Racial quota
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Racial quotas in employment and education are numerical requirements or
These quotas may be determined by governmental authority and backed by governmental sanctions. When the total number of jobs or enrollment slots is fixed, this proportion may get translated to a specific number.
Regions and nations
Ancient Mongolia
The Mongols divided different races into a four-class system during the Yuan dynasty.
The
- Mongols introduced it to China which was at time ruled by the Mongol Empire
- Semuren, immigrants from the west and some clans of Central Asia (Muslims, Christians, Jews, Buddhists)
- North Chinese, Jurchens and Koreans
- Southerners, or all subjects of the former Song Dynasty[citation needed]
Ancient China
Several laws enforcing
In 836 AD, Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton. He was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage. Lu enforced separation, banning interracial marriages, and prevented foreigners from owning properties.[1] The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "Dark peoples" or "
France
By 1935, the French government enacted a series of racial quotas on certain professions.[4]
Germany
See Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses.
Malaysia
United States
The National Origins Formula was an American system of immigration quotas, between 1921 and 1965, which restricted immigration on the basis of existing proportions of the population. The goal was to maintain the existing ethnic composition of the United States. It had the effect of giving low quotas to Eastern and Southern Europe.
Such racial quotas were restored after the
In a 1973 court case, a federal judge created one of the first mandated quotas when he ruled that half of the
In 1978, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke that public universities (and other government institutions) could not set specific numerical targets based on race for admissions or employment.[5] The Court said that "goals" and "timetables" for diversity could be set instead.[5] A 1979 Supreme Court case, United Steelworkers v. Weber, found that private employers could set rigid numerical quotas, if they chose to do so.[5] In 1980, the Supreme Court found that a 10% racial quota for federal contractors was permitted.[5]
In 1990 City University of New York was accused of discriminatory hiring practices against Italian-Americans.[6]
In 1991, President George H. W. Bush made an attempt to abolish affirmative action altogether, maintaining that "any regulation, rule, enforcement practice or other aspect of these programs that mandates, encourages, or otherwise involves the use of quotas, preferences, set-asides or other devices on the basis of race, sex, religion or national origin are to be terminated as soon as is legally feasible".[7] This claim led up to the creation of the Civil Rights Act of 1991, however the document was not able to implement these changes. It only covered the terms for settling cases where discrimination has been confirmed to have occurred.[8]
South Africa
Local trade unions commonly use the term "Absolute representation" in this regard.[9]
- BEE (Black Economic Empowerment)– Companies are scored based on the quota of black ownership, senior managers, training, as well as suppliers. These scores then translate into their ability to compete for government tenders.
- Affirmative Action – The SAPS (South African Police Service) operates a quota system policy for hiring and promotion. Positions will be left unfilled if the appropriate demographic candidate cannot be recruited, even if another qualified person is available.[10][11]
- University Enrollment – First year students are registered on a racial quota basis. In some cases there are different admission requirements for different demographics. For example: to study medicine at the University of Cape Town (UCT), white and Indian students require at least a 78% average on their National Senior Certificate, whereas black students only requires 59%.[12] This is largely as a result of the quota system requiring privileged access for certain ethnic groups – In 2016 the University of KwaZulu-Natal quota for medical students is 69% black African, 19% Indian, 9% coloured, 2% white and 1% other.[13]
- Sport – Sports Minister Fikile Mbalula has imposed quota systems in athletics, cricket, football, netball and rugby.[14]
Opposition
Opponents of quotas object that one group is favored at the expense of another whenever a quota is invoked rather than factors such as grade point averages or test scores. They argue that using quotas displaces individuals that would normally be favored based on their individual achievements. Opponents of racial quotas believe that qualifications should be the only determining factor when competing for a job or admission to a school. It is argued this causes "reverse discrimination"[15] where individuals in the majority to lose out to a minority.
Examples
Some affirmative action programs openly involve quotas such as the admission program of the
The law student organization
See also
- Equality of opportunity vs Equality of outcome
- Racism, Anti-racism
- Reverse discrimination, Discrimination
- Gender quota
Examples:
- Affirmative Action
- Diversity (business)
- Jewish quota
- Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
- Reservation in India
- Reserved political positions
Related:
- All-women shortlists
References
- ISBN 0-520-05462-8. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- ISBN 978-0-674-03306-1. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
- ISBN 0-521-49781-7. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
836 decree chinese people of colour.
- ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 21 November 2015.
- ^ ISBN 0-465-04195-7.
- The New York Post. 10 August 1990. p. 8.
U.S. Labor Department .. Italian-Americans have yet to benefit .. identified in 1976
- ^ "Bush to order end of rules allowing race-based hiring". The New York Times. 21 November 1991. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
- ^ "Civil Rights Act of 1991 – Pub. L. 102–166 – findUSlaw". finduslaw.com.
- ^ "Absolute representation | Stop Kwotas". stopkwotas.co.za. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
- ^ "Solidarity to fight for minorities in SAPS – Crime & Courts | IOL News | IOL.co.za". iol.co.za. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
- ^ "Background to Renate Barnard case". solidariteit.co.za. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
- ^ "Bar still raised for white pupils – Cape Times | IOL.co.za". iol.co.za. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
- ^ "University race quotas in spotlight". www.iol.co.za. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
- ^ "South Africa bring back racial quotas for teams – International – Rugby Union – The Independent". independent.co.uk. 14 August 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
- ^ "What is reverse discrimination? definition and meaning". BusinessDictionary.com.
- ^ Jeter, Jon (16 June 2003). "Affirmative Action Debate Forces Brazil to Take Look in the Mirror". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 26 September 2018.
- ^ Amir Efrati, You Say You Want a Big-Law Revolution, Take II, "Wall Street Journal", October 10, 2007.
- ^ Adam Liptak, In Students' Eyes, Look-Alike Lawyers Don't Make the Grade, The New York Times, October 29, 2007, https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/29/us/29bar.html?em&ex=1193889600&en=4b0cd84261ffe5b4&ei=5087%0A
- ^ Henry Weinstein, "Big L.A. law firms score low on diversity survey: The numbers of female, black, Latino, Asian and gay partners and associates lag significantly behind their representation in the city's population, according to a study", Los Angeles Times, October 11, 2007, http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-diversity11oct11,1,661263.story?coll=la-headlines-california
- ^ Thomas Adcock and Zusha Elinson, "Student Group Grades Firms On Diversity, Pro Bono Work", New York Law Journal, October 19, 2007, http://www.law.com/jsp/nylj/PubArticleNY.jsp?hubtype=BackPage&id=1192698212305