Water scarcity: Difference between revisions

Water scarcity (water stress or water crisis) is the lack of

According to the Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator, a country or region is said to experience "water stress" when annual water supplies drop below 1,700 cubic metres per person per year.[13] At levels between 1,700 and 1,000 cubic meters per person per year, periodic or limited water shortages can be expected. When a country is below 1,000 cubic meters per person per year, the country then faces water scarcity.

Physical and economic scarcity

Water scarcity can result from two mechanisms:

• physical (absolute) water scarcity
• economic water scarcity

Physical water scarcity results from inadequate natural water resources to supply a region's demand, and economic water scarcity results from poor management of the sufficient available water resources. According to the United Nations Development Programme, the latter is found more often to be the cause of countries or regions experiencing water scarcity, as most countries or regions have enough water to meet household, industrial, agricultural, and environmental needs, but lack the means to provide it in an accessible manner.^[14] Around one-fifth of the world's population currently live in regions affected by

Availability

A mere 0.014% of all water on Earth is both fresh and easily accessible. Of the remaining water, 97% is saline and a little less than 3% is difficult to access. The total amount of easily accessible freshwater on Earth, in the form of surface water (rivers and lakes) or groundwater (in aquifers, for example), is 14,000 cubic kilometres (nearly 3359 cubic miles). Of this total amount, 'just' 5,000 cubic kilometres are being used and reused by humanity. Technically, there is a sufficient amount of freshwater on a global scale.

Hence, in theory, there is more than enough freshwater available to meet the demands of the current world population of more than 7 billion people, and even support population growth to 9 billion or more. Due to the unequal geographical distribution and especially the unequal consumption of water, however, it is a scarce resource in some parts of the world and for some parts of the population.^[16]

Scarcity as a result of consumption is caused primarily by the extensive use of water in

Demand is expected to outstrip supply by 40% in 2030, if current trends continue.[5]^[16]

Some countries have already proven that decoupling water use from economic growth is possible. For example, in Australia, water consumption declined by 40% between 2001 and 2009 while the economy grew by more than 30%.^[12]

The United Nations (UN) estimates that, of 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (1 quadrillion acre-feet) of water on Earth, just 200,000 cubic kilometers (162.1 billion acre-feet) represent fresh water available for human consumption.^[18]

Demand

More than one in every six people in the world is water stressed, meaning that they do not have sufficient access to potable water.^[14] Those that are water stressed make up 1.1 billion people in the world and are living in developing countries. In 2006, about 700 million people in 43 countries were living below the 1,700 cubic metres per person threshold.^[14] Water stress is ever intensifying in regions such as China, India, and Sub-Saharan Africa, which contains the largest number of water stressed countries of any region with almost one fourth of the population living in a water stressed country.^[14] The world's most water stressed region is the Middle East with averages of 1,200 cubic metres of water per person.^[14] In China, more than 538 million people are living in a water-stressed region. Much of the water stressed population currently live in river basins where the usage of water resources greatly exceed the renewal of the water source.

Causes and contributing factors

Depletion of freshwater resources

Apart from the conventional surface water sources of freshwater such as rivers and lakes, other resources of freshwater such as groundwater and glaciers have become more developed sources of freshwater, becoming the main source of clean water.

To set up a big plant near a water abundant area, bottled water companies need to extract groundwater from a source at a rate more than the replenishment rate leading to the persistent decline in the groundwater levels. The groundwater is taken out, bottled, and then shipped all over the country or world and this water never goes back. When the water table depletes beyond a critical limit, bottling companies just move from that area leaving a grave water scarcity. Groundwater depletion impacts everyone and everything in the area that uses the water: farmers, businesses, animals, ecosystems, tourism and other users e.g. people reliant on a local well for potable water. Millions of gallons of water out of the ground leaves the water table depleted uniformly and not just in that area because the water table is connected across the landmass. Bottling Plants generate water scarcity and impact ecological balance. They lead to water stressed areas which bring in droughts.[27]

