Japanese war crimes: Difference between revisions

Japanese War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity
Japanese War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity
Part of the war crimes, mass murder, and other crimes against humanity
Deaths	3,000,000 to 30,000,000
Motive	imperialism; Japanese nationalism; Ultranationalism; racism;
Trials	Tokyo Trial, and others

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Revision as of 06:10, 20 July 2023

The

Shōwa era, the name given to the reign of Emperor Hirohito

.

Under Emperor

starvation, and forced labor directly perpetrated or condoned by the Japanese military and government.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11] Japanese veterans have admitted to war crimes, and have provided oral testimonies and written evidence, which includes diaries and war journals.^[12]

The

Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907), which banned the use of "poison or poisoned weapons" in warfare.^[13]^[14]

Since the 1950s, senior Japanese government officials have

Class A war criminals. Some Japanese history textbooks offer only brief references to the war crimes,^[16] and members of the Liberal Democratic Party have denied some of the atrocities, such as government involvement in abducting women to serve as "comfort women", a euphemism for sex slaves.^[17]^[18]

Definitions

The

neutral states as they fall under the category of non-combatants, as in the case of the attack on Pearl Harbor.^[21]

Military personnel from the

human rights abuses against civilians and prisoners of war throughout East Asia and the western Pacific region. These events reached their height during the Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937–45 and the Asian and Pacific campaigns of World War II

(1941–45).

International and Japanese law

Japan signed the

Tokyo Trials to prosecute "Class A" war criminals. "Class B" war criminals were those found guilty of war crimes per se, and "Class C" war criminals were those guilty of crimes against humanity. The Japanese government also accepted the terms set by the Potsdam Declaration

(1945) after the end of the war, including the provision in Article 10 of punishment for "all war criminals, including those who have visited cruelties upon our prisoners". Japanese law does not define those convicted in the post-1945 trials as criminals, despite the fact that Japan's governments have accepted the judgments made in the trials, and in the

Shinzō Abe had advocated the position that Japan accepted the Tokyo tribunal and its judgements as a condition for ending the war, but that its verdicts have no relation to domestic law. According to Abe, those convicted of war crimes are not criminals under Japanese law.^[28]

Historical and geographical extent

Samurai warriors of the Chosyu clan, during the Boshin War period of the 1860s.

Outside Japan, different societies use widely different timeframes when they define Japanese war crimes.^{[citation needed]} For example, the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 was enforced by the Japanese military, and the Society of Yi Dynasty Korea was switched to the political system of the Empire of Japan. Thus, North and South Korea both refer to "Japanese war crimes" as events which occurred during the period of Korea under Japanese rule.^[29]

By comparison, the

South East Asians and Europeans may consider "Japanese war crimes" to be events that occurred from 1942–1945.^[30]

Japanese war crimes were not always carried out by ethnic Japanese^[31] personnel. A small minority of people in every Asian and Pacific country invaded or occupied by Japan collaborated with the Japanese military, or even served in it, for a wide variety of reasons, such as economic hardship, coercion, or antipathy to other imperialist powers.^[32] In addition to Japanese civil and military personnel, Chinese, Koreans, Manchus and Taiwanese who were forced to serve in the military of the Empire of Japan were also found to have committed war crimes as part of the Japanese Imperial Army.^[33]^[34]^[31]^[35]

Japan's

Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty of 1910—and at the time, they were considered integral parts of the Japanese colonial empire. Under the international law of today, the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty might be illegal,^[36] because the native populations of Korea and Taiwan were not consulted during the signing of them, there was armed resistance to Japan's annexations, and the Japanese may have also committed war crimes when they crushed the resistance.^{[citation needed}

]

Background

Japanese militarism, nationalism, imperialism and racism

Militarism, nationalism and racism, especially during Japan's imperialist expansion, had great bearings on the conduct of the Japanese armed forces both before and during the Second World War. After the Meiji Restoration and the collapse of the Tokugawa shogunate, the Emperor became the focus of military loyalty, nationalism and racism. During the so-called "Age of Imperialism" in the late 19th century, Japan followed the lead of other world powers by establishing a colonial empire, an objective which it aggressively pursued.

Unlike many other major powers, Japan never ratified the

Geneva Convention of 1929—also known as the Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva 27 July 1929—which was the version of the Geneva Convention that covered the treatment of prisoners of war during World War II.^[37] Nevertheless, Japan ratified the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 which contained provisions regarding prisoners of war^[38] and an Imperial Proclamation in 1894 stated that Japanese soldiers should make every effort to win the war without violating international laws. According to Japanese historian Yuki Tanaka, Japanese forces during the First Sino-Japanese War released 1,790 Chinese prisoners without harm, once they signed an agreement not to take up arms against Japan if they were released.^[39] After the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, all of the 79,367 Russian prisoners who were held by the Japanese were released and they were also paid for the labor which they performed for the Japanese, in accordance with the Hague Convention.^[39] Similarly, the behavior of the Japanese military in World War I was at least as humane as that of other militaries which fought during the war,^{[citation needed]} with some German prisoners of the Japanese finding life in Japan so agreeable that they stayed and settled in Japan after the war.^[40]^[41]

Contest to Decapitate 100 People

)—Mukai 106 – 105 Noda—Both 2nd Lieutenants Go Into Extra Innings".

As Japan continued its modernization in the early 20th century, her armed forces became convinced that success in battle would be assured if Japanese soldiers, sailors, and airmen had the "spirit" of Bushido. ... The result was that the Bushido code of behavior "was inculcated into the Japanese soldier as part of his basic training." Each soldier was indoctrinated to accept that it was the greatest honor to die for the Emperor and it was cowardly to surrender to the enemy. ... Bushido therefore explains why the Japanese soldiers who were stationed in the NEI so mistreated POWs in their custody. Those who had surrendered to the Japanese—regardless of how courageously or honorably they had fought—merited nothing but contempt; they had forfeited all honor and literally deserved nothing. Consequently, when the Japanese murdered POWs by shooting, beheading, and drowning, these acts were excused since they involved the killing of men who had forfeited all rights to be treated with dignity or respect. While civilian internees were certainly in a different category from POWs, it is reasonable to think that there was a "spill-over" effect from the tenets of Bushido.
— Fred Borch, Military Trials of War Criminals in the Netherlands East Indies 1946–1949^[42]

The events of the 1930s and 1940s

By the late 1930s, the rise of militarism in Japan created at least superficial similarities between the wider Japanese military culture and that of

Kenpeitai, which resembled the Nazi Gestapo in its role in annexed and occupied countries, but which had existed for nearly a decade before Hitler's own birth.^[43]

Perceived failure or insufficient devotion to the Emperor would attract punishment, frequently of the physical kind.[44] In the military, officers would assault and beat men under their command, who would pass the beating all the way down on to the lowest ranks. In POW camps, this meant that prisoners received the worst beatings of all,^[45] partly in the belief that such punishments were merely the proper technique to deal with disobedience.^[44]

War crimes

The Imperial Japanese Armed Forces during the 1930s and 1940s is often compared to the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945 because of the sheer scale of destruction and suffering that both of them caused. Much of the controversy regarding Japan's role in World War II revolves around the death rates of prisoners of war and civilians under Japanese occupation. Historian Sterling Seagrave has written that:

Arriving at a probable number of Japan's war victims who died is difficult for several interesting reasons, which have to do with Western perceptions. Both Americans and Europeans fell into the unfortunate habit of seeing
Sephardic and Ashkenazi), and others killed by Japan between 1895 and 1937 (conservative figures), the total of Japanese victims is more like 10-million to 14-million. Of these, I would suggest that between 6-million and 8-million were ethnic Chinese, regardless of where they were resident.^[46]

According to Werner Gruhl, approximately eight million Chinese civilian deaths were attributable directly to Japanese aggression.[10]

According to the findings of the Tokyo Tribunal, the death rate among prisoners of war from Asian countries held by Japan was 27.1%.^[47] The death rate of Chinese prisoners of war were much higher because—under a directive ratified on 5 August 1937, by Emperor Hirohito—the constraints of international law on treatment of those prisoners was removed.^[48] Only 56 Chinese prisoners of war were released after the surrender of Japan.^[47]^[49] After 20 March 1943, officers of the Imperial Japanese Navy ordered and encouraged the Navy to execute all prisoners taken at sea.

On 14 May 1943, a Japanese submarine torpedoed the Australian hospital ship, AHS Centaur, sinking it within three minutes and killing 268 of the 332 people on board. The Centaur was painted with red crosses and well lit. The submarine knowingly sank a hospital ship.

According to British historian Mark Felton, "officers of the Imperial Japanese Navy ordered the deliberately sadistic murders of more than 20,000 Allied seamen and countless civilians in cold-blooded defiance of the Geneva Convention." At least 12,500 British sailors and 7,500 Australians were murdered. The Japanese Navy sank Allied merchant and Red Cross vessels, then murdered the survivors floating in the sea or in lifeboats. During Naval landing parties, the Japanese Navy rounded up, raped, then massacred civilians. Some of the victims were fed to sharks, others were killed by sledge-hammer, bayonet, crucifixion, drowning, hanging and beheading.^[50]^[51]

Attacks on parachutists and downed airmen

As the

John Huang Xinrui

, fired on the Japanese pilots, but was shot himself and had to bail out, waiting until the last possible moment to pull his parachute cord to avoid the same fate. As a result, Chinese and Russian volunteer pilots were all warned about opening their parachutes too early if bailing out of stricken aircraft.

After a safe parachute descent, the Japanese also went after downed airmen; on 18 July 1938, Soviet volunteer pilot Valentin Dudonov was hit by an A5M fighter piloted by Nangō Mochifumi, after which Dudonov bailed out in his parachute and landed on a sand bank on Poyang Lake, where he was continuously strafed by another A5M. Dudonov, running in zig-zags and eventually hiding underwater in the lake, survived when the Japanese A5M finally departed.^[54] When the Americans joined the war in 1941, they too were subject to numerous war crimes, clarified by and prosecutable under the protocols of the Geneva Convention.

Attacks on neutral powers

USS Arizona burning during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor

.

Article 1 of the

1907 Hague Convention III – The Opening of Hostilities prohibited the initiation of hostilities against neutral powers "without previous and explicit warning, in the form either of a reasoned declaration of war or of an ultimatum with conditional declaration of war" and Article 2 further stated that "[t]he existence of a state of war must be notified to the neutral Powers without delay, and shall not take effect in regard to them until after the receipt of a notification, which may, however, be given by telegraph." Japanese diplomats intended to deliver the notice to the United States thirty minutes before the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred on 7 December 1941, but it was delivered to the U.S. government an hour after the attack was over. Tokyo transmitted the 5,000-word notification (commonly called the "14-Part Message") in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington, but transcribing the message took too long for the Japanese ambassador to deliver it in time.^[55]

The 14-Part Message was not moreover a declaration of war, but was instead about sending a message to U.S. officials that peace negotiations between Japan and the U.S. were likely to be terminated. Japanese officials were well aware that the 14-Part Message was not a proper declaration of war as required by the 1907 Hague Convention III – The Opening of Hostilities. They decided not to issue a proper declaration of war anyway as they feared that doing so would expose their secret attack on Pearl Harbor to the Americans.[56]^[57]

Some

U.S. declared war on Japan

the same day.

Simultaneously with the bombing of Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 (Honolulu time), Japan

invaded the British colony of Malaya and bombed Singapore, and began land actions in Hong Kong, without a declaration of war or an ultimatum. Both the United States and United Kingdom were neutral when Japan attacked their territories without explicit warning of a state of war.^[61]

The U.S. officially classified all 3,649 military and civilian casualties and destruction of military property at Pearl Harbor as non-combatants as there was no state of war between the U.S. and Japan when the attack occurred.^[62]^{[failed verification]}^[63]^{[page range too broad]}^{[self-published source]} Joseph B. Keenan, the chief prosecutor in the Tokyo Trials, says that the attack on Pearl Harbor not only happened without a declaration of war but was also a "treacherous and deceitful act". In fact, Japan and the U.S. were still negotiating for a possible peace agreement which kept U.S. officials distracted up to the point that Japanese planes launched their attack on Pearl Harbor. Keenan explained the definition of a war of aggression and the criminality of the attack on Pearl Harbor:

The concept of aggressive war may not be expressed with the precision of a scientific formula, or described like the objective data of the physical sciences. Aggressive War is not entirely a physical fact to be observed and defined like the operation of the laws of matter. It is rather an activity involving injustice between nations, rising to the level of criminality because of its disastrous effects upon the common good of international society. The injustice of a war of aggression is criminal of its extreme grosses, considered both from the point of view of the will of the aggressor to inflict injury and from the evil effects which ensue ... Unjust war are plainly crimes and not simply torts or breaches of contracts. The act comprises the willful, intentional, and unreasonable destruction of life, limb, and property, subject matter which has been regarded as criminal by the laws of all civilized peoples ... The Pearl Harbor attack breached the Kellogg–Briand Pact and the Hague Convention III. In addition, it violated Article 23 of the Annex to the Hague Convention IV, of October 1907 ... But the attack of Pearl Harbor did not alone result in murder and the slaughter of thousands of human beings. It did not eventuate only in the destruction of property. It was an outright act of undermining and destroying the hope of a world for peace. When a nation employs a deceit and treachery, using periods of negotiations and the negotiations themselves as a cloak to screen a perfidious attack, then there is a prime example of the crime of all crimes.^[64]^[65]

Admiral

war crimes and crimes against humanity (charges 53 to 55), Tojo was among the seven Japanese leaders sentenced to death and executed by hanging in 1948, Shigenori Tōgō received a 20-year sentence, Shimada received a life sentence, and Nagano died of natural causes during the Trial in 1947.^[57]^[66]

Over the years, many Japanese nationalists argued that the attack on Pearl Harbor was justified as an act of self-defense in response to the oil embargo imposed by the United States. Most historians and scholars agree that the oil embargo cannot be used as justification for using military force against a foreign nation imposing the embargo because there is a clear distinction between a perception of something being essential to the welfare of the nation-state and a threat sufficiently serious to warrant an act of force in response, which Japan had failed to consider. Japanese scholar and diplomat Takeo Iguchi states that it is "[h]ard to say from the perspective of international law that exercising the right of self-defense against economic pressures is considered valid." While Japan felt that its dreams of further expansion would be brought to a halt by the American embargo, this "need" cannot be considered proportional with the destruction suffered by the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, intended by Japanese military planners to be as devastating as possible.^[57]

Mass killings

Japanese soldiers shooting blindfolded Sikh prisoners and then bayonetting them. (Photos discovered after the liberation of Singapore.)

