Anti-Mongolianism

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Anti-Mongolianism, also called anti-Mongolian sentiment, has been prevalent throughout history, often perceiving the Mongols to be barbaric and uncivilized people with a lack of intelligence or civilized culture.

Russia

Russian Empire

The

Yenisei River must be Russian land".[1] The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations (World War I
and other wars).

Soviet Union

See also: Stalinist repressions in Mongolia

Soviet Russian scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they were not Mongols during the 20th century (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during the rebellion of 1927 and around one-third of Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s.[2][3] In 1919 the Buryats established a small theocratic Balagad state in Kizhinginsky District of Russia and the Buryat's state fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.

On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate the Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but Russia refused. 71–93,000 (around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the famine.[4] The Kalmyks revolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. On 23 April 1923 Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Soviet Union at the time, said "We are carrying out a wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful".[5] In March 1927, the Soviet government deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia and Karelia. The Kalmyks founded sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22 March 1930.[5] The Oirat State created a military and clashed with the Soviet Red Army. 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in the Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirat State was destroyed by the Red Army in 1930.

The Soviet Union

Kalmyk language during their time in Siberia. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan
attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as an act of genocide.

China

Imperial China

Qing genocide of Dzungars

Main article: Dzungar genocide

The

Dzungars Mongols lived in an area that stretched from the west end of the Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia (most of which is located in present-day Xinjiang), and were the last nomadic empire to threaten China, which they did from the early 17th century through the middle of the 18th century.[7] After a series of inconclusive military conflicts that started in the 1680s, the Dzungars were subjugated by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty
(1644–1912) in the late 1750s.

Clarke argued that the Qing campaign in 1757–58 "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people."[8] After the Qianlong Emperor led Qing forces to victory over the Dzungar Oirat (Western) Mongols in 1755, he originally was going to split the Dzungar Khanates into four tribes headed by four Khans. The Khoit tribe was to have the Dzungar leader Amursana as its Khan. Amursana rejected the Qing arrangement and rebelled since he wanted to be leader of a united Dzungar nation. The Qianlong Emperor then issued his orders for the genocide and eradication of the entire Dzungar nation and name, Qing Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha (Eastern) Mongols enslaved Dzungar women and children while slaying the other Dzungars.[9]

The

Peter Perdue attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor, but he also observed signs of a more lenient policy after mid-1757.[13] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".[18] The Dzungar genocide was completed by a combination of a smallpox epidemic and the direct slaughter of Dzungars by Qing forces made out of Manchu Bannermen and (Khalkha) Mongols.[19]

Anti-Dzungar

Tsewang Araptan.[23]

It was not until generations later that Dzungaria rebounded from the destruction and near liquidation of the Dzungars after the mass slayings of nearly a million Dzungars.

Peter Perdue has shown that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor,[25] Perdue attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to a "deliberate use of massacre" and has described it as an "ethnic genocide".[26] Although this "deliberate use of massacre" has been largely ignored by modern scholars,[25] Dr. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide,[27] has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".[28]

The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungars made the Qing-sponsored settlement of millions of Han, Hui,

Turkestani Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchu Bannermen in Dzungaria possible, since the land was now devoid of Dzungars.[25] The Dzungarian basin, which used to be inhabited by Dzungars is currently inhabited by Kazakhs.[29] In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe, and Kazakh colonists after they exterminated the Dzungar Oirat Mongols in the region, with one-third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern are, while around two-thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.[30] In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.[31] The Qing were the ones who unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic situation.[32]

The depopulation of northern

Solons, Han Chinese, Hui Muslims, and Turkic Muslim Taranchis in the north, with Han Chinese and Hui migrants making up the greatest number of settlers. Since it was the crushing of the Buddhist Öölöd (Dzungars) by the Qing which led to the promotion of Islam and the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, and migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, it was proposed by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".[33] Xinjiang was a unified defined geographic identity created and developed by the Qing. It was the Qing who led to Turkic Muslim power in the region increasing since the Mongol power was crushed by the Qing while Turkic Muslim culture and identity were tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.[34]

The Qianlong Emperor explicitly commemorated the Qing conquest of the Dzungars as having reclaimed former territory in Xinjiang for "China", defining China as a multi-ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas in "China proper", meaning that according to the Qing, both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", which included Xinjiang which the Qing conquered from the Dzungars.

