocate for them. The American with Disabilities Act states that online programs must provide appropriate accommodations for students with disabilities, but has not specifically defined what that means. "Once students with disabilities are accepted into an online program, they should prepare to be direct and open about what they need to succeed, experts say" (Haynie).[151]
Identity options
Educational technology, particularly in online learning environments, can allow students to use real identity, pseudonym, or anonymous identity during classroom communication. Advantages in anonymizing race, age, and gender are increased student participation[152] and increased cross-cultural communication.[153] Risks include increased cyberbullying, and aggressive or hostile language.[153][154][155]
Benefits
Effective technology use deploys multiple evidence-based strategies concurrently (e.g. adaptive content, frequent testing, immediate feedback, etc.), as do effective teachers.[156] Using computers or other forms of technology can give students practice on core content and skills while the teacher can work with others, conduct assessments, or perform other tasks.[156][157] Through the use of educational technology, education is able to be individualized for each student allowing for better differentiation and allowing students to work for mastery at their own pace.[158]
Modern educational technology can improve access to education, including full degree programs.
Students appreciate the convenience of e-learning, but report greater engagement in face-to-face learning environments.[166]
According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used for instruction, students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based instruction and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based classes.[167] Students can independently solve problems.[160] There are no intrinsic age-based restrictions on difficulty level, i.e. students can go at their own pace. Students editing their written work on word processors improve the quality of their writing. According to some studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network with students they know.[162] Studies completed in "computer intensive" settings found increases in student-centric, cooperative and higher order learning, writing skills, problem solving, and using technology.[168] In addition, attitudes toward technology as a learning tool by parents, students and teachers are also improved.
Employers' acceptance of
The use of educational apps generally has positive effect on learning. Pre- and post- tests reveal that the use of apps on mobile devices reduces the achievement gap between struggling and average students.[170] Some educational apps improve group work by allowing students to receive feedback on answers and promoting collaboration in solving problems, examples of these apps can be found in the third paragraph. The benefits of app-assisted learning have been exhibited in all age groups. Kindergarten students that use iPads show much higher rates of literacy than non-users. Medical students at University of California Irvine that utilized iPad academically have been reported to score 23% higher on national exams than previous classes that did not. Mobile devices and apps have also been shown to assist in the education of disabled students, with one study reporting increased engagement and accelerated comprehension and learning.[171]
Disadvantages
Many US states spend large sums of money on technology. However, as of 2013[update], none were looking at technology return on investment (ROI) to connect expenditures on technology with improved student outcomes.[172]
New technologies are frequently accompanied by unrealistic hype and promise regarding their transformative power to change education for the better or in allowing better educational opportunities to reach the masses. Examples include silent film, broadcast radio, and television, none of which have maintained much of a foothold in the daily practices of mainstream, formal education.[173] Technology, in and of itself, does not necessarily result in fundamental improvements to educational practice.[174] The focus needs to be on the learner's interaction with technology—not the technology itself. It needs to be recognized as "ecological" rather than "additive" or "subtractive". In this ecological change, one significant change will create total change.[175]
According to Branford et al., "technology does not guarantee effective learning" and inappropriate use of technology can even hinder it.[176] A University of Washington study of infant vocabulary shows that it is slipping due to educational baby DVDs. Published in the Journal of Pediatrics, a 2007 University of Washington study on the vocabulary of babies surveyed over 1,000 parents in Washington and Minnesota. The study found that for every one hour that babies 8–16 months of age watched DVDs and Videos they knew 6-8 fewer of 90 common baby words than the babies that did not watch them. Andrew Meltzoff, a surveyor in this study states that the result makes sense, that if the baby's 'alert time' is spent in front of DVDs and TV, instead of with people speaking, the babies are not going to get the same linguistic experience. Dr. Dimitri Chistakis, another surveyor reported that the evidence is mounting that baby DVDs are of no value and may be harmful.[177][178][179][180]
Adaptive instructional materials tailor questions to each student's ability and calculate their scores, but this encourages students to work individually rather than socially or collaboratively (Kruse, 2013). Social relationships are important but high-tech environments may compromise the balance of trust, care and respect between teacher and student.[181]
With the Internet and social media, using educational apps makes the students highly susceptible to distraction and sidetracking. Even though proper use has shown to increase student performances, being distracted would be detrimental. Another disadvantage is increased potential for cheating. Smartphones can be very easy to hide and use inconspicuously, especially if their use is normalized in the classroom. These disadvantages can be managed with strict rules and regulations on mobile phone use.