The estimated number of people killed by Japanese troops vary.

University of Hawaii, estimates that between 1937 and 1945, the Japanese military murdered from nearly three to over ten million people, most likely six million Chinese, Indians, Koreans, Malaysians, Indonesians, Filipinos and Indochinese, among others, including European, American and Australian prisoners of war. According to Rummel, "This democide [i.e., death by government] was due to a morally bankrupt political and military strategy, military expediency and custom, and national culture."^[1] According to Rummel, in China alone, from 1937 to 1945, approximately 3.9 million Chinese were killed, mostly civilians, as a direct result of the Japanese operations and a total of 10.2 million Chinese were killed in the course of the war.^[68] According to the British historian M. R. D. Foot, civilian deaths were between 10 million and 20 million.^[69] Some historians claim that up to 30 million people were killed, most of them civilians.^[2]

According to British historian Mark Felton:

The Japanese murdered 30 million civilians while "liberating" what it called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere from colonial rule. About 23 million of these were ethnic Chinese. It is a crime that in sheer numbers is far greater than the Nazi Holocaust. In Germany, Holocaust denial is a crime. In Japan, it is government policy. But the evidence against the navy – precious little of which you will find in Japan itself – is damning.^[70]^[71]^[72]

One of the major atrocities committed during this period was the Nanking Massacre of 1937–38, when, according to the findings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, the Japanese Army massacred as many as 260,000 civilians and prisoners of war, though some have placed the figure as high as 350,000.^[73] The Memorial Hall of the Victims in Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders has the death figure of 300,000 inscribed on its entrance.^[74]

During the

Gaocheng county of Hebei, the Japanese captured twenty Hui men among whom they only set two younger men free through "redemption", and buried alive the other eighteen Hui men. In Mengcun village of Hebei, the Japanese killed more than 1,300 Hui people within three years of their occupation of that area." Mosques were also desecrated and destroyed by the Japanese, and Hui cemeteries were also destroyed. After the Nanjing Massacre, mosques in Nanjing were found filled with dead bodies.^[75] Many Hui Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War fought against the Japanese military.^{[citation needed}

]

In addition, The Hui Muslim county of Dachang was subjected to massacres by the Japanese military.^[76]

Another massacre during this period was the

Alexandra Hospital massacre, hundreds of wounded Allied soldiers, innocent citizens and medical staff were murdered by Japanese soldiers. ^{[citation needed}

]

In Southeast Asia, the

Chinese population; however, Japanese soldiers did not try to identify who was "anti-Japanese". As a result, the Japanese soldiers engaged in indiscriminate killing.^[79] Former Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew, who was almost a victim of the Sook Ching Massacre, has stated that there were between 50,000 and 90,000 casualties,^[80] while according to Major General Kawamura Saburo, there were 5,000 casualties in total.^[81]^{[self-published source?]} According to Lieutenant Colonel Hishakari Takafumi, a newspaper correspondent at the time, the plan was to ultimately kill about 50,000 Chinese, and 25,000 had already been murdered when the order was received to scale down the operation.^[82]

There were other massacres of civilians, such as the

Suluk Muslim population of the coastal islands. During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, when a Moro Muslim juramentado swordsman launched a suicide attack against the Japanese, the Japanese would massacre the man's entire family or village.^{[citation needed}

]

Historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta reports that a "

Panjiayu massacre

, where 1,230 Chinese people were killed. Additionally, captured Allied servicemen and civilians were massacred in various incidents, including the following:

Alexandra Hospital massacre

Laha massacre^[86]

Bangka Island massacre^[87]
Parit Sulong Massacre
Palawan massacre
SS Behar
SS Tjisalak massacre perpetrated by Japanese submarine I-8
Wake Island massacre
Tinta Massacre
Bataan Death March
Sandakan Death Marches
Shin'yō Maru Incident
Sulug Island massacre
Pontianak incidents
Manila massacre (concurrent with the Battle of Manila)
Balikpapan massacre
Dutch East Indies massacres

Human experimentation and biological warfare

Special Japanese military units conducted experiments on civilians and POWs in China. The purpose of experimentation was to develop biological weapons that could be used for aggression. Biological agents and gasses developed from these experiments were used against the Chinese Army and civilian population.

biological weapons, horse blood transfusions, and injection of animal blood into their corpses.^[88] Anesthesia was not used because it was believed that anesthetics would adversely affect the results of the experiments.^[89]

To determine the treatment of frostbite, prisoners were taken outside in freezing weather and left with exposed arms, periodically drenched with water until frozen solid. The arm was later amputated; the doctor would repeat the process on the victim's upper arm to the shoulder. After both arms were gone, the doctors moved on to the legs until only a head and torso remained. The victim was then used for plague and pathogens experiments.[90]

A former unit 731 member testified:

As soon as the symptoms were observed, the prisoner was taken from the cell and into the dissection room...he was strapped down, still screaming frightfully. One of the doctors stuffed a towel into his mouth, then with one quick slice of the scalpel he was opened up." Witnesses at vivisections report that the victim usually lets out a horrible scream when the cut is made, and the voice stops soon after.^[91]

Furthermore, according to the 2002 International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare, the number of people killed by the Imperial Japanese Army germ warfare and human experiments is around 580,000.^[92] Top officers of Unit 731 were not prosecuted for war crimes after the war, in exchange for turning over the results of their research to the Allies. They were also reportedly given responsible positions in Japan's pharmaceutical industry, medical schools and health ministry.^[93]^[94]

While Unit 731 is the most infamous facility, scholars have shown that Japanese biological and chemical warfare units stationed in Beijing (Unit 1855), Nanjing (Unit 1644) and Canton (Unit 1688) also experimented on human subjects.^[95]

One case of human experimentation occurred in Japan itself. At least nine of 11 members of Lt. Marvin Watkins' 29th Bomb Group crew (of the 6th Bomb Squadron) survived the crash of their

Fukuoka, where they were subjected to vivisection or killed.^[97]^[98]

The Japanese biological attacks against the Chinese only caused a small number of deaths and were relatively unsuccessful. The only attack with major deaths was the 1942 attack which infected Japanese soldiers with cholera leading to over 1,700 Japanese troops dying and 10,000 getting sick and the Japanese stopped doing biological attacks as a result.[99]^[100]^[101] This attack took place at Jinhua in Zhejiang and the Japanese soldiers inadvertently advanced in the area they spread with biological weapons and got themselves infected.^[102]^[103]^[104]^[105] A Japanese who was part of Unit Ei 1644 in Nanjing was taken prisoner of war by the Chinese in December 1944 was interrogated by the US and he admitted that the Japanese suffered a major disaster in their 1942 biological weapons attack in Zhejiang, saying that he saw papers which said 1,700 killed at the Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department but admitted Japanese regularly downplayed their own casualties so the real death toll was higher. The Japanese suffered 10,000 infected almost immediately when they inadvertently sent their soldiers into the own biological weapons attack zone in Zhejiang. Shirō Ishii lied about the disaster in Zhejiang and tried to claim the attack worked.^[106]

On 11 March 1948, 30 people, including several doctors and one female nurse, were brought to trial by American military tribunal. Fukujiro Ishiyama, the doctor most responsible for the experimentation, killed himself before the trial started. Charges of cannibalism were dropped, but 23 people were found guilty of vivisection or wrongful removal of body parts. Five were sentenced to death, four to life imprisonment, and the rest to shorter terms. In 1950, the military governor of Japan, General Douglas MacArthur, commuted all of the death sentences and significantly reduced most of the prison terms. All of those involved in relation to the university vivisection, with the exception of Isamu Yokoyama, the general most responsible for allowing the experimentation to happen, walked free no later than 1958. Yokoyama died in prison in 1952. In 1980, an author found that one of the doctors who was supposed to be executed was still alive and practicing medicine.^[107]^[108]

In China, the Japanese waged ruthless biological warfare against Chinese civilians and soldiers. Japanese aviators sprayed fleas carrying plague germs over metropolitan areas, creating

paratyphoid, to contaminate rivers, wells, reservoirs and houses; mixed food with deadly bacteria to infect hungry Chinese civilians; and even passed out chocolate filled with anthrax bacteria to the local children.^[111]

During the final months of World War II, Japan had planned to use plague as a biological weapon against U.S. civilians in

Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night, hoping that the plague would spread terror to the American population, and thereby dissuade America from attacking Japan. The plan was set to launch at night on 22 September 1945, but Japan surrendered five weeks earlier.^[112]^[113]^[114]

In 2006, former IJN medical officer Akira Makino stated that he was ordered—as part of his training—to carry out vivisection on about 30 civilian prisoners in the Philippines between December 1944 and February 1945.^[115] The surgery included amputations.^[116] Most of Makino's victims were Moro Muslims.^[117]^[118]^[119]^[120]^[121] Ken Yuasa, a former military doctor in China, has also admitted to similar incidents in which he was aggressively performing live vivisections on live Chinese victims, blaming the nationalistic indoctrination of his schooling for his conduct and lack of remorse.^[122]

The

Prince Takeda Tsuneyoshi, participated in the programs in various ways, which included authorizing, funding, supplying, and inspecting biomedical facilities.^[123]^[124]

General Ishii Shirō's mistress recruited Japanese girls as prostitutes for the Recreation and Amusement Association where up to 70,000 Japanese girls were forced to serve US soldiers in brothels.^[125]^[126]^[127]^[128]^[129]^[130]

The US military forced Japanese members of Unit 731 to conduct experiments on Japanese people in Japan in 1952, with a Japanese girl dying after multiple Japanese babies were deliberately infected with colt bacteria at Nagoya City University Hospital by Jiro Ogawa. Japanese patients at a mental hospital were infected with scrub typhus in 1953-1956 with one of them killing himself to escape the torture and another 9 Japanese patients died of the typhus itself.^[131]

Use of chemical weapons

According to Walter E. Grunden, history professor at Bowling Green State University, the Japanese incorporated gas warfare into many aspects of their army, which includes special gas troops, infantry, artillery, engineers and air force, because they concluded that Chinese forces were unable to retaliate in kind.^[132] He further added that "from 1937 to 1945, the military services of Japan used chemical weapons on over 2000 occasions, primarily in the China Theater of Operations."^[132]

According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Kentaro Awaya, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, gas weapons, such as tear gas, were used only sporadically in 1937, but in early 1938 the Imperial Japanese Army began full-scale use of phosgene, chlorine, Lewisite and nausea gas (red), and from mid-1939, mustard gas (yellow) was used against both Kuomintang and Communist Chinese troops.^[133]^[134]

According to Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno,

1907 Hague Convention IV – The Laws and Customs of War on Land.^[25]^[137] A resolution adopted by the League of Nations

on 14 May condemned the use of poison gas by Japan.

