User:Mactest0/sandbox
An invasive species is a species that is not native to a specific location (an introduced species), and that has a tendency to spread to a degree believed to cause damage to the environment, human economy or human health.[2]
The term as most often used applies to introduced species that adversely affect the
The term "invasive" is often poorly defined or very subjective[6] and some broaden the term to include indigenous or "native" species, that have colonized natural areas[6] - for example deer considered by some to be overpopulating their native zones and adjacent suburban gardens in the Northeastern and Pacific Coast regions of the United States.[10]
The definition of "native" is also sometimes controversial. For example, the ancestors of
Notable examples of invasive plant species include the
Invasion of long-established ecosystems by organisms from distant bio-regions is a natural phenomenon, but has been accelerated massively by humans, from their
Causes
Scientists include species and ecosystem factors among the mechanisms that, when combined, establish invasiveness in a newly introduced species.
Species based mechanisms
While all species compete to survive, invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete native species. In some cases, the competition is about rates of growth and reproduction. In other cases, species interact with each other more directly.
Researchers disagree about the usefulness of traits as invasiveness markers. One study found that of a list of invasive and noninvasive species, 86% of the invasive species could be identified from the traits alone.[15] Another study found invasive species tended to have only a small subset of the presumed traits and that many similar traits were found in noninvasive species, requiring other explanations.[15][16][17] Common invasive species traits include the following:
- Fast growth
- Rapid reproduction
- High dispersal ability
- Phenotype plasticity (the ability to alter growth form to suit current conditions)
- Tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions (Ecological competence)
- Ability to live off of a wide range of food types (generalist)
- Association with humans[18]
- Prior successful invasions[19]
Typically, an introduced species must survive at low population densities before it becomes invasive in a new location.[20] At low population densities, it can be difficult for the introduced species to reproduce and maintain itself in a new location, so a species might reach a location multiple times before it becomes established. Repeated patterns of human movement, such as ships sailing to and from ports or cars driving up and down highways offer repeated opportunities for establishment (also known as a high propagule pressure).[21]
An introduced species might become invasive if it can outcompete native species for resources such as
An invasive species might be able to use resources that were previously unavailable to native species, such as deep water sources accessed by a long
Invasive species might alter their environment by releasing chemical compounds, modifying
Other examples are
Changes in fire regimens are another form of facilitation. Bromus tectorum, originally from Eurasia, is highly fire-adapted. It not only spreads rapidly after burning but also increases the frequency and intensity (heat) of fires by providing large amounts of dry detritus during the fire season in western North America. In areas where it is widespread, it has altered the local fire regimen so much that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires, allowing B. tectorum to further extend and maintain dominance in its introduced range.[29]
Ecological facilitation also occurs where one species physically modifies a habitat in ways that are advantageous to other species. For example, zebra mussels increase habitat complexity on lake floors, providing crevices in which invertebrates live. This increase in complexity, together with the nutrition provided by the waste products of mussel filter-feeding, increases the density and diversity of benthic invertebrate communities.[30]
Ecosystem-based mechanisms
In ecosystems, the amount of available resources and the extent to which those resources are used by organisms determines the effects of additional species on the ecosystem. In stable ecosystems, equilibrium exists in the use of available resources. These mechanisms describe a situation in which the ecosystem has suffered a disturbance, which changes the fundamental nature of the ecosystem.[31]
When changes such as a
Every species occupies a niche in its native ecosystem; some species fill large and varied roles, while others are highly specialized. Some invading species fill niches that are not used by native species, and they also can create new niches.[33] An example of this type can be found within the Lampropholis delicata species of skink.
Ecosystem changes can alter species' distributions. For example,
One interesting finding in studies of invasive species has shown that introduced populations have great potential for rapid adaptation and this is used to explain how so many introduced species are able to establish and become invasive in new environments. When
Rapid adaptive evolution in these species leads to offspring that have higher fitness and are better suited for their environment. Intraspecific phenotypic plasticity, pre-adaptation and post-introduction evolution are all major factors in adaptive evolution.[38] Plasticity in populations allows room for changes to better suit the individual in its environment. This is key in adaptive evolution because the main goal is how to best be suited to the ecosystem that the species has been introduced. The ability to accomplish this as quickly as possible will lead to a population with a very high fitness. Pre-adaptations and evolution after the initial introduction also play a role in the success of the introduced species. If the species has adapted to a similar ecosystem or contains traits that happen to be well suited to the area that it is introduced, it is more likely to fare better in the new environment. This, in addition to evolution that takes place after introduction, all determine if the species will be able to become established in the new ecosystem and if it will reproduce and thrive.