Over-stimulation
Electronic devices such as cellphones and computers facilitate rapid access to a stream of sources, each of which may receive cursory attention. Michel Rich, an associate professor at Harvard Medical School and executive director of the center on Media and Child Health in Boston, said of the digital generation, "Their brains are rewarded not for staying on task, but for jumping to the next thing. The worry is we're raising a generation of kids in front of screens whose brains are going to be wired differently."[184] Students have always faced distractions; computers and cellphones are a particular challenge because the stream of data can interfere with focusing and learning. Although these technologies affect adults too, young people may be more influenced by it as their developing brains can easily become habituated to switching tasks and become unaccustomed to sustaining attention.[184] Too much information, coming too rapidly, can overwhelm thinking.[185]
Technology is "rapidly and profoundly altering our brains."[186] High exposure levels stimulate brain cell alteration and release neurotransmitters, which causes the strengthening of some neural pathways and weakening of others. This leads to heightened stress levels on the brain that, at first, boost energy levels, but, over time, actually augment memory, impair cognition, lead to depression, alter the neural circuity of the hippocampus, amygdala and prefrontal cortex. These are the brain regions that control mood and thought. If unchecked, the underlying structure of the brain could be altered.[184][186] Over-stimulation due to technology may begin too young. When children are exposed before the age of seven, important developmental tasks may be delayed, and bad learning habits might develop, which "deprives children of the exploration and play that they need to develop."[187]
Sociocultural criticism
According to Lai, "the learning environment is a complex system where the interplay and interactions of many things impact the outcome of learning."[188] When technology is brought into an educational setting, the pedagogical setting changes in that technology-driven teaching can change the entire meaning of an activity without adequate research validation. If technology monopolizes an activity, students can begin to develop the sense that "life would scarcely be thinkable without technology."[189]
Leo Marx considered the word "technology" itself as problematic,[190] susceptible to reification and "phantom objectivity", which conceals its fundamental nature as something that is only valuable insofar as it benefits the human condition. Technology ultimately comes down to affecting the relations between people, but this notion is obfuscated when technology is treated as an abstract notion devoid of good and evil. Langdon Winner makes a similar point by arguing that the underdevelopment of the philosophy of technology leaves us with an overly simplistic reduction in our discourse to the supposedly dichotomous notions of the "making" versus the "uses" of new technologies, and that a narrow focus on "use" leads us to believe that all technologies are neutral in moral standing.[189]: ix–39 These critiques would have us ask not, "How do we maximize the role or advancement of technology in education?", but, rather, "What are the social and human consequences of adopting any particular technology?"
Winner viewed technology as a "form of life" that not only aids human activity, but that also represents a powerful force in reshaping that activity and its meaning.[189]: ix–39 For example, the use of robots in the industrial workplace may increase productivity, but they also radically change the process of production itself, thereby redefining what is meant by "work" in such a setting. In education, standardized testing has arguably redefined the notions of learning and assessment. We rarely explicitly reflect on how strange a notion it is that a number between, say, 0 and 100 could accurately reflect a person’s knowledge about the world. According to Winner, the recurring patterns in everyday life tend to become an unconscious process that we learn to take for granted. Winner writes,
By far the greatest latitude of choice exists the very first time a particular instrument, system, or technique is introduced. Because choices tend to become strongly fixed in material equipment, economic investment, and social habit, the original flexibility vanishes for all practical purposes once the initial commitments are made. In that sense technological innovations are similar to legislative acts or political foundings that establish a framework for public order that will endure over many generations. (p. 29)
When adopting new technologies, there may be one best chance to "get it right." Seymour Papert (p. 32) points out a good example of a (bad) choice that has become strongly fixed in social habit and material equipment: our "choice" to use the QWERTY keyboard.[191] The QWERTY arrangement of letters on the keyboard was originally chosen, not because it was the most efficient for typing, but because early typewriters were prone to jam when adjacent keys were struck in quick succession. Now that typing has become a digital process, this is no longer an issue, but the QWERTY arrangement lives on as a social habit, one that is very difficult to change.
Neil Postman endorsed the notion that technology impacts human cultures, including the culture of classrooms, and that this is a consideration even more important than considering the efficiency of a new technology as a tool for teaching.[175] Regarding the computer’s impact on education, Postman writes (p. 19):
What we need to consider about the computer has nothing to do with its efficiency as a teaching tool. We need to know in what ways it is altering our conception of learning, and how in conjunction with television, it undermines the old idea of school.
Digital divide
The concept of the digital divide is a gap between those who have access to digital technologies and those who do not.[192] Access may be associated with age, gender, socio-economic status, education, income, ethnicity, and geography.[192][193]
Teacher training
Since technology is not the end goal of education, but rather a means by which it can be accomplished, educators must have a good grasp of the technology and its advantages and disadvantages. Teacher training aims for effective integration of classroom technology.[194]
The evolving nature of technology may unsettle teachers, who may experience themselves as perpetual novices.[195] Finding quality materials to support classroom objectives is often difficult. Random professional development days are inadequate.[195]
According to Jenkins, "Rather than dealing with each technology in isolation, we would do better to take an ecological approach, thinking about the interrelationship among different communication technologies, the cultural communities that grow up around them, and the activities they support."[193] Jenkins also suggested that the traditional school curriculum guided teachers to train students to be autonomous problem solvers.[193] However, today's workers are increasingly asked to work in teams, drawing on different sets of expertise, and collaborating to solve problem.[193] Learning styles and the methods of collecting information have evolved, and "students often feel locked out of the worlds described in their textbooks through the depersonalized and abstract prose used to describe them".[193] These twenty-first century skills can be attained through the incorporation and engagement with technology.[196] Changes in instruction and use of technology can also promote a higher level of learning among students with different types of intelligence.[197]
Assessment
There are two distinct issues of assessment: the assessment of educational technology[193][198] and assessment with technology.[199]
Assessments of educational technology have included the Follow Through project.