According to Prince Mikasa, a member of the imperial family of Japan, he watched an army film that showed Japanese troops gassing Chinese prisoners who were tied to stakes.^[138]

Another example is the

Battle of Yichang in October 1941, during which the 19th Artillery Regiment helped the 13th Brigade of the IJA 11th Army by launching 1,000 yellow gas shells and 1,500 red gas shells at the Chinese National Revolutionary Army. The area was crowded with Chinese civilians unable to evacuate. Some 3,000 Chinese soldiers were in the area and 1,600 were affected. The Japanese report stated that "the effect of gas seems considerable".^[139]

In 2004, Yoshimi and Yuki Tanaka discovered in the Australian National Archives documents showing that cyanide gas was tested on Australian and Dutch prisoners in November 1944 on Kai Islands (Indonesia).^[140]

In 2004, Yoshimi Yoshiaki published the most comprehensive study of Japan's military use of poisonous gas in China and also in Southeast Asia. Yoshimi discovered a battle report from a Japanese Infantry Brigade that detailed the use of mustard gas in a major operation against the Communist-led Eighth Route Army in Shanxi Province in the winter of 1942. The unit carrying out the operation noted its severity, and commented on the anti-Japanese sentiment among the civilian population affected.^[141]

Torture of prisoners of war

Japanese imperial forces employed widespread use of torture on prisoners, usually in an effort to gather military intelligence quickly.^[142] Tortured prisoners were often later executed. A former Japanese Army officer who served in China, Uno Shintaro, stated:

The major means of getting intelligence was to extract information by interrogating prisoners. Torture was an unavoidable necessity. Murdering and burying them follows naturally. You do it so you won't be found out. I believed and acted this way because I was convinced of what I was doing. We carried out our duty as instructed by our masters. We did it for the sake of our country. From our filial obligation to our ancestors. On the battlefield, we never really considered the Chinese humans. When you're winning, the losers look really miserable. We concluded that the Yamato [Japanese] race was superior.^[143]

The

atomic bombs the Allies had and what the future targets were. McDilda, who had originally told his captors he knew nothing about the atomic bomb (and who indeed knew nothing about nuclear fission), "confessed" under further torture that the US had 100 atomic bombs and that Tokyo and Kyoto

were the next targets:

As you know, when atoms are split, there are a lot of pluses and minuses released. Well, we've taken these and put them in a huge container and separated them from each other with a lead shield. When the box is dropped out of a plane, we melt the lead shield and the pluses and minuses come together. When that happens, it causes a tremendous bolt of lightning and all the atmosphere over a city is pushed back! Then when the atmosphere rolls back, it brings about a tremendous thunderclap, which knocks down everything beneath it.
— Marcus McDilda, ^[144]

According to many historians, one of the favorite techniques of Japanese torturers was "simulated drowning", in which water was poured over the immobilized victim's head, until they suffocated and lost consciousness. They were then resuscitated brutally (usually with the torturer jumping on their abdomen to expel the water) and then subjected to a new session of torture. The entire process could be repeated for about twenty minutes.^[a]

Execution and killing of captured Allied airmen

Many Allied airmen captured by the Japanese on land or at sea were executed in accordance with official Japanese policy. During the Battle of Midway in June 1942, three American airmen who were shot down and landed at sea were spotted and captured by Imperial Japanese Navy warships. After being tortured, machinist mate first class Bruno Gaido and his pilot Ensign Frank O'Flaherty, were tied to five-gallon kerosene cans filled with water and dumped overboard from the Japanese destroyer Makigumo;^[148] a third airman, Ensign Wesley Osmus, was fatally wounded with an axe before pushed into the sea from the stern of the Arashi.^[149]^[150]

On 13 August 1942, Japan passed the

Hague Convention of 1907 (the only convention Japan had ratified regarding the treatment of prisoners of war), any military personnel captured on land or at sea by enemy troops were to be treated as prisoners of war and not punished for simply being lawful combatants. Eight Doolittle Raiders captured upon landing in China (four months before the passage of the Act) were the first Allied aircrew to be brought before a kangaroo court in Shanghai under the act, charged with alleged (but unproven) strafing of Japanese civilians during the Doolittle Raid. The eight aircrew were forbidden to present any defense and, despite the lack of legitimate evidence, were found guilty of participating in aerial military operations against Japan. Five of the eight sentences were commuted to life imprisonment; the other three airmen were taken to a cemetery outside Shanghai, where they were executed by firing squad on 14 October 1942.^[152]^[153]

The Enemy Airmen's Act contributed to the deaths of hundreds of Allied airmen throughout the Pacific War. An estimated 132 Allied airmen shot down during the

summarily executed after short kangaroo trials or drumhead courts-martial. Imperial Japanese military personnel deliberately killed 33 American airmen at Fukuoka, including fifteen who were beheaded shortly after the Japanese Government's intention to surrender was announced on 15 August 1945.^[154]^{[full citation needed]} Mobs of civilians also killed several Allied airmen before the Japanese military arrived to take the airmen into custody.^[155] Another 94 airmen died from other causes while in Japanese custody, including 52 who were killed when they were deliberately abandoned in a prison during the bombing of Tokyo on 24–25 May 1945.^[156]^[157]

Execution and killing of captured Allied seamen

Rear Admiral Takero Kouta, commander of the Japanese First Submarine Force at Truk, on 20 March 1943 sent out to subs under his command an order to kill
Merchant Navy crewman after the ship was sunk.^[158]^{[full citation needed]}^[159]^{[full citation needed}
]

The
armed trawler HMS Hoxa rescued the men. After over 30 hours in the water the crew was rescued on 4 July 1944.^[160]^[161]^[162]^[163]

Merchant Navy
SS Behar sank on 6 March 1944, in the Indian Ocean, seventy-two merchant seamen made it into lifeboats. They were taken aboard the heavy cruisers Tone and the crew's valuables taken. The crew was roped up in painful positions, beaten, and locked in an extremely hot store room. By order of Vice Admiral Sakonju, the crew, men and women, were killed. Sakonju was executed for his war crimes in 1947.^[164]

life rafts. ’'I-26 rammed one lifeboats capsizing it. I-26 took the captain and three crew POWs.^[165]
The four survived and were repatriated after the end of the war.

Planes from the Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū sank and killed crew and passengers in the SS Poelau Bras's lifeboats, sinking six of the nine boats off Sumatra.^[166]
I-37 on 27 November 1943 shot and killed eight crewmen in the MV Scotia lifeboats. On 22 February 1944 shot at SS British Chivalry's lifeboats, 13 were killed. On 29 February 1944 SS Ascot's lifeboats were shot at, leaving only seven survivors.^[160]
I-165 on 18 March 1944 shot at SS Nancy Moller's lifeboats, killing 23.^[167]
I-12 on 28 October 1944 shot at the lifeboats of the SS John A. Johnson, killing eleven.^[168]
One survivor, James Blears, a 21-year-old radio operator, of the crew of the SS Tjisalak, lived to tell of the torture and execution of the lifeboat crew by submarine I-8. How many other lifeboat crews did not have survivors is not known.^[169]^[170]
Cargo ship Langkoeas lifeboats attacked by I-158 I-158 on 3 January 1942 sank the Dutch cargo ship SS Langkoeas and subsequently attacked its lifeboats with machine guns. After interrogating the crew under threat of torture, its commander threw them back into the sea without their lifeboats.
Tanker Augustina massacre, in the Western Java Sea, 1942, lifeboats machine-gunned, only 2 survived.^[171]

Cannibalism

Many written reports and testimonies which were collected by the Australian War Crimes Section of the Tokyo tribunal, and investigated by prosecutor William Webb (the tribunal's future Judge-in-Chief), indicate that Japanese personnel committed acts of cannibalism against Allied prisoners of war in many parts of Asia and the Pacific. In many cases, these acts of cannibalism were inspired by ever-increasing Allied attacks on Japanese supply lines, and the death and illness of Japanese personnel which resulted from hunger. According to historian Yuki Tanaka: "cannibalism was often a systematic activity which was conducted by whole squads which were under the command of officers".^[172] This frequently involved murder for the purpose of securing bodies. For example, an Indian POW, Havildar Changdi Ram, testified that "[on November 12, 1944] the Kempeitai beheaded [an Allied] pilot. I saw this from behind a tree and watched some of the Japanese cut flesh from his arms, legs, hips, buttocks and carry it off to their quarters ... They cut it [into] small pieces and fried it."^[173]^[174]

In some cases, flesh was cut from living people: another Indian POW,

Lance Naik Hatam Ali (later a citizen of Pakistan), testified in New Guinea

and stated:

... the Japanese started selecting prisoners and every day one prisoner was taken out and killed and eaten by the soldiers. I personally saw this happen and about 100 prisoners were eaten at this place by the Japanese. The remainder of us were taken to another spot 50 miles [80 km] away where 10 prisoners died of sickness. At this place, the Japanese again started selecting prisoners to eat. Those selected were taken to a hut where their flesh was cut from their bodies while they were alive and they were thrown into a ditch where they later died.[175]

According to another account by Jemadar Abdul Latif of 4/9 Jat Regiment of the Indian Army who was rescued by the Australian Army at the Sepik Bay in 1945:

At the village of Suaid, a Japanese medical officer periodically visited the Indian compound and selected each time the healthiest men. These men were taken away ostensibly for carrying out duties, but they never reappeared.^[176]

Perhaps the most senior officer convicted of cannibalism was Lt Gen. Yoshio Tachibana (立花芳夫,Tachibana Yoshio), who with 11 other Japanese personnel was tried in August 1946 in relation to the execution of U.S. Navy airmen, and the cannibalism of at least one of them, during August 1944, on Chichi Jima, in the Bonin Islands. The airmen were beheaded on Tachibana's orders. Because military and international law did not specifically deal with cannibalism, they were tried for murder and "prevention of honorable burial". Tachibana was sentenced to death, and hanged.^[177]

Avoidable hunger

Tarsau

in Thailand, 1943.

Deaths caused by the diversion of resources to Japanese troops in occupied countries are also considered war crimes by many people.^[178]^[179] Millions of civilians in Southeast Asia – especially in Vietnam and Dutch East Indies, which were major producers of rice – died during the avoidable hunger in 1944–45.^[180]

In the

Vietnamese Famine of 1945 one to two million Vietnamese starved to death in the Red River delta of northern Vietnam due to the Japanese, as the Japanese seized Vietnamese rice without paying for it. In Phat Diem the Vietnamese farmer Di Ho was one of the few survivors who saw the Japanese steal grain.^[181] The North Vietnamese government accused both France and Japan of the famine and said 1–2 million Vietnamese died.^[182]^[183] Võ An Ninh took photographs of dead and dying Vietnamese during the great famine.^[184]^[185]^[186] Starving Vietnamese were dying throughout northern Vietnam in 1945 due to the Japanese seizure of their crops. By the time the Chinese came to disarm the Japanese forces, Vietnamese corpses were on the streets of Hanoi and had to be cleaned up by students.^[187]

Forced labor

Japanese soldiers escorting Chinese forced-labour farm workers, 1937.

The Japanese military's use of

Burma-Siam Railway.^[189]

The

romusha (Japanese: "manual laborers") to work.^[190]

About 270 000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, but only 52 000 were repatriated to Java, likely indicating an eighty percent death rate.

According to historian Akira Fujiwara, Emperor

1929 Geneva Convention on the Sick And Wounded.^[22]^[192]

Shortly after the war, Japan's Foreign Ministry wrote a comprehensive report about Chinese laborers. The report estimated that of some 40,000 Chinese laborers taken to Japan, nearly 7,000 had died by the end of the war. The Japanese burned all copies except for one for the fear of that it might become incriminating evidence at the war crimes trials.[193] In 1958, a Chinese man was discovered hiding in the mountains of Hokkaido. The man did not know that the war was over, and he was one of thousands of laborers who were taken to Japan. This specific event brought attention to Japan's use of forced Asian labor during the war.^[194]

Korean men and women were the largest group forced into labor in wartime Japan, and many were not able to return to Korea afterwards.^[193]

Rape

The expressions ianfu (慰安婦, "comfort women") or jūgun ianfu (従軍慰安婦, "women of military comfort") are euphemisms for women used in military brothels in occupied countries, many of whom were forcefully recruited or recruited through fraud, and who are considered victims of sexual assault and/or sexual slavery.^[195]^[196]

In 1992, historian

Kato Koichi, to acknowledge some of the facts that same day. On 17 January, Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa presented formal apologies for the suffering of the victims, during a trip in South Korea. On 6 July and 4 August, the Japanese government issued two statements by which it recognised that "Comfort stations were operated in response to the request of the military of the day", "The Japanese military was, directly or indirectly, involved in the establishment and management of the comfort stations and the transfer of comfort women", and that the women were "recruited in many cases against their own will through coaxing and coercion".^[197]

The controversy was re-ignited on 1 March 2007, when Japanese Prime Minister

Shinzō Abe mentioned suggestions that a U.S. House of Representatives committee would call on the Japanese Government to "apologize for and acknowledge" the role of the Japanese Imperial military in wartime sex slavery. Abe denied that the Japanese Imperial military engaged in sex slavery.^[17]

Abe's comments provoked negative reactions overseas.