Ecology
Traits of invaded ecosystems
In 1958,
This debate hinged on the
Invasion was more likely in ecosystems that were similar to the one in which the potential invader evolved.
Invaded ecosystems may have experienced disturbance, typically human-induced.[43] Such a disturbance may give invasive species a chance to establish themselves with less competition from natives less able to adapt to a disturbed ecosystem.[20]
Vectors
Non-native species have many
An early human vector occurred when prehistoric humans introduced the
Vectors include plants or seeds imported for
The arrival of invasive propagules to a new site is a function of the site's invasibility.[48]
Species have also been introduced intentionally. For example, to feel more "at home,"
Many invasive species, once they are dominant in the area, are essential to the ecosystem of that area. If they are removed from the location it could be harmful to that area.[50]
Economics plays a major role in exotic species introduction. High demand for the valuable Chinese mitten crab is one explanation for the possible intentional release of the species in foreign waters.[51][citation needed]
Within the aquatic environment
The development of maritime trade has rapidly affected the way marine organisms are transported within the ocean. Two ways marine organisms are transported to new environments are hull fouling and ballast water transport. In fact, Molnar et al. 2008 documented the pathways of hundreds of marine invasive species and found that shipping was the dominant mechanism for the transfer of invasive species.[52]
Many marine organisms have the capacity to attach themselves to vessel hulls. Therefore, these organisms are easily transported from one body of water to another and are a significant risk factor for a biological invasion event.[53] Unfortunately, controlling for vessel hull fouling is voluntary and there are no regulations currently in place to manage hull fouling. However, the governments of California and New Zealand have announced more stringent control for vessel hull fouling within their respective jurisdictions.[54]
The other main vector for the transport of non-native aquatic species is ballast water. Ballast water taken up at sea and released in port by transoceanic vessels is the largest vector for non-native aquatic species invasions.[55][56] In fact, it is estimated that 10,000 different species, many of which are non-indigenous, are transported via ballast water each day.[57] Many of these species are considered harmful and can negatively affect their new environment. For example, freshwater zebra mussels, native to the Black, Caspian and Azov seas, most likely reached the Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel.[58] Zebra mussels outcompete other native organisms for oxygen and food, such as algae. Although the zebra mussel invasion was first noted in 1988, and a mitigation plan was successfully implemented shortly thereafter, the plan had a serious flaw or loophole, whereby ships loaded with cargo when they reached the Seaway were not tested because their ballast water tanks were empty. However, even in an empty ballast tank, there remains a puddle of water filled with organisms that could be released at the next port (when the tank is filled with water after unloading the cargo, the ship takes on ballast water which mixes with the puddles and then everything including the living organisms in the puddles is discharged at the next port).[59] Current regulations for the Great Lakes rely on ‘salinity shock’ to kill freshwater organisms left in ballast tanks.[60]
Even though ballast water regulations are in place to protect against potentially invasive species, there exists a loophole for organisms in the 10-50 micron size class. For organisms between 10 and 50 microns, such as certain types of
Another important factor to consider about marine invasive species is the role of environmental changes associated with climate change, such as an increase in ocean temperature. There have been multiple studies suggesting an increase in ocean temperature will cause range shifts in organisms,[63][64] which could have detrimental effects on the environment as new species interactions emerge. For example, Hua and Hwang proposed that organisms in a ballast tank of a ship traveling from the temperature zone through tropical waters can experience temperature fluctuations as much as 20 °C.[65] To further examine the effects of temperature on organisms transported on hulls or in ballast water, Lenz et al. (2018) carried out study where they conducted a double heat stress experiment. Their results suggest that heat challenges organisms face during transport may enhance the stress tolerance of species in their non-native range by selecting for genetically adapted genotypes that will survive a second applied heat stress, such as increased ocean temperature in the founder population.[66] Due to the complexity of climate change induced variations, it is difficult to predict the nature of temperature-based success of non-native species in-situ. Since some studies have suggested increased temperature tolerance of “hijackers” on ships’ hulls or in ballast water, it is necessary to develop more comprehensive fouling and ballast water management plans in an effort to prevent against future possible invasions as environmental conditions continue to change around the world.
