Origins of the Eighty Years' War

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

This article is about the reasons why the Eighty Years' War broke out. For how the Eighty Years' War has been seen after it started, and debates between historians how to write about the war, see Historiography of the Eighty Years' War.

The origins of the Eighty Years' War are complicated, and have been a source of disputes amongst historians for centuries.[1]

The

Protestant Reformation and keep all his subjects obedient to the Catholic Church
.

King

Calvinists, known as the iconoclastic fury, or (Dutch: Beeldenstorm) across the Netherlands. The Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, Margaret of Parma, as well as authorities at lower levels, feared insurrection and made further concessions to the Calvinists, such as designating certain churches for Calvinist worship, but in December 1566 and early 1567 the first battles between Calvinist rebels and Habsburg governmental forces had taken place, commencing what would become known as the Eighty Years' War.[2]

Background

Burgundian and Habsburg territorial expansion

Further information: Burgundian State, War of the Burgundian Succession, and Guelders Wars
Territorial changes due to the War of the Burgundian Succession:
  Lost to France in 1477
  Kept by Habsburg in 1482
  Returned to Habsburg in 1493
Guelders
.
  Habsburg territory in 1522
  
Guelders
territory in 1522

In a series of marriages and conquests, a succession of

dukes of Burgundy expanded their original territory by adding to it a series of fiefdoms, including the Seventeen Provinces.[3] Under the Burgundians (and their Habsburg successors), their holdings in the Low Countries were formally referred to as "De landen van herwaarts over" and in French "Les pays de par deçà". Translated, the phrases mean "those lands around here" for the Dutch and "those lands around there" for the French.[citation needed
]

The death of Burgundian duke

Charles of Egmond respectively during the Guelders Wars (1502–1543), virtually all of the Netherlands had been incorporated into the Habsburg domains by the early 1540s.[citation needed
]

Habsburg centralisation

European territories under the rule of the Philip II of Spain around 1580 (the Spanish Netherlands in light green) on a map showing modern-day state borders.

Part of the shifting balance of power in the late

Duchy of Gelre and to control the citizens of Utrecht.[7]

Under the governorship of

Council of State.[8]

Taxation

entrepreneurial.[9] Charles V's empire had become a worldwide empire with large American and European territories. The latter were, however, distributed throughout Europe. Control and defense of these were hampered by the disparity of the territories and the huge length of the empire's borders. This large realm was almost continuously at war with its neighbors in its European heartlands, most notably against France in the Italian Wars and against the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean Sea. Other wars were fought against Protestant princes in Germany. The Dutch paid heavy taxes to fund these wars,[10] but perceived them as unnecessary and sometimes downright harmful because they were directed against their most important trading partners.[citation needed
]

Protestant Reformation

During the 16th century,

Inquisition of the Netherlands (existed until 1566) was nevertheless sufficiently severe and arbitrary to provoke fervent dislike.[14]

Events and developments

Abdication of Charles V as Philip II becomes king (1555–1559)

When

States-General of the Netherlands. The balance of power was heavily weighted toward the local and regional governments. Like his predecessors, Philip II had to ceremonially affirm those constitutional documents (like the Joyous Entry of Brabant) before his accession to the ducal throne. Beyond these constitutional guarantees, the balance of power between local and central government was guaranteed by the dependence of the central government on extraordinary levies (Beden) granted by the States-General when ordinary tax revenues fell short of the financing requirements of the central government (which occurred frequently, due to the many wars Charles waged).[15]

In 1556 Charles passed on his throne to his son Philip II of Spain.[5] Charles, despite his harsh actions, had been seen as a ruler sympathetic to the needs of the Netherlands. Philip, on the other hand, was raised in Spain and spoke neither Dutch nor French.[citation needed]

Though he was in the Netherlands in January, 1556, Philip II did not assume the reins of government in person, as he had to divide his attentions between England (where he was king-consort of

Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, and Lamoral, Count of Egmont. But (other than Charles) he also introduced a number of Spanish councillors in the Council of State, foremost Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle, a cardinal from Franche-Comté. These people gained a preponderant influence in the Council, much to the chagrin of the Netherlandish old guard.[citation needed
]

Increasing Spanish influence in the Netherlands (1559–1561)