Educational assessment with technology may be either formative assessment or summative assessment. Instructors use both types of assessment to understand student progress and learning in the classroom. Technology has helped teachers create better assessments to help understand where students who are having trouble with the material are having issues.
Formative assessment is more difficult, as the perfect form is ongoing and allows the students to show their learning in different ways depending on their learning styles. Technology has helped some teachers make their formative assessments better, particularly through the use of classroom response systems (CRS).[200] A CRS is a tool in which the students each have a handheld device that partners up with the teacher's computer. The instructor then asks multiple choice or true or false questions and the students answer on their device.[200] Depending on the software used, the answers may then be shown on a graph so students and teacher can see the percentage of students who gave each answer and the teacher can focus on what went wrong.[201] Some examples of CRSs are Quizzler, Turning Systems, and the quiz aspect of the Mastering Programs (for example Mastering Physics or Mastering Chemistry).
Summative assessments are more common in classrooms and are usually set up to be more easily graded, as they take the form of tests or projects with specific grading schemes. One huge benefit to tech-based testing is the option to give students immediate feedback on their answers. When students get these responses, they are able to know how they are doing in the class which can help push them to improve or give them confidence that they are doing well.[202] Technology also allows for different kinds of summative assessment, such as digital presentations, videos, or anything else the teacher/students may come up with, which allows different learners to show what they learned more effectively.[202] Teachers can also use technology to post graded assessments online for students to have a better idea of what a good project is.
There are no restrictions to the types of tests that can use e-marking, with e-marking applications designed to accommodate multiple choice, written, and even video submissions for performance examinations. E-marking software is used by individual educational institutions and can also be rolled out to the participating schools of awarding exam organisations. e-marking has been used to mark many well known high stakes examinations, which in the United Kingdom include
reports that e-marking is the main type of marking used for general qualifications in the United Kingdom.In 2007, the International Baccalaureate implemented e-marking. In 2012, 66% of nearly 16 million exam scripts were "e-marked" in the United Kingdom.[203] Ofqual reports that in 2015, all key stage 2 tests in the United Kingdom will be marked onscreen.
In 2014, the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) announced that most of the National 5 question papers would be e-marked.[204]
In June 2015, the Odisha state government in India announced that it planned to use e-marking for all Plus II papers from 2016.[205]
Analytics
The importance of self-assessment through tools made available on Educational Technology platforms has been growing. Self-assessment in education technology relies on students analyzing their strengths, weaknesses and areas where improvement is possible to set realistic goals in learning, improve their educational performances and track their progress.[206][207] One of the unique tools for self-assessment made possible by education technology is Analytics. Analytics is data gathered on the student's activities on the learning platform, drawn into meaningful patterns that leads to a valid conclusion, usually through the medium of data visualization such as graphs.
Expenditure
The five key sectors of the e-learning industry are consulting, content, technologies, services and support.[208] Worldwide, e-learning was estimated in 2000 to be over $48 billion according to conservative estimates.[209] Commercial growth has been brisk.[210][211] In 2014, the worldwide commercial market activity was estimated at $6 billion venture capital over the past five years,[210]: 38 with self-paced learning generating $35.6 billion in 2011.[210]: 4 North American e-learning generated $23.3 billion in revenue in 2013, with a 9% growth rate in cloud based authoring tools and learning platforms.[210]: 19
Careers
Educational technologists and psychologists apply basic educational and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction. In research, these professions typically require a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of Educational, Instructional or Human Performance Technology or
See also
- ADDIE Model
- Heutagogy
- Assistive technology
- Blended learning
- Computerized adaptive testing
- Content management system
- Distance education
- E-assessment
- Educational animation
- Educational psychology
- Educational research
- E-learning (theory)
- Information mapping
- Instructional design
- Instructional theory
- Intelligent tutoring system
- Interactive geometry software
- Learning theory (education)
- M-learning
- Matching person and technology model
- Mind map
- Mobile phone use in schools
- Online learning community
- Smart learning
- SCORM
- Taecanet
- Technological pedagogical content knowledge
- Technology integration
- Usability testing
- Virtual university
- Virtual world language learning
- Washington County Closed-Circuit Educational Television Project
- Web-based simulation
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Further reading
- Encyclopedia of Educational Technology, a collection of short multimedia articles on a variety of topics related to the fields of instructional design and education and training, published by the Department of Educational Technology, San Diego State University