Effects of wildfire and firefighting
Invasive species often exploit disturbances to an ecosystem (
Wildfires often occur in remote areas, needing fire suppression crews to travel through pristine forest to reach the site. The crews can bring invasive seeds with them. If any of these stowaway seeds become established, a thriving colony of invasives can erupt in as few as six weeks, after which controlling the outbreak can need years of continued attention to prevent further spread. Also, disturbing the soil surface, such as cutting firebreaks, destroys native cover, exposes soil, and can accelerate invasions. In suburban and
Fire suppression vehicles are often major culprits in such outbreaks, as the vehicles are often driven on back roads overgrown with invasive plant species. The undercarriage of the vehicle becomes a prime vessel of transport. In response, on large fires, washing stations "decontaminate" vehicles before engaging in suppression activities.[citation needed] Large wildfires attract firefighters from remote places, further increasing the potential for seed transport.[citation needed]
Effects
Ecological
Land clearing and human habitation put significant pressure on local species. Disturbed habitats are prone to invasions that can have adverse effects on local ecosystems, changing ecosystem functions. A species of wetland plant known as ʻaeʻae in Hawaii (the indigenous Bacopa monnieri) is regarded as a pest species in artificially manipulated water bird refuges because it quickly covers shallow mudflats established for endangered Hawaiian stilt (Himantopus mexicanus knudseni), making these undesirable feeding areas for the birds.
Multiple successive introductions of different non-native species can have interactive effects; the introduction of a second non-native species can enable the first invasive species to flourish. Examples of this are the introductions of the amethyst gem clam (Gemma gemma) and the European green crab (Carcinus maenas). The gem clam was introduced into California's Bodega Harbor from the East Coast of the United States a century ago. It had been found in small quantities in the harbor but had never displaced the native clam species (Nutricola spp.). In the mid-1990s, the introduction of the European green crab, found to prey preferentially on the native clams, resulted in a decline of the native clams and an increase of the introduced clam populations.[67]
In the
Invasive species can change the functions of ecosystems. For example, invasive plants can alter the fire regime (cheatgrass,
Geomorphological
Primary geomorphological effects of invasive plants are bioconstruction and bioprotection. For example, Kudzu
Economic
Some invaders cause negativity affect the economy of the local area. For example, in the
Economic opportunities
Some invasions offer potential commercial benefits. For instance,
Benefits
Although most people focus on the negative effects of invasive and non-native species, they can actually be harmless or even beneficial in some cases. Ecosystems thrive because of biodiversity and some need non-native species in order to succeed. There are four major ways that non-natives can be very beneficial for an ecosystem. The first is that they can provide a suitable habitat or food source for other organisms. In areas where a native has become extinct or reached a point that it cannot be restored, non-native species can fill their role. A good example of this is the
The second way that non-native species can be beneficial is that they act as catalysts for restoration. This is because the presence of non-native species increases the
Many non-native species have similar characteristics and functions and can keep an ecosystem functioning properly without collapse. An example of this is the
Non-native species can have other benefits.
Invasivorism
Invasive species are flora and fauna whose introduction into a habitat disrupts the native eco-system. In response, Invasivorism is a movement that explores the idea of eating invasive species in order to control, reduce, or eliminate their populations. Chefs from around the world have begun seeking out and using invasive species as alternative ingredients.