Glaciers

Glaciers are noted as a vital water source due to their contribution to

Another popular opinion is that the amount of available freshwater is decreasing because of climate change. Climate change has caused receding glaciers, reduced stream and river flow, and shrinking lakes and ponds. Many aquifers have been over-pumped and are not recharging quickly. Although the total fresh water supply is not used up, much has become polluted, salted, unsuitable or otherwise unavailable for drinking, industry and agriculture. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.^[30]

A New York Times article, "Southeast Drought Study Ties Water Shortage to Population, Not Global Warming", summarizes the findings of Columbia University researcher on the subject of the droughts in the American Southeast between 2005 and 2007. The findings published in the Journal of Climate say that the water shortages resulted from population size more than rainfall. Census figures show that Georgia's population rose from 6.48 to 9.54 million between 1990 and 2007.^[31] After studying data from weather instruments, computer models, and tree ring measurements, they found that the droughts were not unprecedented and result from normal climate patterns and random weather events. "Similar droughts unfolded over the last thousand years", the researchers wrote, "Regardless of climate change, they added, similar weather patterns can be expected regularly in the future, with similar results."^[31] As the temperature increases, rainfall in the Southeast will increase but because of evaporation the area may get even drier. The researchers concluded with a statement saying that any rainfall comes from complicated internal processes in the atmosphere and are very hard to predict because of the large amount of variables.

Measurement

Hydrologists today typically assess water scarcity by looking at the population-water equation. This is done by comparing the amount of total available water resources per year to the population of a country or region. A popular approach to measuring water scarcity has been to rank countries according to the amount of annual water resources available per person. For example, according to the Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator,

Renewable freshwater supply is a metric often used in conjunction when evaluating water scarcity. This metric is informative because it can describe the total available water resource each country contains. By knowing the total available water source, an idea can be gained about whether a country is prone to experiencing physical water scarcity. This metric has its faults in that it is an average; precipitation delivers water unevenly across the planet each year and annual renewable water resources vary from year to year. This metric also does not describe the accessibility of water to individuals, households, industries, or the government. Lastly, as this metric is a description of a whole country, it does not accurately portray whether a country is experiencing water scarcity. Canada and Brazil both have very high levels of available water supply, but still experience various water related problems.[20]

It can be observed that tropical countries in Asia and Africa have low availability of freshwater resources (see List of countries by total renewable water resources).

Water crisis

When there is not enough

• Food security in the Middle East and North Africa Region [41]^[42]
• Inadequate access to safe drinking water for about 885 million people^[43]
• Inadequate access to sanitation for 2.5 billion people,^[44] which often leads to water pollution
• Groundwater overdrafting (excessive use) leading to diminished agricultural yields^[45]
• Overuse and pollution of water resources harming biodiversity
• Regional conflicts over scarce water resources sometimes resulting in warfare .^[46]

Environment

Water scarcity has many negative impacts on the environment, such as adverse effects on lakes, rivers, ponds, wetlands and other fresh water resources. The resulting water overuse that is related to water scarcity, often located in areas of irrigation agriculture, harms the environment in several ways including increased

Through the last hundred years, more than half of the Earth's wetlands have been destroyed and have disappeared.

In Europe extensive loss of wetlands has also occurred with resulting loss of biodiversity. For example, many bogs in Scotland have been developed or diminished through human population expansion. One example is the Portlethen Moss in Aberdeenshire.

On

A 2006 United Nations report focuses on issues of governance as the core of the water crisis, saying "There is enough water for everyone" and "Water insufficiency is often due to mismanagement, corruption, lack of appropriate institutions, bureaucratic inertia and a shortage of investment in both human capacity and physical infrastructure".[51] Official data also shows a clear correlation between access to safe water and GDP per capita.^[52]

It has also been claimed, primarily by economists, that the water situation has occurred because of a lack of