Principality of Stavelot-Malmedy
  Prince-Bishopric of Cambrésis

When Philip left for Spain in 1559 (as it turned out, permanently) the central government therefore already experienced political strains, and those were exacerbated by the question of religious policy. Like his father, Philip was a fervent enemy of the Protestant teachings of

Netherlandish version of the Inquisition. Between 1523 and 1566, more than 1,300 people were executed as heretics, far more relative to the overall population than, for instance, in France.[16] Towards the end of Charles' reign enforcement had reportedly become lax. Philip, however, insisted on rigorous enforcement, which caused widespread unrest.[17]

The anti-Protestant placards, and the policy of repression of heresy in general, were highly unpopular, not just with prospective adherents of the Protestant faiths, but also with the Catholic population and the local governments, who considered it an intrusion on their prerogatives. Towards the end of Charles' reign, enforcement had therefore become quite lax. Philip, however, insisted on rigorous enforcement and this caused more and more popular unrest. In the province of Holland, for instance, there were riots in the late 1550s during which the mob freed some condemned persons before their execution.[17]

To support and strengthen the attempts at Counter-Reformation, issuing from the Council of Trent, Philip launched a wholesale organizational reform of the Catholic Church in the Netherlands in 1559 (with Papal approval). This amounted to the introduction of fourteen new dioceses instead of the old three. This new hierarchy was to be headed by Granvelle as archbishop of the new archdiocese of Mechelen. The reform was especially unpopular with the old church hierarchy as the new dioceses were to be financed by transferring a number of rich abbeys that were traditionally in the gift of the high aristocracy. The new bishops were to take the lead in the enforcement of the anti-heresy placards and to intensify the Inquisition.[18]

In an effort to build a stable and trustworthy government of the Netherlands, Philip appointed his half-sister

States-General of the Netherlands already started to contradict Philip's wishes by objecting to his tax proposals. They also demanded, with eventual success, the withdrawal of Spanish troops, which had been left by Philip to guard the Southern Netherlands' borders with France, but which they saw as a threat to their own independence (1559–1561).[19]

League of Netherlandish nobles against Granvelle (1561–1564)

Cardinal Granvelle (1561) painted by Willem Key

Subsequent reforms met with much opposition, which was mainly directed at Granvelle. In 1561, the ten most powerful Netherlandish noblemen formed the League against Granvelle [nl].[20][21] The core of the League was formed by the triumvirate of Lamoral, Count of Egmont, Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horne, and William "the Silent", Prince of Orange, later joined by Berghes, Montigny, Megen, Mansfeld, Hoogstraten, Philippe, Count of Ligne [nl] and Hachicourt.[21] All ten Ligueurs were knights in the Order of the Golden Fleece, and almost all of them were stadtholders.
High noblemen who opposed the League, and thus more or less backed Granvelle, were inter alia Philippe III de Croÿ (Aarschot), Guillaume de Croy, Marquis de Renty, Charles de Berlaymont and Jean de Ligne, Duke of Arenberg.[21]

Petitions to King Philip by the high nobility went unanswered. Some of the most influential nobles, including

Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, and William the Silent, withdrew from the Council of State until Philip recalled Granvelle.[5]

Granvelle's perceived aggrandizement helped focus the opposition against him. The grandees under the leadership of Orange engineered his recall in 1564. Emboldened by this success Orange intensified his attempts to obtain religious toleration. He persuaded Margaret and the Council to ask for a moderation of the placards against heresy. Philip delayed his response, however, and in the meantime the opposition against his religious policies gained more widespread support.

In late 1564, the nobles noticed the growing power of the reformation and urged Philip to devise realistic measures to prevent violence. Philip answered that sterner measures were the only answer. Subsequently, Egmont, Horne, and Orange withdrew once more from the council, and Bergen and Meghem resigned their Stadholdership. During the same period, the religious protests were increasing despite increased oppression.