In 2005 Chef
Skeptics point out that once a foreign species has entrenched itself in a new place—such as the
Proponents of invasivorism argue that humans have the ability to eat away any species that it has an appetite for, pointing to the many animals which humans have been able to hunt to extinction—such as the
In recent years, organizations including Reef Environmental Educational Foundation[91] and the Institute for Applied Ecology, among others, have published cookbooks and recipes that include invasive species as ingredients.[92][93][94]
Costs
It is often argued that the key to reducing the costs of invasive species damage and management is early detection and rapid response,[97] meaning that incurring an initial cost of searching for and finding an invasive species and quickly controlling it, while the population is small, is less expensive that managing the invasive population when it is widespread and already causing damage. However, an intense search for the invader is only important to reduce costs in cases where the invasive species is (1) not frequently reintroduced into the managed area and (2) cost effective to search for and find.[98]
Plant industry
Invasive plant pathogens and insect vectors for plant diseases can also suppress agricultural yields and nursery stock. Citrus greening is a
Aquaculture
Forestry
The unintentional introduction of forest pest species and plant pathogens can change
The Asian long-horned beetle (
Tourism and recreation
Invasive species can impact outdoor recreation, such as fishing,
Health
Encroachment of humans into previously remote ecosystems has exposed exotic diseases such as
Biodiversity
Biotic invasion is considered one of the five top drivers for global
Invasive species may drive local native species to extinction via competitive exclusion, niche displacement, or hybridisation with related native species. Therefore, besides their economic ramifications, alien invasions may result in extensive changes in the structure, composition and global distribution of the biota of sites of introduction, leading ultimately to the homogenisation of the world's fauna and flora and the loss of biodiversity.[114] Nevertheless, it is difficult to unequivocally attribute extinctions to a species invasion, and the few scientific studies that have done so have been with animal taxa. Concern over the impacts of invasive species on biodiversity must therefore consider the actual evidence (either ecological or economic), in relation to the potential risk.[115]
Genetic pollution
Native
Hybrids resulting from invasive species interbreeding with native species can incorporate their genotypes into the gene pool over time through
Invasive exotic diseases
History is rife with the spread of exotic diseases, such as the introduction of
Problematic exotic disease introductions in the past century or so include the chestnut blight which has almost eliminated the American chestnut tree from its forest habitat. Responses to increase the population of the American chestnut include creating blight resistant trees that can be reintroduced. This displays both the positive and negative aspects of introduced species.
Another example is the
Diseases may also be vectored by invasive insects such as the Asian citrus psyllid and the bacterial disease citrus greening.[124]
It has been argued that some invasive species "...could fill niches in degraded ecosystems and help restore native biodiversity...".[125]
Study and eradication
Stage | Characteristic |
---|---|
0 | Propagules residing in a donor region |
I | Traveling |
II | Introduced |
III | Localized and numerically rare |
IVa | Widespread but rare |
IVb | Localized but dominant |
V | Widespread and dominant |
While the study of invasive species can be done within many subfields of biology, the majority of research on invasive organisms has been within the field of ecology and geography where the issue of biological invasions is especially important. Much of the study of invasive species has been influenced by Charles Elton's 1958 book The Ecology of Invasion by Animals and Plants which drew upon the limited amount of research done within disparate fields to create a generalized picture of biological invasions.[126][127] Studies on invasive species remained sparse until the 1990s when research in the field experienced a large amount of growth which continues to this day.[127] This research, which has largely consisted of field observational studies, has disproportionately been concerned with terrestrial plants.[127] The rapid growth of the field has driven a need to standardize the language used to describe invasive species and events. Despite this, little standard terminology exists within the study of invasive species which itself lacks any official designation but is commonly referred to as "Invasion ecology" or more generally "Invasion biology".[126][127] This lack of standard terminology is a significant problem, and has largely arisen due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field which borrows terms from numerous disciplines such as agriculture, zoology, and pathology, as well as due to studies on invasive species being commonly performed in isolation of one another.[126]
In an attempt to avoid the ambiguous, subjective, and pejorative vocabulary that so often accompanies discussion of invasive species even in scientific papers, Colautti and MacIsaac proposed a new nomenclature system based on
By discarding taxonomy,
Introduced species on islands
Perhaps the best place to study problems associated with introduced species is on islands. Depending upon the isolation (how far an island is located from continental biotas), native island biological communities may be poorly adapted to the threat posed by exotic introductions. Often this can mean that no natural
An additional problem is that birds native to small islands may have become flightless because of the absence of predators prior to introductions and cannot readily escape the danger brought to them by introduced predators. The tendency of rails in particular to evolve flightless forms on islands making them vulnerable has led to the disproportionate number of extinctions in that family.
The field of island restoration has developed as a field of conservation biology and ecological restoration, a large part of which deals with the eradication of invasive species. A 2019 study suggests that if eradications of invasive animals were conducted on just 169 islands the survival prospects of 9.4% of the Earth’s most highly threatened terrestrial insular vertebrates would be improved.[129]
Hawaii
The islands of Hawaii have many invasive species affecting the islands' native plants and animals. Invasive insects, plants, hoofed animals such as deer, goats and pigs endanger native plants,
New Zealand
The first invasive species were the dogs and rats brought by Polynesian settlers around 1300.