Torghut leader Ayuka Khan, it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun 中國, Zhongguo) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus.[40]

The Inner Mongolian

Chahar leader Ligdan Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing and was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 親王), and Inner Mongolian nobility became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrested in 1669 in Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai then bid his time and then he and his brother Lubuzung revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories
, with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing then crushed the rebels in a battle on April 20, 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy.

Jindandao massacre of Mongols

Ordinary Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. During the eighteenth century, growing numbers of Han Chinese settlers had illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe. By 1791 there had been so many Han Chinese settlers in the Front Gorlos Banner that the jasak had petitioned the Qing government to legalize the status of the peasants who had already settled there.[41] The first half of the 19th century saw the heyday of the Qing order. Both Inner and Outer Mongolia continued to supply the Qing armies with

sinicized themselves, and faced with the Russian threat, they began to encourage Han Chinese farmers to settle in both Mongolia and Manchuria. This policy was followed by subsequent governments. The railroads that were being built in these regions were especially useful to the Han Chinese settlers. Land was either sold by Mongol Princes, or leased to Han Chinese farmers, or simply taken away from the nomads and given to Han Chinese farmers. Many impoverished Mongols also began to take up farming in the steppe, renting farmlands from their banner princes or from Han merchant landlords
who had acquired them for agriculture as settlement for debts. Qing rule with tacit continuous Han illegal settlement over the 18th and 19th centuries, had led to a wave of incidents culminating in Mongol ethnic cleansing and displacement.

All these incidents culminated in the

human rights
groups monitor happening in the autonomous region today.

Communist China

See also: 2011 Inner Mongolia unrest and 2020 Inner Mongolia protests

During the

labour camps or committed suicide, but were unrecorded. Recent researchers estimate that the Red Guards killed about 100,000 to 300,000 Mongols during the Cultural Revolution.[44]

Traditional Mongol lands within the PRC extend further than Inner Mongolia, often up to the

Kalgan. There are also remnants of Möngke Khan's grand army in Sichuan and Yunnan, yet little recognition of the Mongol legacy in these areas.[45] There has been riots over what has been perceived by ethnic Mongols of increasing marginalisation by Han Chinese and cultural appropriation disputes over hotpot and throat singing[46][47][48] There has been continuing efforts by the CPC to dispel separatism and notions of Pan-Mongolism between the indigenous Mongols of China, with other Mongol groups.[49][50]

Prejudice elsewhere

Furthermore, the use of the term "

traditional customs and Shamanism as backwards or paganistic, along with their historical willingness to embrace multiple faiths at the same time.[53]

Derogatory terms

In Korean

  • Orangkae (Korean: 오랑캐) – literally "Barbarian", derogatory term used against Han, Mongol and Manchu peoples.

In Arabic

  • Mongolian people
    .