The same day, veteran soldier Yasuji Kaneko admitted to The Washington Post that the women "cried out, but it didn't matter to us whether the women lived or died. We were the emperor's soldiers. Whether in military brothels or in the villages, we raped without reluctance."^[17]

The Bahay na Pula in the Philippines was an example of a military-operated garrison where local women were raped.^[198]

On 17 April 2007, Yoshimi and another historian, Hirofumi Hayashi, announced the discovery, in the archives of the Tokyo Trials, of seven official documents suggesting that Imperial military forces, such as the Tokkeitai (naval secret police), directly coerced women to work in frontline brothels in China, Indochina and Indonesia. These documents were initially made public at the war crimes trial. In one of these, a lieutenant is quoted as confessing having organized a brothel and having used it himself. Another source refers to Tokkeitai members having arrested women on the streets, and after enforced medical examinations, putting them in brothels.^[199]

On 12 May 2007, journalist Taichiro Kaijimura announced the discovery of 30 Netherland government documents submitted to the

Tokyo tribunal as evidence of a forced massed prostitution incident in 1944 in Magelang.^[200]

In other cases, some victims from East Timor testified they were dragged from their homes and forced into prostitution at military brothels even when they were not old enough to have started menstruating and were repeatedly raped by Japanese soldiers "night after night".^[201]

A Dutch-Indonesian comfort woman,

Jan Ruff O'Herne (now resident in Australia), who gave evidence to the U.S. committee, said the Japanese Government had failed to take responsibility for its crimes, that it did not want to pay compensation to victims, and that it wanted to rewrite history. Ruff O'Herne said that she had been raped "day and night" for three months by Japanese soldiers when she was 21.^[202]

On 26 June 2007, the

Shinzō Abe said this decision was "regrettable".^[203]

There is disagreement on the comfort women's countries of origin. While some Japanese sources claim that the majority of the women were from Japan, others, including Yoshimi, argue as many as 200,000 women,[204]^[205] mostly from Korea,^[206] and some other countries such as China, Philippines, Burma, the Dutch East Indies,^[207]^[208]^[209]^[210]^[211]^[212]^{[excessive citations]} Netherlands,^[213] and Australia^[214] were forced to engage in sexual activity.^[215]^[216]^[217]^[218]^{[excessive citations]}

Japanese use of Malaysian, Indonesian Javanese^[219] Thai, Burmese, Filipino and Vietnamese women as comfort women was corroborated by testimonies. As a result of the rape, many women were infected with sexually transmitted diseases.^[220]^[221]^[222]^[223]^[224]^{[excessive citations]} There were comfort women stations in Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, North Korea and South Korea.^[225]^[226]

After the defeat of Japan, some of the non-European victims received no compensation or apology^[227] and the exploitation of them was ignored.^[228]^[229]^[230]

The Japanese systematically used comfort women and committed non-comfort women related rape in multiple war zones, including at the Battle of Manila. John Rabe, the leader of a Safety Zone in Nanjing, China, kept a diary during the Nanjing Massacre, and wrote about the Japanese atrocities committed against the people in the Safety Zone.^[231]

Looting and destruction of heritage

Several scholars have claimed that the Japanese government, along with Japanese military personnel, engaged in widespread looting during the period of 1895 to 1945.^[232]^[233] The stolen property included private land, as well as many different kinds of valuable goods looted from banks, depositories, vaults, temples, churches, mosques, art galleries, commercial offices, libraries (including Buddhist monasteries), museums and other commercial premises, as well as private homes.^[234]

In China, an eyewitness, journalist F. Tillman of The New York Times, sent an article to his newspaper where he described the Imperial Japanese Army's entry into Nanjing in December 1937: "The plunder carried out by the Japanese reached almost the entire city. Almost all buildings were entered by Japanese soldiers, often in the sight of their officers, and the men took whatever they wanted. Japanese soldiers often forced Chinese to carry the loot."^[235]^{[full citation needed]}

In Korea, it is estimated that about 100,000 priceless artifacts and cultural goods were looted by Japanese colonial authorities and private collectors during the nearly fifty years of military occupation. The Administration claims that there are 41,109 cultural objects which are located in Japan but remain unreported by the Japanese authorities. Unlike the works of art looted by Nazis in Europe, the return of property to its rightful owners, or even the discussion of financial reparations in the post-war period, met with strong resistance from the American government, particularly General Douglas MacArthur.^[236]^{[full citation needed]}

According to several historians, MacArthur's disagreement was not based on issues of rights, ethics or morals, but on political convenience. He spoke on the topic in a radio message to the U.S. Army in May 1948, the transcript of which was found by the magazine Time in the U.S. National Archives. In it, MacArthur states: "I am completely at odds with the minority view of replacing lost or destroyed cultural property as a result of military action and occupation". With the advent of the Cold War, the general feared "embittering the Japanese people towards us and making Japan vulnerable to ideological pressures and a fertile ground for subversive action".^[236]

Kyoichi Arimitsu, one of the last living survivors of the Japanese

archeological missions which operated on the Korean peninsula, which started early in the twentieth century, agrees that the plunder in the 1930s was out of control, but that researchers and academics, such as himself, had nothing to do with it. However, he recognizes that the excavated pieces which were deemed to be most historically significant were sent to the Japanese governor-general, who then decided what would be sent to Emperor Hirohito.^[236]

In 1965, when Japan and South Korea negotiated a treaty to reestablish diplomatic relations the issue of returning the cultural artifacts was raised. However, the then South Korean dictator,

Park Chung-hee, preferred to receive cash compensation that would allow him to build highways and steelworks; works of art and cultural goods were not a priority. As a result, at the time the Koreans had to settle for the return of only 1,326 items, including 852 rare books and 438 ceramic pieces. The Japanese claim that this put an end to any Korean claim regarding reparation for cultural goods (or of any other nature).^[236]^[237] American journalist Brad Glosserman has stated that an increasing number of South Koreans are raising the issue of the repatriation of stolen cultural artifacts from Japan due to rising affluence among the general populace as well as increased national confidence.^[237]

Hundreds of

Utsul Muslim houses and mosques in Sanya, Hainan were destroyed by the Japanese in order to build an airport.^[238]

Perfidy

Throughout the Pacific War, Japanese soldiers often

Hinomaru disc insignia obscured. A Japanese prisoner earlier tricked the Marines into an ambush by telling them that there were a number of Japanese soldiers west of the Matanikau River who wanted to surrender.^[239] The Goettge Patrol landed by boat west of the Lunga Point perimeter, between Point Cruz and the Matanikau River, on a reconnaissance

mission to contact a group of Japanese troops that American forces believed might be willing to surrender. Soon after the patrol landed, a group of Japanese naval troops ambushed and almost completely wiped out the patrol. Goettge was among the dead. Only three Americans made it back to American lines in the Lunga Point perimeter alive.

News of the killing and treachery by the Japanese outraged the American Marines:

This was the first mass killing of the Marines on Guadalcanal. We were shocked. Shocked ... because headquarters had believed anything a Jap had to say ... The loss of this patrol and the particularly cruel way in which they had met death, hardened our hearts toward the Japanese. The idea of taking prisoners was swept from our minds. It was too dangerous.[240]

Second Lieutenant D. A. Clark of the

7th Marines

told a similar story while patrolling Guadalcanal:

I was on my first patrol here, and we were moving up a dry stream bed. We saw 3 Japs come down the river bed out of the jungle. The one in front was carrying a white flag. We thought they were surrendering. When they got up to us they dropped the white flag and then all 3 threw hand grenades. We killed 2 of these Japs, but 1 got away. Apparently they do not mind a sacrifice to get information.^[239]

Samuel Eliot Morison, in his book, The Two-Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War, wrote:

There were innumerable incidents such as a wounded Japanese soldier at Guadalcanal seizing a
Battle of Vella Lavella, rescued by [torpedo boat] PT-163, pulling a gun and killing a bluejacket [enlisted sailor] in the act of giving a Japanese sailor a cup of coffee.^[241]

These incidents, along with many other perfidious actions of the Japanese throughout the Pacific War, led to an American tendency to shoot dead or wounded Japanese soldiers and those attempting to surrender and not readily take them as prisoners of war. Two Marines of Iwo Jima told cautionary tales. One confided:

They always told you take prisoners but we had some bad experiences on Saipan taking prisoners, you take them and then as soon as they get behind the lines they drop grenades and you lose a few more people. You get a little bit leery of taking prisoners when they are fighting to the death and so are you.

Aother reported,

Very few of them came out on their own; when they did, why, usually one in the front he'd come out with his hands up and one behind him, he'd come out with a grenade.^[242]^[243]^[244]

Attacks on hospital ships

Hague Convention X of 1907 that stated attacking a hospital ship is a war crime.^[245]^[246]

On 23 April 1945, USS Comfort was struck by a Japanese suicide plane.^[247] The plane crashed through three decks, exploding in surgery, which was filled with medical personnel and patients.^[248] Casualties were 28 killed (including six nurses) and 48 wounded, with considerable damage done to the ship.^[247]^[249]^[250]
USS Hope (AH-7) was attacked and damaged during the Battle of Leyte Gulf and the Battle of Okinawa.^[251]^[252]^[253]
USS Relief was attacked and damaged at Guam on 2 April 1945.^[254]
On 19 February 1942, the Australian HMHS Manunda was dive-bombed during the Japanese air raids on Darwin; twelve crew and hospital staff were killed and nineteen others were seriously wounded.^[255]
On 14 May 1943, the Australian
Stradbroke Island, Queensland with 268 lives lost.^[256]

The
POWs. On 20 December 1942, she became the Tenno Maru, a Japanese hospital ship, and the Dutch crew became POWs. As the war came to an end, the ship was first modified and later sunk to cover up the crime.^[257]^[258]

War crimes in Vietnam

The

Three Alls

policy (San Kuang) against the Vietnamese, pillaging, burning, killing, and raping Vietnamese women.

They shot a Vietnamese pharmacy student to death outside of his own house when he was coming home from guard duty at a hospital after midnight in Hanoi and also shot a defendant for a political case in the same city. In Thái Nguyên province, Vo Nhai, a Vietnamese boat builder, was thrown in a river and had his stomach stabbed by the Japanese under suspicion of helping Viet Minh guerillas. The Japanese slit the abdomen and hung the Đại Từ mayor upside down in Thái Nguyên as well. The Japanese committed some of these atrocities in Thái Nguyên province at Định Hóa, Võ Nhai and Hùng Sơn. The Japanese also beat thousands of people in Hanoi for not cooperating.

Japanese officers ordered their soldiers to behead and burn Vietnamese. Some claimed that Taiwanese and Manchurian soldiers in the Japanese army were participating in atrocities against the Vietnamese.

The Japanese on occasion attacked Vietnamese while masquerading as Viet Minh. They also tried to play the Vietnamese against the French by spreading false rumours that the French were massacring Vietnamese at the time to distract the Vietnamese from Japanese atrocities. Similarly, they attempted to play the Laotians against the Vietnamese by inciting Lao people to kill Vietnamese, as Lao murdered seven Vietnamese officials in Luang Prabang and Lao youths were recruited to an anti-Vietnam organization by the Japanese when they took over Luang Prabang.

The Japanese also started openly looting the Vietnamese. In addition to taking French-owned properties Japanese soldiers stole watches, pencils, bicycles, money and clothing.

Vietnam was in the grip of a famine in 1945 caused in part by Japanese requisition of food without payment; the Japanese beheaded Vietnamese who stole bread and corn while they were starving.^[261]^[262]^{[full citation needed]} The Vietnamese professor Văn Tạo and Japanese professor Furuta Moto both conducted a study in the field on the Japanese induced famine of 1945 admitting that Japan killed two million Vietnamese by starvation.

On 25 March 2000, the Vietnamese journalist Trần Khuê wrote an article "Dân chủ: Vấn đề của dân tộc và thời đại" in which he harshly criticized ethnographers and historians in Ho Chi Minh City's Institute of Social Sciences such as Dr. Đinh Văn Liên and Professor Mạc Đường for trying to whitewash Japan's atrocities against the Vietnamese by, among other things, changing the death toll of two million Vietnamese dead at the hands of the Japanese famine to one million, calling the Japanese invasion as a presence and calling Japanese fascists as simply Japanese at the Vietnam-Japan international conference.^[263]

War crimes trials

Yamashita Standard

") on the responsibility of commanders for war crimes.

Soon after the war, the Allied powers indicted 25 persons as Class-A war criminals, and 5,700 persons were indicted as Class-B or Class-C war criminals by Allied criminal courts. Of these, 984 were initially condemned to death, 920 were actually executed, 475 received life sentences, 2,944 received prison terms, 1,018 were acquitted, and 279 were not sentenced or not brought to trial. These indicted war criminals included 178 ethnic Taiwanese and 148 ethnic Koreans people.^[264] Class A criminals were all tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, also known as "the Tokyo Trials". Other courts were held in numerous places across Asia and the Pacific.

Tokyo Trials

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was formed to try accused people in Japan itself.

High-ranking officers who were tried included Kōichi Kido and Sadao Araki. Three former (unelected) prime ministers: Kōki Hirota, Hideki Tojo and Kuniaki Koiso were convicted of Class-A war crimes. Many military leaders were also convicted. Two people convicted as Class-A war criminals later served as ministers in post-war Japanese governments.

Mamoru Shigemitsu served as Minister for Foreign Affairs both during the war and in the post-war Hatoyama government.
Okinori Kaya was Minister of Finance during the war and later served as Minister of Justice in the government of Hayato Ikeda. These two had no direct connection to alleged war crimes committed by Japanese forces, and foreign governments never raised the issue when they were appointed.