The native forests are heavily impacted by several species of deer from North America and Europe and the Australian brushtail possum. These exotic species have all thrived in the New Zealand environment.
South Georgia Island
In 2018, the
See also
- Applied ecology
- Ballast water discharge and the environment
- Ecosynthesis
- Global Invasive Species Information Network
- Genetic rescue
- Interplanetary contamination (invasive species of microorganisms on other planets)
- Invader potential
- Invasion biology terminologyfor a review of the terminology used in invasion biology
- List of introduced species
- List of invasive species
- List of the world's 100 worst invasive species
- Neophyte (botany)
- Synanthrope
- Invasive species by country
- Invasive species in Australia
- Invasive species in Japan
- Invasive species in the United States
- Invasive species in Mexico
- Invasive species in South America
- Specific examples
- Asian carp in North America
- Introduced mammals on seabird breeding islands
- Invasive earthworms of North America
- Water hyacinth in Lake Victoria
- Mitigation efforts
- Beaver eradication in Tierra del Fuego
- Daughterless carp
- Island restoration
- Pheromone trap
References
- Attibution
This article incorporates CC-BY-3.0 text from the reference[114]
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Sources
- Derickx, Lisa; Pedro M. Antunes (2013). A guide to the identification and control of exotic invasive species in Ontario's hardwood forests. Invasive Species Research Institute - Algoma University. p. 294. ISBN 978-0-9291-0021-0.
- Baskin, Yvonne (2003). A Plague of Rats and Rubbervines: The Growing Threat Of Species Invasions. Island Press. p. 377. ISBN 978-1-55963-051-1.
- Burdick, Alan (2006) [2005]. Out of Eden: An Odyssey of Ecological Invasion. Farrar Straus and Giroux. p. 336. ISBN 978-0-374-53043-3.
- Davis, Mark A. (2009). Invasion Biology. Oxford University Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-19-921876-9.
- Elton, Charles S. (2000) [First published 1958]. The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. University of Chicago Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-226-20638-7.
- Lockwood, Julie; Martha Hoopes; Michael Marchetti (2007) [2006]. Invasion Ecology. Blackwell Publishing. p. 304. ISBN 978-1-4051-1418-9.
- McNeeley, Jeffrey A. (2001). The Great Reshuffling: Human Dimensions Of Invasive Alien Species. World Conservation Union (IUCN). p. 109. ISBN 978-2-8317-0602-3.
- Terrill, Ceiridwen (2007). Unnatural Landscapes: Tracking Invasive Species. University of Arizona Press. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-8165-2523-2.
- Van Driesche, Jason; Roy Van Driesche (2004). Nature Out of Place: Biological Invasions In The Global Age. Island Press. p. 377. ISBN 978-1-55963-758-9.
- Dentinger, Rachel (17 Jan 2012). "Reconsidering Non-Native Species: Ecologists challenge the categories that identify some species as natives and others as invaders". The Naked Scientists. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
- Schierenbeck, Kristina A.; Lee, Carol Eunmi; Holt, Robert D. (February 26, 2010). "EDITORIAL: Synthesizing ecology and evolution for the study of invasive species". Evolutionary Applications. 3 (2): 96. PMID 25567910.
External links
- Island Conservation, a global NGO that removes invasive vertebrates from island ecosystems
- Invasive Plant Terminology
- Mactest0/sandbox at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- North American Invasive Species Network, a consortium that uses a coordinated network to advance science-based understanding and enhance management of non-native, invasive species.
- GB Non-native Species Secretariat (NNNS) website
- Great Britain Invasive Non-native Species Strategy (2015)
- Invasive Species Compendium, An encyclopaedic resource that draws together scientific information on all aspects of invasive species.
- Invasive Species, National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for invasive species.
- Invasive Species Specialist Group - global invasive species database
- Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk project (PIER)
- Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR)
- www.invadingspecies.com of the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Ontario Federation of Anglers and Hunters
- Aquatic invasive species in Ireland, Inland Fisheries Ireland
- The Nature Conservancy's Great Lakes Project- Aquatic Invasive Species
- Invasive alien species in Belgium Belgian Forum on Invasive Species (BFIS)
- "Invasive species" from the Global Legal Information Network Subject Term Index
- Don't Move Firewood – Part of the Continental Dialogue on Non-Native Forest Insects and Diseases