The actions of corporations have historically posed a significant threat to clean and affordable water, with Onondaga Lake, the most polluted lake in America, serving as a prime example. During the late 1800s, people began building near the lake for the beautiful scenery and natural water that it provided. As the area began to develop, a sewage treatment plant was built as well as multiple industrial chemical plants.^[56] Because of the lack of environmental protection controls, the industries began to dump waste and chemical byproducts into the lake. The practice continued for years until the lake was closed to swimming in 1940 and closed to fishing in 1970.^[57] It was not until 2015 when the lake was reopened for swimming, at a combined cost of "$1.1 billion in public and private money."^[56]

Construction of

Reducing groundwater overdrafting is generally politically unpopular, and can have major economic impacts on farmers. Moreover, this strategy necessarily reduces crop output, which has been argued to be impractical given the current population.

At more realistic levels, developing countries can strive to achieve primary wastewater treatment or secure

A range of local, low-tech solutions are being pursued by a number of companies. These efforts center around the use of solar power to distill water at temperatures slightly beneath that at which water boils. By developing the capability to purify any available water source, local business models could be built around the new technologies, accelerating their uptake. For example, Bedouins from the town of Dahab in Egypt have installed Aqua Danial's Water Stellar, which uses a solar thermal collector measuring two square meters to distill from 40 to 60 liters per day from any local water source. This is five times more efficient than conventional stills and eliminates the need for polluting plastic PET bottles or transportation of water supply.^[58]

Managing water crises

It is alleged^{[by whom?]} that the likelihood of conflict rises if the rate of change within a basin exceeds the capacity of institutions to absorb that change.^{[59][failed verification]} Although water crises can relate closely to regional tensions, history has shown that cases of cooperation far outnumber acute conflicts over water.^{[citation needed]}

However, lack of cooperation may give rise to regional conflicts in many parts of the world, specially in the global south, largely because of the disputes regarding the availability, use and management of water.^[46] For example, the dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam has escalated in 2020.^[60][61] Egypt sees the dam as an existential threat, fearing that the dam will reduce the amount of water it receives from the Nile.^[62]

The key, therefore, lies in strong institutions and cooperation.^[

.

One common feature of almost all resolved disputes is that the negotiations had a "need-based" instead of a "right–based" paradigm. Irrigable lands, population, and technicalities of projects define "needs". The success of a need-based paradigm is reflected in the only water agreement ever negotiated in the Jordan River Basin, which focuses in needs not on rights of riparians. In the Indian subcontinent, the irrigation requirements of Bangladesh determine water allocations of the Ganges River.^{[citation needed]} A need-based, regional approach focuses on satisfying individuals with their need of water, ensuring that minimum quantitative needs are met. It removes the conflict that arises when countries view the treaty from a national-interest point-of-view and move away from a zero-sum approach to a positive-sum, integrative approach that equitably allocates water and its benefits.^{[citation needed]}

The Blue Peace framework developed by Strategic Foresight Group in partnership with the governments of Switzerland and Sweden offers a unique policy structure which promotes sustainable management of water resources combined with cooperation for peace. By making the most of shared water-resources through cooperation rather than mere allocation between countries, the chances for peace can increase.^{[63][need quotation to verify]} The Blue Peace approach has proven effective in (for example) the Middle East^[64][65] and the Nile basin.^[66][67] NGOs like Water.org, There Is No Limit Foundation,^[68] and Charity: Water are leading the way^{[citation needed]} in providing access to clean water.

Water production

The solutions for the various national water crisis are partly (fresh)water protection and production with different technologies.

Wastewater treatment

Main article: Wastewater treatment

The treatment of wastewater helps to protect natural waterbodies and has started to become a source of drinking water in places like Singapore.

Solar humidification and dehumidification

Main article: Solar humidification

Many atmospheric water generators operate in a manner very similar to that of a dehumidifier: air is passed over a cooled coil, causing water to condense.^[69]Some of its advantages are their low price, the absence of heavy metals and bacteria improving populations health and their versatility of use of air as source of water, without the need of a lake, river or ocean nearby.