Prince Higashikuni were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by Douglas MacArthur, with the help of Bonner Fellers who allowed the major criminal suspects to coordinate their stories so that the Emperor would be spared from indictment.^[265]

Some historians criticize this decision. According to John Dower, "with the full support of

Showa regime "cannot defend the American decision to exonerate the emperor of war responsibility and then, in the chill of the Cold War, release and soon afterwards openly embrace accused right-winged war criminals like the later prime minister Nobusuke Kishi."^[267] For Herbert Bix, "MacArthur's truly extraordinary measures to save Hirohito from trial as a war criminal had a lasting and profoundly distorting impact on Japanese understanding of the lost war."^[268]

MacArthur's reasoning was that if the emperor were executed or sentenced to life imprisonment, there would be a violent backlash and revolution from the Japanese from all social classes, which would interfere with his primary goal to change Japan from a militarist, semi-feudal society to a pro-Western modern democracy. In a cable sent to General Dwight D. Eisenhower in February 1946, MacArthur said executing or imprisoning the emperor would require the use of one million occupation soldiers to keep the peace.^[269]

Other trials

Nisei

interpreter). Naoji confessed to shooting two Australian POWs and five ethnic Chinese civilians.

Palau Islands

, March 1946.

Between 1946 and 1951, the United States, the United Kingdom, China, the Soviet Union, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, France, the Netherlands and the Philippines all held military tribunals to try Japanese indicted for Class B and Class C war crimes. Some 5,600 Japanese personnel were prosecuted in over 2,200 trials outside Japan. Class B defendants were accused of having committed such crimes themselves; class C defendants, mostly senior officers, were accused of planning, ordering or failing to prevent them.^{[citation needed]}

The judges presiding came from the United States, China, the United Kingdom, Australia, the

Chinese Communists also held a number of trials for Japanese personnel. More than 4,400 Japanese personnel were convicted and about 1,000 were sentenced to death.^{[citation needed}

]

The largest single trial was that of 93 Japanese personnel charged with the

Hong Sa Ik, who orchestrated the organisation of prisoner of war camps in Southeast Asia. In 2006, the South Korean government "pardoned" 83 of the 148 convicted Korean war criminals.^[34] One hundred-sixty Taiwanese who had served in the forces of the Empire of Japan were convicted of war crimes; 11 were executed.^[33]

Post-war events and reactions

The parole-for-war-criminals movement

In 1950, after most Allied war crimes trials had ended, thousands of convicted war criminals sat in prisons across Asia and across Europe, detained in the countries where they were convicted. Some executions were still outstanding as many Allied courts agreed to reexamine their verdicts, reducing sentences in some cases and instituting a system of parole, but without relinquishing control over the fate of the imprisoned (even after Japan had regained its status as a sovereign country).^[citation needed]

An intense and broadly supported campaign for amnesty for all imprisoned war criminals ensued (more aggressively in Germany than in Japan at first), as attention turned away from the top wartime leaders and towards the majority of "ordinary" war criminals (Class B/C in Japan), and the issue of criminal responsibility was reframed as a humanitarian problem.

The British authorities lacked the resources and will to fully commit themselves to pursuing Japanese war criminals.^[50]

On 7 March 1950, MacArthur issued a directive that reduced the sentences by one-third for good behavior and authorized the parole of those who had received life sentences after fifteen years. Several of those who were imprisoned were released earlier on parole due to ill-health.^{[citation needed]}

The Japanese popular reaction to the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal found expression in demands for the mitigation of the sentences of war criminals and agitation for parole. Shortly after the

San Francisco Peace Treaty came into effect in April 1952, a movement demanding the release of B- and C-class war criminals began, emphasizing the "unfairness of the war crimes tribunals" and the "misery and hardship of the families of war criminals". The movement quickly garnered the support of more than ten million Japanese. In the face of this surge of public opinion, the government commented that "public sentiment in our country is that the war criminals are not criminals. Rather, they gather great sympathy as victims of the war, and the number of people concerned about the war crimes tribunal system itself is steadily increasing."^{[citation needed}

]

The parole-for-war-criminals movement was driven by two groups: those from outside who had "a sense of pity" for the prisoners; and the war criminals themselves who called for their own release as part of an anti-war peace movement. The movement that arose out of "a sense of pity" demanded "just set them free (tonikaku shakuho o) regardless of how it is done".

On 4 September 1952, President Truman issued Executive Order 10393, establishing a Clemency and Parole Board for War Criminals to advise the President with respect to recommendations by the Government of Japan for clemency, reduction of sentence, or parole, with respect to sentences imposed on Japanese war criminals by military tribunals.^[270]

On 26 May 1954, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles rejected a proposed amnesty for the imprisoned war criminals but instead agreed to "change the ground rules" by reducing the period required for eligibility for parole from 15 years to 10.^[271]

By the end of 1958, all Japanese war criminals, including A-, B- and C-class were released from prison and politically rehabilitated.

Kingorō Hashimoto, Shunroku Hata, Jirō Minami and Oka Takazumi were all released on parole in 1954. Sadao Araki, Kiichirō Hiranuma, Naoki Hoshino, Okinori Kaya, Kōichi Kido, Hiroshi Ōshima, Shigetarō Shimada and Teiichi Suzuki were released on parole in 1955. Satō Kenryō, whom many, including Judge B.V.A. Röling regarded as one of the convicted war criminals least deserving of imprisonment, was not granted parole until March 1956, the last of the Class A Japanese war criminals to be released. On 7 April 1957, the Japanese government announced that, with the concurrence of a majority of the powers represented on the tribunal, the last ten major Japanese war criminals who had previously been paroled were granted clemency and were to be regarded henceforth as unconditionally free from the terms of their parole.^{[citation needed}

]

Official apologies

Several Japanese government officials and former Japanese emperors have acknowledge Japanese war atrocities committed in China.^[272] The Japanese government considers that the legal and moral positions in regard to war crimes are separate. Therefore, while maintaining that Japan violated no international law or treaties, Japanese governments have officially recognised the suffering which the Japanese military caused, and numerous apologies have been issued by the Japanese government. For example, Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama, in August 1995, stated that Japan "through its colonial rule and aggression, caused tremendous damage and suffering to the people of many countries, particularly to those of Asian nations", and he expressed his "feelings of deep remorse" and stated his "heartfelt apology". Also, on 29 September 1972, Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka stated: "[t]he Japanese side is keenly conscious of the responsibility for the serious damage that Japan caused in the past to the Chinese people through war, and deeply reproaches itself."^[273]

The official apologies are widely viewed as inadequate or only a symbolic exchange by many of the survivors of such crimes or the families of dead victims. In October 2006, while Prime Minister Shinzo Abe expressed an apology for the damage caused by its colonial rule and aggression, more than 80 Japanese lawmakers from the ruling

Shinzō Abe, in which he denied that the military had forced women into sexual slavery during World War II. He stated, "The fact is, there is no evidence to prove there was coercion." Before he spoke, a group of LDP lawmakers also sought to revise the Kono Statement.^[17]^[18]

This provoked negative reaction from Asian and Western countries.

On 31 October 2008, the

war crimes trials which followed the war.^[276] On 11 November, Tamogami added before the Diet that the personal apology made in 1995 by former prime minister Tomiichi Murayama was "a tool to suppress free speech".^[275]

Some in Japan have asserted that what is being demanded is that the

knelt at a monument to the Jewish victims of the Warsaw Ghetto, in 1970, as an example of a powerful and effective act of apology and reconciliation similar to dogeza.^[278]

On 13 September 2010, Japanese Foreign Minister Katsuya Okada met in Tokyo with six former American POWs of the Japanese and apologized for their treatment during World War II. Okada said: "You have all been through hardships during World War II, being taken prisoner by the Japanese military, and suffered extremely inhumane treatment. On behalf of the Japanese government and as the foreign minister, I would like to offer you my heartfelt apology."^[279]

On 29 November 2011, Japanese Foreign Minister Kōichirō Genba apologized to former Australian POWs on behalf of the Japanese government for pain and suffering inflicted on them during the war.^[280]

Compensation

The Japanese government, while admitting no legal responsibility for the so-called "comfort women", set up the Asian Women's Fund in 1995, which gives money to people who claim to have been forced into prostitution during the war. Though the organisation was established by the government, legally, it has been created such that it is an independent charity. The activities of the fund have been controversial in Japan, as well as with international organisations supporting the women concerned.^{[citation needed]}

Some argue that such a fund is part of an ongoing refusal by the Japanese government to face up to its responsibilities, while others say that the Japanese government has long since finalised its responsibility to individual victims and is merely correcting the failures of the victims' own governments. California

Congressman Mike Honda, speaking before U.S. House of Representatives on behalf of the women, said that "without a sincere and unequivocal apology from the government of Japan, the majority of surviving Comfort Women refused to accept these funds. In fact, as you will hear today, many Comfort Women returned the Prime Minister's letter of apology accompanying the monetary compensation, saying they felt the apology was artificial and disingenuous."^[281]

Intermediate compensation

The term "intermediate compensation" (or intermediary compensation) was applied to the removal and reallocation of Japanese industrial (particularly military-industrial) assets to Allied countries. It was conducted under the supervision of

¥165,158,839 (in 1950 prices). The proportions in which the assets were distributed were: China, 54.1%; the Netherlands, 11.5%; the Philippines 19%, and; the United Kingdom, 15.4%.^{[citation needed}

]

Compensation under the San Francisco Treaty

Compensation from Japanese overseas assets

Japanese overseas assets in 1945
Country/region	Value (1945, ¥ 15=US$1)	2024 US dollars^[282]
North East China	146,532,000,000	$165 billion
Korea	70,256,000,000	$79.3 billion
North China	55,437,000,000	$62.5 billion
Taiwan	42,542,000,000	$48 billion
Central South China	36,718,000,000	$41.4 billion
Others	28,014,000,000	$31.6 billion
Total	¥379,499,000,000	$428 billion

"Japanese overseas assets" refers to all assets which were owned by the Japanese government, firms, organizations and private citizens, in colonized or occupied countries. In accordance with Clause 14 of the San Francisco Treaty, Allied forces confiscated all Japanese overseas assets, except those in China, which were dealt with under Clause 21.

Compensation to Allied POWs

Clause 16 of the San Francisco Treaty stated that Japan would transfer its assets and those of its citizens in countries which were at war with any of the Allied Powers or which were neutral, or equivalents, to the International Committee of the Red Cross, which would sell them and distribute the funds to former prisoners of war and their families. Accordingly, the Japanese government and private citizens paid out £4,500,000 to the Red Cross.^{[citation needed]}

According to historian Linda Goetz Holmes, many funds used by the government of Japan were not Japanese funds but relief funds contributed by the governments of the US, the UK and the Netherlands and sequestered in the Yokohama Specie Bank during the final year of the war.^[283]

Allied territories occupied by Japan

Japanese compensation to countries occupied during 1941–45
Country	Amount in Yen	Amount in US$	2024 US dollars^[282]	Date of treaty
Burma	72,000,000,000	200,000,000	$2.27 billion	5 November 1955
Philippines	198,000,000,000	550,000,000	$6.16 billion	9 May 1956
Indonesia	80,388,000,000	223,080,000	$2.36 billion	20 January 1958
South Vietnam	14,400,000,000	38,000,000	$397 million	13 May 1959
Total	¥364,348,800,000	US$1,012,080,000

Clause 14 of the treaty stated that Japan would enter into negotiations with the Allied nations whose territories were occupied and suffered damage by Japanese forces, with a view to Japan compensating those countries for the damage.

Accordingly, the Philippines and

Burma and Indonesia were not original signatories, but they later signed bilateral treaties in accordance with clause 14 of the San Francisco Treaty.^{[citation needed}

]

The last payment was made to the Philippines on 22 July 1976.^[citation needed]

Debate in Japan

From a fringe topic to an open debate

Hideki Tōjō and Nobusuke Kishi

, who was imprisoned as a war criminal.

Until the 1970s, Japanese war crimes were considered a fringe topic in the media. In the Japanese media, the opinions of the political center and left tend to dominate the editorials of newspapers, while the right tend to dominate magazines. Debates regarding war crimes were confined largely to the editorials of tabloid magazines where calls for the overthrow of "Imperialist America" and revived veneration of the Emperor coexisted with pornography.

In 1972, to commemorate the normalisation of relationship with China,

Nanjing massacre. This opened the floodgates to debates which have continued ever since. The 1990s are generally considered to be the period in which such issues become truly mainstream, and incidents such as the Nanking Massacre, Yasukuni Shrine, comfort women, the accuracy of school history textbooks

, and the validity of the Tokyo Trials were debated, even on television.
As the consensus of Japanese jurists is that Japanese forces did not technically commit violations of international law, many right wing elements in Japan have taken this to mean that war crimes trials were examples of victor's justice. They see those convicted of war crimes as "Martyrs of Shōwa" (昭和殉難者, Shōwa Junnansha), Shōwa being the name given to the rule of Hirohito.
This interpretation is vigorously contested by Japanese peace groups and the political left. In the past, these groups have tended to argue that the trials hold some validity, either under the Geneva Convention (although Japan had not signed it), or under a general concept of international law or consensus. Alternatively, they have argued that, although the trials may not have been technically valid, they were still just, somewhat in line with popular opinion in the West and in the rest of Asia.^{[citation needed]}
By the early 21st century, the revived interest in Japan's imperial past had brought new interpretations from a group which has been labelled both "new right" and "new left". This group points out that many acts committed by Japanese forces, including the Nanjing Incident, were violations of the Japanese military code. It is suggested that had war crimes tribunals been conducted by the post-war Japanese government, in strict accordance with Japanese military law, many of those who were accused would still have been convicted and executed. Therefore, the moral and legal failures in question were the fault of the Japanese military and the government, for not executing their constitutionally defined duty.
The new right/new left also takes the view that the Allies committed no war crimes against Japan, because Japan was not a signatory to the Geneva Convention, and as a victors, the Allies had every right to demand some form of retribution, to which Japan consented in various treaties.