In Greek

References

  1. ^ L.Jamsran, Mongol states in Russia, 1995
  2. ^ Войны ХХ века и их жертвы /тысяч человек/ (Russian)
  3. ^ Буриад-Монголын үндэстний хөдөлгөөн, тулгамдсан асуудлууд Archived 2013-12-03 at the Wayback Machine (Mongolian)
  4. ^ XX зууны 20, 30-аад онд халимагуудын 98 хувь аймшигт өлсгөлөнд автсан (Mongolian)
  5. ^ a b Халимагийн эмгэнэлт түүхээс Archived 2014-12-27 at the Wayback Machine (Mongolian)
  6. ^ "Regions and territories: Kalmykia". 29 November 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2023 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
  7. ^ Chapters 3–7 of Perdue 2005 describe the rise and fall of the Dzungar Khanate and its relations with other Mongol tribes, the Qing dynasty, and the Russian Empire.
  8. ^ Clarke 2004, p. 37.
  9. ^ Millward 2007, p. 95.
  10. ^ 大清高宗純皇帝實錄, 乾隆二十四年
  11. ^ 平定準噶爾方略
  12. ^ Lattimore, Owen (1950). Pivot of Asia; Sinkiang and the inner Asian frontiers of China and Russia. Little, Brown. p. 126.
  13. ^ a b Perdue 2005, p. 283-287
  14. ^ ed. Starr 2004, p. 54.
  15. ^ Wei Yuan, 聖武記 Military history of the Qing dynasty, vol.4. "計數十萬戶中，先痘死者十之四，繼竄入俄羅斯哈薩克者十之二，卒殲於大兵者十之三。除婦孺充賞外，至今惟來降受屯之厄鲁特若干戶，編設佐領昂吉，此外數千里間，無瓦剌一氊帳。"
  16. ^ Chu, Wen-Djang (1966). The Moslem Rebellion in Northwest China 1862-1878. Mouton & co. p. 1.
  17. ^ "Michael Edmund Clarke, In the Eye of Power (blic/02Whole.pdf" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 10, 2008.
  18. ^ Levene 2008, p. 188
  19. ^ Lorge 2006, p. 165.
  20. ISBN 9781109101263
    .
  21. ISBN 9781109101263
    .
  22. ISBN 9781109101263
    .
  23. ^ Kim 2008, p. 139.
  24. ^ Tyler 2004, p. 55.
  25. ^ a b c Perdue 2009, p. 285.
  26. ISBN 9780674016842
    .
  27. Southampton University
    , see "Areas where I can offer Postgraduate Supervision". Retrieved 2009-02-09.
  28. ISBN 9781845454524
    .
  29. ^ Tyler 2004, p. 4.
  30. ^ ed. Starr 2004, p. 243.
  31. ^ Millward 1998, p. 102.
  32. ^ Liu & Faure 1996, p. 71.
  33. ^ Liu & Faure 1996, p. 72.
  34. ^ Liu & Faure 1996, p. 76.
  35. ^ Zhao 2006, pp. 11,12.
  36. ^ Dunnell 2004, p. 77.
  37. ^ Dunnell 2004, p. 83.
  38. ^ Elliott 2001, p. 503.
  39. ^ Dunnell 2004, pp. 76-77.
  40. ^ Perdue 2009, p. 218.
  41. ^ The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 10. Cambridge University Press. 1978. p. 356.
  42. ^ a b Paul Hyer, The Chin-tan-tao Movement -- A Chinese Revolt in Mongolia (1891), Altaica, pp. 105--112, 1977.
  43. ^ a b Borjigin Burensain, The Complex Structure of Ethnic Conflict in the Frontier: Through the Debates around the 'Jindandao Incident' in 1891, Inner Asia, Vol. 6, No.1, pp. 41-60, 2004.
  44. ^ Shizuoka
  45. ^ "Inner Mongolia beset by ethnic conflict". www.cnn.com. Retrieved 24 March 2023.
  46. ^ "Inner Mongolians culture clash - CNN Video". CNN. 18 April 2012.
  47. ^ "China's Inner Mongolia 'under heavy security'". BBC News. 30 May 2011.
  48. ^ "China responds to ethnic riots in Inner-Mongolia". International Business Times. 2 June 2011.
  49. ^ Brian Spegele (31 May 2011). "China Seeks to Calm Inner Mongolia - WSJ". WSJ.
  50. ^ "China Launches 'Anti-Terror' Operation in Inner Mongolia". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved 24 March 2023.
  51. ^ "No Blacks, Mongolians Allowed At Beijing Bars: Report". The Huffington Post. 11 August 2008.
  52. ^ "Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center". www.smhric.org. Retrieved 24 March 2023.
  53. ^ "China Launches 'Strike Hard' Anti-Rumor Campaign in Inner Mongolia". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved 24 March 2023.

Sources

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