Desalination

Main article: Desalination

Desalination machines are designed to extract mineral components from saline water. More generally, desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a target substance,^[70] Energy efficient desalination with an electricity use of less than 1,0 kwh per cubic metre of freshwater can be regarded as the end to the global water crisis. Several companies have developed technologies under this value like Siemens and TS Prototype-Creation. 1,0 kwh is little more than that required for pumping of water in the national grit in Germany. The IBTS Greenhouse, designed for water desalination produces distilled water with 0,45 kwh per cubic metre.

The advent of compact fusion and small nuclear reactors also signifies a solution to the global water crisis as this would mean that the energy expenditure for desalination would not be of importance any more.

Regional examples

Overview of regions

There are many countries of the world that are severely impacted with regard to human health and inadequate drinking water. The following is a partial list of some of the countries with significant populations (numerical population of affected population listed) whose only consumption is of contaminated water:^[71]

• Sudan (12.3 million)
• Venezuela (5.0 million)
• Ethiopia (2.7 million)
• Tunisia (2.1 million)
• Cuba (1.3 million)

Several world maps showing various aspects of the problem can be found in this graph article.^[72]

The following countries have large water deficits — Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Mexico, and Pakistan.

Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous smaller countries, may soon do the same in larger countries, such as

China and India.^[73] The water tables are falling in scores of countries (including Northern China, the US, and India) due to widespread overpumping using powerful diesel and electric pumps. Other countries affected include Pakistan, Iran, and Mexico

. This will eventually lead to water scarcity and cutbacks in grain harvest.

Waste Africa and North Africa

Water scarcity in Yemen (see: Water supply and sanitation in Yemen) is a growing problem that has resulted from population growth, poor water management, climate change, shifts in rainfall, water infrastructure deterioration, poor governance, and other anthropogenic effects. As of 2011, it has been estimated that Yemen is experiencing water scarcity to a degree that affects its political, economic and social dimensions. As of 2015,^[74] Yemen is among the most water scarce countries in the world. The majority of Yemen's population experiences water scarcity for at least one month during the year.

Asia

According to a major report compiled in 2019 by more than 200 researchers, the

Salween and Yellow – could lose 66 percent of their ice by 2100.^[75] Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers.^[76] India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by droughts in coming decades. In India alone, the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more than 500 million people.^[77][78][79]

Even with the overpumping of its

aquifers, China is developing a grain deficit. When this happens, it will almost certainly drive grain prices upward. Most of the 3 billion people projected to be added worldwide by mid-century will be born in countries already experiencing water shortages. Unless population growth can be slowed quickly, it is feared that there may not be a practical non-violent or humane solution to the emerging world water shortage.^[80][81]

Americas

In the

natural resources.^[83][84]

The west coast of

Sierra Nevada, also would be affected.^[59][85]

Australia

By far the largest part of

Australian of the year 2007, environmentalist Tim Flannery, predicted that unless it made drastic changes, Perth in Western Australia could become the world’s first ghost metropolis, an abandoned city with no more water to sustain its population.^[88] In 2010, Perth suffered its second-driest winter on record^[89] and the water corporation tightened water restrictions for spring.^[90]

Africa

Further information: Water scarcity in Africa

Large parts of Africa suffer from economic water scarcity; developing water infrastructure in those areas could, therefore, help to reduce poverty. Critical conditions often arise for economically poor and politically weak communities living in an already dry environment. Consumption increases with GDP per capita: in most developed countries the average amount is around 200–300 liters daily. In developing countries (e.g. African countries such as Mozambique), average daily water consumption per capita was below 10 L. This is against the backdrop of international organizations, which recommend a minimum of 20 L of water (not including the water needed for washing clothes), available at most 1 km from the household. Increased water consumption is correlated with increasing income, as measured by GDP per capita. In countries suffering from water shortages water is the subject of speculation.^[91]