Yasukuni Jinja
.

Under the same logic, the new right/new left considers the killing of Chinese who were suspected of guerrilla activity to be perfectly legal and valid, including some of those killed at Nanjing, for example. They also take the view that many Chinese civilian casualties resulted from the scorched earth tactics of the Chinese nationalists. Though such tactics are arguably legal, the new right/new left takes the position that some of the civilian deaths caused by these scorched earth tactics are wrongly attributed to the Japanese military.
Similarly, they take the position that those who have attempted to sue the Japanese government for compensation have no legal or moral case.
The new right and new left also take a less sympathetic view of Korean claims of victimhood, because prior to annexation by Japan, Korea was a tributary of the Qing dynasty and, according to them, the Japanese colonisation, though undoubtedly harsh, was "better" than the previous rule in terms of human rights and economic development.
They also argue that the
Marco Polo Bridge Incident. The Japanese government not only failed to court martial the officers responsible for these incidents, but it also accepted the war against China, and many of those who were involved were even promoted. (Some of the officers involved in the Nanking Massacre
were also promoted.)
Whether or not Hirohito himself bears any responsibility for such failures is a sticking point between the new right and new left. Officially, the imperial constitution, adopted under Emperor Meiji, gave full powers to the Emperor. Article 4 prescribed that "The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution" and article 11 prescribed that "The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and the Navy".
For historian Akira Fujiwara, the thesis that the emperor as an organ of responsibility could not reverse cabinet decisions is a myth (shinwa) fabricated after the war.
Prince Takeda
.

Nippon Kaigi, the main negationist lobby

The denial of Japanese war crimes is one of the key missions of the openly
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Japan.^{[citation needed]} Former Prime Minister of Japan, Shinzo Abe, was a member of the Nippon Kaigi.^[289]

Later investigations

As with investigations of
Nazi war criminals, official investigations and inquiries are still ongoing.^{[as of?]} During the 1990s, the South Korean government started investigating some people who had allegedly become wealthy while collaborating with the Japanese military.^[290]^[291] In South Korea, it is also alleged that during the political climate of the Cold War, many such people or their associates or relatives were able to acquire influence with the wealth they had acquired collaborating with the Japanese and assisted in the covering-up, or non-investigation, of war crimes in order not to incriminate themselves. With the wealth they had amassed during the years of collaboration, they were able to further benefit their families by obtaining higher education for their relatives.^[291]

Further evidence has been discovered as a result of these investigations. It has been claimed that the Japanese government intentionally destroyed the reports on Korean comfort women.[292]^[293] Some have cited Japanese inventory logs and employee sheets on the battlefield as evidence for this claim. For example, one of the names on the list was of a comfort woman who stated she was forced to be a prostitute by the Japanese. She was classified as a nurse along with at least a dozen other verified comfort women who were not nurses or secretaries. Currently, the South Korean government is looking into the hundreds of other names on these lists.^[294]
In 2011, it was alleged in an article published in the Japan Times newspaper by Jason Coskrey that the British government covered up a Japanese massacre of British and Dutch POWs to avoid straining the recently re-opened relationship with Japan, along with their belief that Japan needed to be a post-war bulwark against the spread of communism.^[295]
Tamaki Matsuoka's 2009 documentary Torn Memories of Nanjing includes interviews with Japanese veterans who admit to raping and killing Chinese civilians.^[296]

Concerns of the Japanese Imperial Family

Potentially in contrast to Prime Minister Abe's example of his Yasukuni Shrine visits, by February 2015, some concern within the
Reiwa
era.

List of major crimes

Andaman Islands occupation

Balalae Island

Massacres

Alexandra Hospital massacre

Bangka Island massacre^[87]

Changjiao massacre

Gando massacre

Homfreyganj massacre

Kalagon massacre

Laha massacre^[86]

Manila massacre

Nanking Massacre

Palawan massacre

Panjiayu massacre

Pantingan River massacre

Parit Sulong massacre

Pig-basket atrocity

Pontianak Massacre

Sook Ching massacre

Tol Plantation massacre

Wake Island massacre

Units

Unit 100

Unit 516

Unit 543

Unit 731

Unit 1644

Unit 1855

Unit 8604

Unit 9420

War crimes

Bataan Death March

Burma Railway

Changteh chemical weapon attack

Chichijima incident

Comfort women

Contest to kill 100 people using a sword

Hell ships

Kaimingye germ weapon attack

Romusha

Sandakan Death Marches

Selarang Barracks incident

Three Alls Policy

War crimes in Manchukuo

See also

American cover-up of Japanese war crimes

Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan

Anti-Japanese sentiment

Anti-Japanese sentiment in China

Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea

Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States

Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan

Death march

Genocide denial

Genocide recognition politics

Genocides in history

Genocide studies

The Holocaust

The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia

Holocaust denial

Holocaust studies

Holocaust trivialization

Holocaust uniqueness debate

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Hashima Island

List of Axis war crime trials

List of ethnic cleansing campaigns

List of massacres in China

List of war crimes committed during World War II

Military history of Japan

Nanjing Massacre denial

Nazi human experimentation

Nazi racial theories

Sōshi-kaimei

Soviet war crimes

Taiwanese Resistance to the Japanese Invasion (1895)

Tanaka Memorial (Tanaka Jōsōbun) – an alleged Japanese strategic planning document from 1927 in which Prime Minister Baron Tanaka Giichi laid out a strategy to take over the world for Emperor Hirohito

United States war crimes

Wartime sexual violence

Japanese movements

Black Dragon Society

Japanese nationalism

Japanese settlers in Manchuria

Political extremism in Japan

Racism in Japan

Tohokai – a Japanese fascist political party which advocated Nazism

Uyoku dantai

Zaitokukai

Agreements

Japan-China Joint Declaration On Building a Partnership of Friendship and Cooperation for Peace and Development

Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China

Notes

War on Terror. They then proceeded to deny that simulated drowning was torture, an opinion shared by at least The Wall Street Journal which, on 12 November 2005, commenting on the torture of alleged terrorists of Al-Qaeda, published an editorial denying that the technique had "any proximity to torture".^[145]
During the presidential elections in the United States in 2008, these interpretations were the subject of controversy, with candidates John McCain and Barack Obama^[146] considering the practice as torture, as opposed to other candidates republicans.^[147]

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^ ^a ^b Tanaka Hidden Horrors pp 2–3

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^ Toland, Infamy

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.

^ Javier Guisández Gómez (30 June 1998). "The Law of Air Warfare". International Review of the Red Cross (323): 347–63. Archived from the original on 25 April 2013.

ISBN 1-84176-918-5
.

ISBN 0-7864-1412-X
.

^ Francis (1997), pp. 471–72

^ Tillman (2010), p. 170

^ Takai and Sakaida (2001), p. 114

^ Tillman (2010), pp. 171–72

^ "War crimes of the Imperial Japanese Navy". www.pacificwar.org.au. Retrieved 8 May 2023.

^ "Red Cross, The duty to rescue at sea, in peacetime and in war" (PDF).

^ ^a ^b Hackett, Bob; Kingsepp, Sander (1 July 2016). "IJN Submarine I-8: Tabular Record of Movement". combinedfleet.com. Retrieved 20 December 2021.

ISBN 0-85052-822-4
.

^ "I_8". Retrieved 8 May 2023.

^ "Moore". armed-guard.com.

ISBN 0-7509-2719-4
.

^ "SS Richard Hovey: a Tale of Japanese Atrocities and Survival by Bruce Felknor". www.usmm.org. Retrieved 8 May 2023.

^ "SS Poelau Bras Attacked". Muntok Peace Museum.

ISBN 1-883283-18-3
.

^ "Japanese Atrocities". US Navy.

ISBN 978-0-472-11889-2
.

ISBN 978-0-8240-4774-0
.

^ Tanker Augustina massacrecnooks.nl

^ Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, p. 127

Lord Russell of Liverpool
(Edward Russell), The Knights of Bushido, a short history of Japanese War Crimes, Greenhill books, 2002, p. 236.

^ "Ten of Japan's worst War Crimes". pacificwar.org.au.

Lord Russell of Liverpool
(Edward Russell), The Knights of Bushido, a short history of Japanese War Crimes, Greenhill books, 2002, p. 121.

^ "Japanese ate Indian PoWs, used them as live targets in WWII". The Times of India. 11 August 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2017.

^ [1]Archived 8 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine Case No. 21 Trial Of General Tomoyuki Yamashita, United States Military Commission, Manila, (8 October-7 December 1945), and the Supreme Court of the United States (Judgments Delivered On 4 February 1946). Part VI (Retrieved on 18 December 2006); Jeanie M. Welch, "Without a Hangman, Without a Rope: Navy War Crimes Trials After World War II", International Journal of Naval History, v.1, No. 1, April 2002, pp. 5–6

^ Marcel Junod, International Red Cross

^ Researching Japanese War Crimes January 28, 2015, National Archives

ISBN 90-6718-203-6
.

^ Gunn, Geoffrey (17 August 2015). "The great Vietnam famine".

^ Gunn, Geoffrey (24 January 2011). "The Great Vietnamese Famine of 1944–45 Revisited 1944–45年ヴィエトナム大飢饉再訪". The Asia-Pacific Journal. 9 (5 Number 4).

S2CID 145374444
.

^ Hien, Nina (Spring 2013). "The Good, the Bad, and the Not Beautiful: In the Street and on the Ground in Vietnam". Local Culture/Global Photography. 3 (2).

^ Vietnam: Corpses in a mass grave following the 1944–45 famine during the Japanese occupation. Up to 2 million Vietnamese died of starvation. AKG3807269.

^ "Vietnamese Famine of 1945". Japanese Occupation of Vietnam.

ISBN 0253335396
.

^ Zhifen Ju, Japan's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draftees after the outbreak of the Pacific War, 2002

^ "links for research, Allied POWs under the Japanese". Mansell.com. Retrieved 21 July 2013.

^ Library of Congress, 1992, 'Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45' Access date: 9 February 2007.

^ Fujiwara, Nitchū sensō ni okeru horyo gyakusatsu, 1995

^ "US Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens Captured". public2.nhhcaws.local. Retrieved 8 May 2023.

^ ^a ^b Drea, Edward (2006). Researching Japanese War Crimes. National Archives and Records Administration for the Nazi Warcrimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group. p. 33.

^ Drea, Edward (2006). Researching Japanese War Crimes. National Archives and Records Administration for the Nazi Warcrimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group. p. 33. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.

^ "Japanese comfort women ruling overturned". CNN. 29 March 2001. Archived from the original on 16 December 2008.

^ Sheridan, Michael (31 July 2005). "Black museum of Japan's war crimes". The Times.

^ Yoshiaki Yoshimi, 2001–02, Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military during World War II. Columbia University Press

^ McMullen, Jane (17 June 2016). "The Philippines' forgotten "comfort women"". BBC News. Retrieved 29 January 2020.

^ Yoshida, Reiji (18 April 2007). "Evidence documenting sex-slave coercion revealed". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 19 November 2007.

^ "Files: Females forced into sexual servitude in wartime Indonesia". The Japan Times. 12 May 2007. Retrieved 28 December 2016.

^ Hirano, Keiji (28 April 2007). "East Timor former sex slaves speak out". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008.

^ Cardy, Todd (5 March 2007). "Japanese PM's denial upsets 'comfort woman'". Archived from the original on 15 October 2007.

^ ^a ^b "U.S. panel OKs sex slave resolution". The Japan Times. 28 June 2007.

^ "Japan court rules against 'comfort women'". CNN. 29 March 2001. Retrieved 28 December 2016.

^ Bender, Bryan (15 October 2006). "Congress backs off of wartime Japan rebuke". The Boston Globe.

ISBN 978-1978814981
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^ Narayanan, Arujunan (2002). "Japanese war crimes and Allied crimes trials in Borneo during World War II" (PDF). JEBAT. 29: 10, 11.

^ "At the Mercy of the Enemy: the Record of a Japanese War Criminal" (PDF). 教育学論究. 29 (12): 29–40. 15 December 2020.

doi:10.11113/umran2018.5n2.187
.

ISBN 1851091270
.

^ O'Neill, Claire (4 June 2017). "Comfort Women: Untold Stories Of Wartime Abuse". NPR.

ISBN 978-3839152485
.

^ "Comfort Women Were 'Raped': U.S. Ambassador to Japan". Chosunilbo & Chosun. 19 March 2007.

^ Moynihan, Stephen (3 March 2007). "Abe ignores evidence, say Australia's comfort women". Melbourne: The Age. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 21 July 2013.

^ McCormack, Gavan (6 February 2005). "How the History Wars in Japan Left a Black Mark on NHK TV (Their BBC)". History News Network.

^ Soh, C. Sarah (May 2001). "Japan's Responsibility Toward Comfort Women Survivors". Japan Policy Research Institute. Archived from the original on 28 June 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2006.