Growing religious tensions (1564–1566)

Engraving of the noblemen offering the petition to moderate the anti-Protestant placards to Margaret of Parma, by Frans Hogenberg (c.1568)

After the recall of Granvelle, Orange persuaded Margaret and the council to ask for a moderation of the placards against heresy. Philip delayed his response, and in this interval, the opposition to his religious policies gained more widespread support. Philip finally rejected the request for moderation in his

Catholic and Protestant, and was presented to Margaret on 5 April 1566. Impressed by the massive support for the compromise, she suspended the placards, awaiting Philip's final ruling.[22]

One of Margaret's courtiers, Count Berlaymont, called the presentation of this petition an act of "beggars" (French "gueux"), a name then taken up by the petitioners themselves (they called themselves the Geuzen). The petition was sent on to Philip for a final verdict.[5]

Beeldenstorm and outbreak of war

This section is an excerpt from Eighty Years' War, 1566–1572.[edit]
The Beeldenstorm or Iconoclastic Fury was a more or less organised destruction of Catholic sacred objects which swept through the Habsburg Netherlands' churches in 1566. 1630 painting by Dirck van Delen

The period between the start of the

Calvinists and Habsburg governmental forces took place in the years 1566–1567, followed by the arrival and government takeover by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba (simply known as "Alba" or "Alva") with an army of 10,000 Spanish and Italian soldiers. Next, an ill-fated invasion by the most powerful nobleman of the Low Countries, the exiled but still-Catholic William "the Silent" of Orange
, failed to inspire a general anti-government revolt. Although the war seemed over before it got underway, in the years 1569–1571, Alba's repression grew severe, and opposition against his regime mounted to new heights and became susceptible to rebellion.

Although virtually all historians place the start of the war somewhere in this period, there is no historical consensus on which exact event should be considered to have begun the war. Consequently, there is no agreement whether the war really lasted exactly eighty years. For this and other reasons, some historians have endeavoured to replace the name "Eighty Years' War" with "Dutch Revolt", but there is also no consensus either to which period the term "Dutch Revolt" should apply (be it the prelude to the war, the initial stage(s) of the war, or the entire war).[24]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Constitutionally, the Crowns of Castile and Aragon would not be united into the Kingdom of Spain until the 1707–1716 Nueva Planta decrees, and Charles formally reigned as Charles I of Castile and Aragon (sometimes informally called "Spain"). But in historiography, he is more commonly known as Emperor Charles V.
  2. Principality of Liège), whereas "Dutch Republic" and "Dutch" will refer to the country, currently known as the Netherlands
    , and its inhabitants.
  3. ^ "...the starting phase of the Revolt in Zeeland. We label the 1566–1572 period as the strike up to the Revolt: years in which the resistance against central authority, grown out to a rebellion, began to powerfully manifest itself."[23]

References

  1. ^ "Tachtigjarige Oorlog §1. Historische problematiek". Encarta Encyclopedie Winkler Prins (in Dutch). Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum. 1993–2002.
  2. ^ "Tachtigjarige Oorlog §1. Historische problematiek". Encarta Encyclopedie Winkler Prins (in Dutch). Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum. 1993–2002.
  3. ISBN 90-254-1207-6
    .
  4. ISBN 0-582-78464-6
    .
  5. ^ a b c d e f Geyl 2001.
  6. ISBN 0-19-820734-4
    .
  7. ISBN 90-5479-040-7
    .
  8. ^ Van Nierop, H., "Alva's Throne—making sense of the revolt of the Netherlands". In: Darby, G. (ed), The Origins and Development of the Dutch Revolt (Londen/New York 2001) pp. 29–47, 37
  9. ISBN 90-274-5377-2
    .
  10. ISBN 0-19-820734-4
    .
  11. ISBN 0-19-820734-4
    .
  12. ^ R. Po-chia Hsia, ed. A Companion to the Reformation World (2006) pp 118–34
  13. ^ R. Po-chia Hsia, ed. A Companion to the Reformation World (2006) pp 3–36
  14. ISBN 0-19-820734-4
    .
  15. ^ Koenigsberger 2007, p. 184–92.
  16. ^ Tracy 2008, p. 66.
  17. ^ a b Tracy 2008, p. 68.
  18. ^ Tracy 2008, p. 68–69.
  19. ^ G. Parker, The Dutch Revolt. Revised edition (1985), 46.
  20. ISBN 9789089643773
    . Retrieved 7 August 2016.
  21. ^
    ISBN 9789048520763
    . Retrieved 7 August 2016.
  22. ^ Tracy 2008, p. 69–70.
  23. ^ Rooze-Stouthamer 2009, p. 11–12.
  24. ^ "Tachtigjarige Oorlog §1. Historische problematiek". Encarta Encyclopedie Winkler Prins (in Dutch). Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum. 1993–2002.

Bibliography

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