Another city facing a water crisis is Cape Town, South Africa. The government and scientists in the area were preparing for "day zero", meaning that the area was almost completely out of water.The government was hopeful that voluntary conservation efforts and environmental factors would increase the water supply in the reservoirs, but these things did not happen which increased the likelihood of the city running out of potable water. Scientists at the University of Cape Town are concerned because without a water source they are not able to conduct valuable medical research or clinical studies.^[92] Day Zero was avoided and restrictions were lifted for residents, but conservation efforts are still in place with uncertainty in rainfall amounts.^[93]

Society and culture

Human right to water

Meatu district, Simiyu Region, Tanzania (Africa), water most often comes from open holes dug in the sand of dry riverbeds, and it is invariably contaminated. Many children are deprived of an education primarily due to this daily task.^[94][95]

Further information:

Right to water

The

right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible, and affordable water for personal and domestic use.^[14]

Sustainable Development Goals

Main article: Sustainable Development Goals

Sustainable Development Goal 6 is about "clean water and sanitation for all." It is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. Its official wording is: "Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all."^[96] The goal has eight targets to be achieved by at least 2030. Progress toward the targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.^[97] The Sustainable Development Goals replaced the Millennium Development Goals in 2016.

The full title of Target 6.1 is: "By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all".^[98] The full title of Target 6.2 is: "By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations."^[99]

Country or regional examples

Water scarcity:

• Water scarcity in Africa
• Water scarcity in Australia
• Water scarcity in Beijing
• Water scarcity in India
• Water scarcity in Iran
• Water scarcity in Mexico
• Water scarcity in the Middle East

Water crisis and water wars:

• California Water Wars
• Water crisis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Water crisis in Flint
• Water crisis in Honduras
• Water crisis in Iran
• Water crisis in Kenya
• Water crisis in Lebanon
• Water crisis in Metro Manila

See also

• Cloud seeding
• Consumptive water use
• Deficit irrigation
• Desertification
• Hydraulic fracturing
• List of water supply and sanitation by country
• Peak water
• River source
• Water conflict
• Water conservation
• Water contamination
• Water footprint
• Water in Africa
• Water resource policy
• Water resources
• Water security
• Weather modification

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Further reading

• An International Food Policy Research Institute book about the intersection of water policy, globalization and food security: Ringler, C., Biswas, A., and Cline, S., eds. 2010. Global Change: Impacts on Water and Food Security. Heidelberg: Springer.
• Steven Solomon (2010). Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization. Harper. p. 608.
  ISBN 978-0-06-054830-8
  .
• Alexander Bell (2009). Peak Water : Civilisation and the world's water crisis. Edinburgh: Luath. p. 208.
  ISBN 978-1-906817-19-0
  .
• Peter H. Gleick, ed. (2009). The World's Water 2008–2009: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Washington D.C. : Island Press. p. 402.
  ISBN 978-1597265058
  .
• Maude Barlow (2007). Blue covenant : the global water crisis and the coming battle for the right to water. New York : New Press : Distributed by W.W. Norton. p. 196.
  ISBN 978-1-59558-186-0
  .
• Richard Heinberg (2007). Peak Everything: Waking Up to the Century of Declines. Gabriola, BC : New Society Publishers. p. 213.
  ISBN 978-0-86571-598-1
  .
• Larbi Bouguerra, Mohamed (2006). /books?id=rAOpkJefsAgC Water under Threat. Zed Books.
• Engelbert, Ernest A.; Ann Foley Scheuring, eds. (c. 1984). Water Scarcity: Impacts on Western Agriculture. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Jameel M. Zayed. "No peace without water: The role of hydropolitics in the Israel-Palestine conflict". London.

External links

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Drinking water

• "Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis". United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2006.
• The World Bank's work and publications on water resources
• BBC News World Water Crisis Maps
• Water Crisis Information Guide – From Middletown Thrall Library. Subjects include drinking water, government information, international challenges and efforts, global water issues, oceanography, sea levels, desalination, water scarcity, pollution and contaminants, conservation and recycling, news and special reports, and library catalog subject headings for further research.
• "The Effects of Overpopulation on Water Resources and Water Security". Daniel Altieri. Swarthmore College of Environmental Studies.