^ Nozaki, Yoshiko (3 September 2005). "The Horrible History of the 'Comfort Women' and the Fight to Suppress Their Story". History News Network.

^ Dudden, Alexis (25 April 2006). "US Congressional Resolution Calls on Japan to Accept Responsibility for Wartime Comfort Women". ZNet. Archived from the original on 30 April 2006.

ISBN 978-1317466253
.

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from the original on 22 July 2022.

ISBN 978-1317466253
.

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.

ISBN 0804751862
.

ISBN 0803296274
.

ISBN 978-9004292932
.

ISBN 978-0199373895
.

^ O'Neill, Claire (4 June 2011). "Comfort Women: Untold Stories of Wartime Abuse". NPR.

ISBN 1134650124
. As much as the Japanese were unconcerned about the exploitation of non-Europeans, the Dutch were equally indifferent to victims who were not white and Dutch. However, there were at least two exceptional cases brought by the Dutch ...

ISBN 9780415194006
.

ISBN 978-1317466253
. Japanese were unconcerned about the non-Europeans, so too the Dutch were equally indifferent to non-European victims who were not white and Dutch.

^ Woods, John E. (1998). The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe. p. 77. Two Japanese soldiers have climbed over the garden wall and are about to break into our house. When I appear they give the excuse that they saw two Chinese soldiers climb over the wall. When I show them my party badge, they return the same way. In one of the houses in the narrow street behind my garden wall, a woman was raped, and then wounded in the neck with a bayonet. I managed to get an ambulance so we can take her to Kulou Hospital ... Last night up to 1,000 women and girls are said to have been raped, about 100 girls at Ginling College ... alone. You hear nothing but rape. If husbands or brothers intervene, they're shot. What you hear and see on all sides is the brutality and bestiality of the Japanese soldiers.

^ Kenneth B. Lee, 1997, Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group

ISBN 1-85984-542-8
)

ISSN 0260-9592
. Retrieved 7 April 2019.

^ "Internet History Sourcebooks: Modern History". sourcebooks.fordham.edu. Retrieved 8 May 2023.

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Macintyre, Donald (4 February 2002). "A Legacy Lost". Time.

^ ^a ^b Glosserman, Brad (4 December 2002). "Japan slams the door on stolen artwork". The Japan Times. Retrieved 13 September 2020.

ISBN 1614516049
.

^
ISBN 978-1-250-00499-4
.

^ Thomas Gallant Grady (1963). On Valor's Side. Doubleday. p. 297.

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ISBN 978-0-295-98336-3
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^ Galen Roger Perras (March 2003). Stepping Stones to Nowhere: The Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and American Military Strategy, 1867–1945. University of British Columbia Press. p. 232.

^ Rose, Kenneth (10 October 2007). Myth and the Greatest Generation: A Social History of Americans in World War II. Routledge. p. 264.

^ "Convention for the adaptation to maritime war of the principles of the Geneva Convention". Yale University. 18 October 1907. Retrieved 2 August 2009.

^ "Convention for the adaptation to maritime warfare of the principles of the Geneva Convention". Netherlands: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 16 June 2013. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013.

^ ^a ^b DANFS: Comfort.

^ Condon-Rall & Cowdrey 1998, p. 392.

^ Video U.S. Turns To Japan After German Defeat [ETC.] (1945). Universal Newsreels. 1945. Retrieved 20 February 2012.

^ Video: Funeral Pyres of Nazidom, 1945/05/10 (1945). Universal Newsreels. 10 May 1945. Retrieved 20 February 2012.

^ This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here.^{[dead link]}

LCCN 97022644
.

LCCN 55060005
.

^ "Modern Hospital Sails With U.S. Fleet". Popular Science Monthly, August 1927, p. 35.

^ "Bombing of 2/1st Australian Hospital Ship Manunda in Darwin". battleforaustralia.asn.au.

^ "Sinking of the 2/3 hospital ship A.H.S. Centaur". ozatwar.com. 2010. Retrieved 8 November 2011.

^ "KPN SS Op Ten Noort an 6,000 ton 1927 Dutch Passenger-Cargo liner based in Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)". ssmaritime.com.

^ "Op ten Noort, hospitalship". netherlandsnavy.nl.

^ Truong, Chinh (1971). "Revolution or Coup d'Etat, JPRS 53169 19 May 1971 Translations on North Vietnam No. 940 Documents on the August Revolution". Translations on North Vietnam, Volume 17. JPRS (Series). Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service. U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. pp. 14–16.

^ Aruong Chinh (chairman of the National Assembly). "Revolution or Coup d'Etat". Hanoi, Nhan Dan, Vietnamese, 16 August 1970, pp. 1, 3]. Co Giai Phong [Liberation Banner], No. 16, 12 September 1945.

^ Truong, Chinh (19 May 1971). "Policy of the Japanese Pirates Towards Our people, JPRS 53169 19 May 1971 Translations on North Vietnam No. 940 Documents on the August Revolution". Translations on North Vietnam. JPRS (Series). Vol. 17. Contributor United States. Joint Publications Research Service. U.S. Joint Publications Research Service. pp. 8–13.

^ Truong Chinh (chairman of the National Assembly). "Policy of the Japanese Pirates Towards Our people". Hanoi, Nhan Dan, Vietnamese, 17 August 1970, pp. 1, 3

^ "Dân chủ: Vấn đề của dân tộc và thời đại". Hưng Việt: TRANG CHÁNH - Trang 1. Đối Thoại Năm 2000. 25 March 2000.

^ Dower, John (2000). Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II, p. 447

^ Kumao Toyoda, Senso saiban yoroku, 1986, p.170–172, H. Bix, Hirohito and the making of modern Japan, 2000, p.583, 584

^ Dower,Embracing defeat, 1999, p.326

^ Dower, Hirohito, p.562.

^ Bix, Hirohito, p.585, 583

^ Sebestyen, Victor (11 November 2015). "How the Emperor Became Human (and MacArthur Became Divine)". Longreads. Retrieved 21 April 2021.

^ "Harry S. Truman – Executive Order 10393 – Establishment of the Clemency and Parole Board for War Criminals". Retrieved 13 April 2009.

ISBN 978-0-231-12051-7
. parole war criminals.

^ "Japan's Apologies for World War II". 13 August 2015 – via NYTimes.com.

^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (quoted on the Taiwan Documents Project), Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China, [2]

^ "PBS. Online NewsHour: I'm Sorry – December 1, 1998". PBS. Archived from the original on 22 February 2008. Retrieved 1 September 2017.

^ ^a ^b "Tamogami ups Nationalist rhetoric". Archived from the original on 16 December 2008.

^ "Text of original essay" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2013.

^ Freeman, Laurie A., "Japan's Press Clubs as Information Cartels," Japan Policy Research Institute, (April 1996), [3] Archived 17 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Discusses impending visit in 1990 to Japan by Korean president Roh Tae Woo in which Japanese cabinet secretary Ozawa Ichiro reportedly said, "it is because we have reflected on the past that we cooperate with Korea economically. Is it really necessary to grovel on our hands and knees and prostrate ourselves any more than we already have?". This alleged remark is called the dogeza hatsugen (prostration comment).

^ Facing History and Ourselves, Willy Brandt's Silent Apology, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 22 July 2006. Retrieved 30 July 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

^ Ito, Masami, "Okada apologizes for U.S. POWs' treatment", The Japan Times, 14 September 2010, p. 2. ^{[dead link]}

^ Martin, Alex, "Aussies recall POW ordeals, forgive Archived 11 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine", The Japan Times, 17 December 2011, p. 3.

^ Honda, Mike (15 February 2007). "Honda Testifies in Support of Comfort Women". U.S. House of Representative. Archived from the original on 19 April 2013.

^ ^a ^b 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.

^ "Compensation to Allied POWs | The Japan Times Online". archive.ph. 4 June 2012. Archived from the original on 4 June 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2020.

^ Fujiwara, Shôwa tennô no jû-go nen sensô, Aoki Shoten, 1991, p.122

^ Penney, Matthew (28 January 2013). "The Abe Cabinet – An Ideological Breakdown". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus.

ISBN 9780415593960
, p. 75

ISBN 0415486491
, p. 66

^ N. Onishi – New York Times, 17 December 2006, Japan Rightists Fan Fury Over North Korea Abductions

ISSN 0362-4331
. Retrieved 9 August 2020.

^ "List of Japanese Collaborators Released". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 4 October 2012.

^ ^a ^b "Government to Seize Assets of Collaborators in Colonial Era". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 4 October 2012.

^ Horsley, William (9 August 2005). "World | Asia-Pacific | Korean WWII sex slaves fight on". BBC News. Retrieved 21 July 2013.

^ "Ex-sex slave narrates: "Japan Boiled Comfort Woman to Make Soup". Japanese Army Ran "Comfort Woman System"". The Seoul Times. Retrieved 21 July 2013.

^ "Digital Chosunilbo (English Edition): Daily News in English About Korea. Military Record of "Comfort Woman" Unearthed". Archived from the original on 25 August 2009.

^ Coskrey, Jason. "Britain covered up Japan massacre of POWs". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2013.

^ Lee, Min (31 March 2010). "New film has Japan vets confessing to Nanjing rape". Salon.

^ Yamamoto, Arata (9 April 2015). "Japan's Experiments on U.S. POWs: Exhibit Highlights Horrific History". NBC News. Retrieved 9 April 2015.

^ Itasaka, Kiko (24 February 2015). "World War II Should Not Be Forgotten, Japan's Prince Naruhito Says". NBC News. Retrieved 9 April 2015.

^ "Reconstruction minister visits war-linked Yasukuni Shrine" (Japan Times – 11 August 2016)

^ "Japan defence minister visits Yasukuni war shrine, one day after visiting Pearl Harbour with Abe", AFP via South China Morning Post, 29 December 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2016.

Sources

AFP (31 October 2007). "A life haunted by WWII surgical killings". THE BRUNEI TIMES. Archived from the original on 13 December 2014. Retrieved 16 May 2014.

AFP (28 October 2007). "Japanese veteran haunted by WWII surgical killings". Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 17 March 2014. Retrieved 16 May 2014.

Borneman, John. "Can Public Apologies Contribute to Peace? An Argument for Retribution" (PDF). Cornell University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2006. Retrieved 29 July 2006.

Bix, Herbert. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan
. New York: HarperCollins, 2000.

Naval History And Heritage Command. "Comfort". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Naval History And Heritage Command. Retrieved 9 July 2013.

Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F. (1993). Japan at War: An Oral History. New Press.
ISBN 1-56584-039-9
.- Compilation of interviews with Japanese survivors of World War II, including several who describe war crimes that they were involved with.

Chalmers, Johnson (20 November 2003). "The Looting of Asia". London Review of Books.

De Jong, Louis (2002). The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206. translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman. Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press.
ISBN 90-6718-203-6
.

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. New York: New Press, 1999.

Felton, Mark. Japan's Gestapo: Murder, Mayhem and Torture in Wartime Asia (Casemate Publishers, 2009).

Felton, Mark. Slaughter at Sea: The Story of Japan's Naval War Crimes (Casemate Publishers, 2007).

Felton, Mark. "The Perfect Storm: Japanese military brutality during World War Two." The Routledge History of Genocide (Routledge, 2015) pp. 105-121.

Fields, Liz. "South Korean Comfort Women Threaten to Sue Japan for $20 Million in the U.S". Retrieved 20 August 2015.

"Forive but Never Forget". GSBC. Retrieved 20 August 2015.^{[permanent dead link]}

L, Klemen (1999–2000). "Massacres of POWs, Dutch East Indies, 1941–1942". Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. Archived from the original on 19 September 2011.

Landas, Wiley (2004). The Fallen A True Story of American POWs and Japanese Wartime Atrocities. Hoboken: John Wiley.
ISBN 0-471-42119-7
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Legault, Barbara; Prescott, John F. (2009). "'The arch agitator:' Dr. Frank W. Schofield and the Korean independence movement". The Canadian Veterinary Journal. 50 (8): 865–72.
PMID 19881928
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McCurry, Justin. "Japanese PM Shinzo Abe Stops Short of New Apology in War Anniversary Speech". Retrieved 20 August 2015.

Noh, Jooeun. "The Great Kantō Earthquake". Harvard-Yenching Institute. Retrieved 20 August 2015.

Ozawa, Harumi (6 November 2007). "Japanese war veteran speaks of atrocities in the Philippines". TAIPEI TIMES. p. 9. Retrieved 16 May 2014.

PARRY, RICHARD LLOYD (26 February 2007). "Dissect them alive: chilling Imperial that order could not be di". THE AUSTRALIAN. Retrieved 16 May 2014.

Parry, Richard Lloyd (25 February 2007). "Dissect them alive: order not to be disobeyed". The Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2013. Retrieved 16 May 2014.

Parry, Richard Lloyd (25 February 2007). "Dissect them alive: order not to be disobeyed". The Times. Archived from the original on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2014.

Richard Lloyd Parry (25 February 2007). "Dissect them alive: order not to be disobeyed". The Times. Retrieved 10 December 2009.

Ramsey, Edwin, and Stephen Rivele. (1990). Lieutenant Ramsey's War. Knightsbridge Publishing Co., New York. ASIN: B000IC3PDE

Schmidt, Larry. (1982). American Involvement in the Filipino Resistance on Mindanao During the Japanese Occupation, 1942–1945. (PDF). M.S. Thesis. U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. 274 pp.

Takai, Kōji; Sakaida, Henry (2001). B-29 Hunters of the JAAF. Aviation Elite Units. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
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]

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Tanaka, Yuki (1996). Poison Gas, the Story Japan Would Like to Forget. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)

The Knights of Bushido: A Short History of Japanese War Crimes. Greenhill Books. 2006.
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Cheung, Raymond. OSPREY AIRCRAFT OF THE ACES 126: Aces of the Republic of China Air Force. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2015.
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"Wartime Cabinet Document Discloses Conscription of 290,000 Koreans in 1944". The People's Korea. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2015.

Further reading

Barnaby, Wendy. The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare, Frog Ltd, 1999.
ISBN 0-8264-1415-X

Bass, Gary Jonathan. Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Trials. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.

Bayly, C. A. & Harper T. Forgotten Armies. The Fall of British Asia 1941-5 (London: Allen Lane) 2004

Bergamini, David. Japan's Imperial Conspiracy, William Morrow, New York, 1971.

ISBN 0-688-04783-1

ISBN 0-394-75172-8
.

Endicott, Stephen and Edward Hagerman. The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea, Indiana University Press, 1999.
ISBN 0-253-33472-1

Felton, Mark (2007). Slaughter at Sea: The Story of Japan's Naval War Crimes. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press.
ISBN 978-1-59114-263-8
.

Frank, Richard B. (1999). Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire. New York: Penguin Books.

Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony, Charles E Tuttle Co., 1996.
ISBN 4-900737-39-9

Handelman, Stephen and Ken Alibek. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World—Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It, Random House, 1999.
ISBN 0-385-33496-6

Harries, Meirion; Harries, Susie (1994). Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army. New York:
ISBN 0-679-75303-6
.

Harris, Robert and Jeremy Paxman. A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Random House, 2002.
ISBN 0-8129-6653-8

Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932–45 and the American Cover-Up, Routledge, 1994.
ISBN 0-415-93214-9

Holmes, Linda Goetz (2001). Unjust Enrichment: How Japan's Companies Built Postwar Fortunes Using American POWs. Mechanicsburg, PA, USA: Stackpole Books.

Holmes, Linda Goetz (2010). Guests of the Emperor: The Secret History of Japan's Mukden POW Camp. Naval Institute Press.
ISBN 978-1-59114-377-2
.

Horowitz, Solis. "The Tokyo Trial" International Conciliation 465 (November 1950), 473–584.

Kratoksa, Paul (2005). Asian Labor in the Wartime Japanese Empire: Unknown Histories. M.E. Sharpe and Singapore University Press.
ISBN 0-7656-1263-1
.

Lael, Richard L. (1982). The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility. Wilmington, Del, USA: Scholarly Resources.

Latimer, Jon, Burma: The Forgotten War, London: John Murray, 2004.
ISBN 0-7195-6576-6

ISBN 1-4000-6413-9
.

Lingen, Kerstin von, ed. War Crimes Trials in the Wake of Decolonization and Cold War in Asia, 1945-1956. (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2016) online

Minear, Richard H. (1971). Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press.

Maga, Timothy P. (2001). Judgment at Tokyo: The Japanese War Crimes Trials. University Press of Kentucky.
ISBN 0-8131-2177-9
.

Neier, Aryeh. War Crimes: Brutality, Genocide, Terror and the Struggle for Justice, Times Books, Random House, New York, 1998.

O'Hanlon, Michael E.. The Senkaku Paradox: Risking Great Power War Over Small Stakes (Brookings Institution, 2019) online review

Piccigallo, Philip R. (1979). The Japanese on Trial: Allied War Crimes Operations in the East, 1945–1951. Austin, Texas, USA: University of Texas Press.

Rees, Laurence. Horror in the East, published 2001 by the British Broadcasting Company

Seagrave, Sterling & Peggy. Gold Warriors: America's secret recovery of Yamashita's gold. Verso Books, 2003.
ISBN 1-85984-542-8

Sherman, Christine (2001). War Crimes: International Military Tribunal. Turner Publishing Company.
ISBN 1-56311-728-2. Detailed account of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East
proceedings in Tokyo

Trefalt, Beatrice . "Japanese War Criminals in Indochina and the French Pursuit of Justice: Local and International Constraints." Journal of Contemporary History 49.4 (2014): 727–742.

Tsurumi, Kazuko (1970). Social Change and the Individual: Japan before and after defeat in World War II. Princeton, USA: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 0-691-09347-4
.

Williams, Peter. Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II, Free Press, 1989.
ISBN 0-02-935301-7

Wilson, Sandra; et al. (2017). Japanese War Criminals: The Politics of Justice After the Second World War. New York City: Columbia University Press.
ISBN 9780231179225
.

Yamamoto, Masahiro (2000). Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity. Praeger Publishers.
ISBN 0-275-96904-5
. A rebuttal to Iris Chang's book on the Nanking massacre.

Audio/visual media

Minoru Matsui (2001), Japanese Devils, a documentary which is based on interviews which were conducted with veteran soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army (Japanese Devils sheds light on a dark past) CNN
Japanese Devils, Midnight Eye,

The History Channel (2000). Japanese War Crimes: Murder Under The Sun (Video documentary (DVD & VHS)). A & E Home Video.

External links

Battling Bastards of Bataan

"Biochemical Warfare – Unit 731". Alliance for Preserving the Truth of Sino-Japanese War. No date.

"Cannibalism". Dan Ford, "Japan at War, 1931–1945" September 2007.

"Confessions of Japanese war criminals". No date.

"History of Japan's biological weapons program" Federation of American Scientists, 2000-04-16

Ji Man-Won's website (in Korean) Various dates.

Justin McCurry, "Japan's sins of the past" in The Guardian, 2004-10-28

Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group (IWG) U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). No date.

"The Other Holocaust" No date.

"Rape of Queen MIN" 2002

R.J. Rummel, "Statistics Of Japanese Democide: Estimates, Calculations, And Sources"
University of Hawaii
, 2002

Shane Green. "The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731" in The Age, 2002-08-29

"Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama" 1995-08-15

"Steven Butler, "A half century of denial: the hidden truth about Japan's unit 731"". Archived from the original on 19 November 2006. Retrieved 31 October 2004. in U.S. News & World Report 1995-07-31

Japanese Treatment of World War II POWs

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v
t
e
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Pingfang
)

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[148] War on Terror. They then proceeded to deny that simulated drowning was torture, an opinion shared by at least The Wall Street Journal which, on 12 November 2005, commenting on the torture of alleged terrorists of Al-Qaeda, published an editorial denying that the technique had "any proximity to torture".^[145]
During the presidential elections in the United States in 2008, these interpretations were the subject of controversy, with candidates John McCain and Barack Obama^[146] considering the practice as torture, as opposed to other candidates republicans.^[147]

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[6] "Japanese War Crimes". The National Archives (U.S.). 15 August 2016.

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@@ Line 176: / Line 176: @@
 [[File:Unit 731 victim.jpg|thumb|[[Unit 731]] members spraying a noxious substance onto a victim as part of their research.]]
 One case of human experimentation occurred in Japan itself. At least nine of 11 members of Lt.{{nbsp}}Marvin Watkins' 29th Bomb Group crew (of the 6th Bomb Squadron) survived the crash of their [[U.S. Army Air Forces]] [[B-29 Superfortress|B-29]] [[bomber]] on [[Kyūshū]], on 5 May 1945.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pacific Wrecks |url=http://pacificwrecks.com/ |website=pacificwrecks.com}}</ref> The bomber's commander was separated from his crew and sent to Tokyo for interrogation, while the other survivors were taken to the anatomy department of [[Kyushu University]], at [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], where they were subjected to vivisection or killed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=''The Denver Post'', June 1, 1995, cited by Gary K. Reynolds, 2002, "U.S. Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens Captured and Interned by Japan in World War II: The Issue of Compensation by Japan" (Library of Congress) |url=http://www.house.gov/bordallo/gwcrc/RL30606.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111214144911/http://www.house.gov/bordallo/gwcrc/RL30606.pdf |archive-date=14 December 2011}}</ref><ref>Landas, Marc, ''The Fallen: A True Story of American POWs and Japanese Wartime Atrocities'', Hoboken John Wiley 2004 {{ISBN|0-471-42119-7}}</ref>
+The Japanese biological attacks against the Chinese only caused a small number of deaths and were relatively unsuccessful. The only attack with major deaths was the 1942 attack which infected Japanese soldiers with cholera leading to over 1,700 Japanese troops dying and 10,000 getting sick and the Japanese stopped doing biological attacks as a result.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mauroni |first=Albert J.   |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qrr5PdV8K70C&pg=PA139&dq=cholera+1942+1700+japanese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjGgdynvYKAAxU8cGwGHWK3BFgQ6AF6BAgDEAI   |title=Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Reference Handbook |date=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=1598840274 |edition=revised |series=Contemporary World Issues |page=139-140}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hatcher |first1=Paul E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FpQpedSpeWMC&pg=PT420&dq=However,+this+backfired,+and+there+were+up+to+10+000+Japanese+casualties.&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjk8N3shpmAAxUGKewKHcuPBAQQ6AF6BAgNEAI |title=Biological Diversity: Exploiters and Exploited |last2=Battey |first2=Nick |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=0470979860}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tóth |first=Tibor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NAzlBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19&dq=When+the+Japanese+army+advanced+again+into+contaminated+territory,+an+outbreak+of+intestinal+disease+caused+up+to+10,000&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjk8N3shpmAAxUGKewKHcuPBAQQ6AF6BAgJEAId |title=The Implementation of Legally Binding Measures to Strengthen the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention: Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, held in Budapest, Hungary, 2001 |date=2006 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=1402020988 |edition=illustrated |volume=150 of NATO Science Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry |page=19}}</ref> This attack took place at Jinhua in Zhejiang and the Japanese soldiers inadvertently advanced in the area they spread with biological weapons and got themselves infected.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Steiger |first1=Brad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cWZ2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT823&dq=cholera+1942+1700+japanese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjGgdynvYKAAxU8cGwGHWK3BFgQ6AF6BAgEEAI |title=Conspiracies and Secret Societies: The Complete Dossier of Hidden Plots and Schemes |last2=Steiger |first2=Sherry Hansen |last3=Hile |first3=Kevin |date=2022 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |isbn=1578598036 |edition=3 |page=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tanaka |first=Yuki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eWClDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT146&dq=cholera+1942+1700+japanese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjGgdynvYKAAxU8cGwGHWK3BFgQ6AF6BAgJEAI   |title=Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes In World War Ii |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0429720890 |edition=reprint |page=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Snodgrass |first=Mary Ellen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RCpADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA243&dq=cholera+1942+1700+japanese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjGgdynvYKAAxU8cGwGHWK3BFgQ6AF6BAgHEAI |title=World Epidemics: A Cultural Chronology of Disease from Prehistory to the Era of Zika, 2d ed. |date=2017 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=1476631069 |page=243}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Byrne |first=Joseph P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qwsVEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA229&dq=cholera+1942+1700+japanese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjGgdynvYKAAxU8cGwGHWK3BFgQ6AF6BAgCEAI |title=Epidemics and Pandemics: From Ancient Plagues to Modern-Day Threats [2 volumes] |last2=Hays |first2=Jo N. |date=2021 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=1440863792 |edition=illustrated |page=229}}</ref> A Japanese who was part of [[Unit Ei 1644]] in Nanjing was taken prisoner of war by the Chinese in December 1944 was interrogated by the US and he admitted that the Japanese suffered a major disaster in their 1942 biological weapons attack in Zhejiang, saying that he saw papers which said 1,700 killed at the [[Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department]] but admitted Japanese regularly downplayed their own casualties so the real death toll was higher. The Japanese suffered 10,000 infected almost immediately when they inadvertently sent their soldiers into the own biological weapons attack zone in Zhejiang. Shirō Ishii lied about the disaster in Zhejiang and tried to claim the attack worked.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tsuneishi |first= Kei-ichi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nOIzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA186&dq=cholera+1942+1700+japanese&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjGgdynvYKAAxU8cGwGHWK3BFgQ6AF6BAgFEAI |title=Beyond Victor's Justice? The Tokyo War Crimes Trial Revisited |date=2011 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9004215913 |editor1-last=Tanaka |editor1-first=Yuki |volume=30 of International Humanitarian Law Series |page=186 |chapter=13 Reasons for the Failure to Prosecute Unit 731 and its Significance |editor2-last=McCormack |editor2-first=Timothy L.H. |editor3-last=Simpson |editor3-first=Gerry}}</ref>
 On 11 March 1948, 30 people, including several doctors and one female nurse, were brought to trial by American military tribunal. Fukujiro Ishiyama, the doctor most responsible for the experimentation, killed himself before the trial started. Charges of cannibalism were dropped, but 23 people were found guilty of vivisection or wrongful removal of body parts. Five were sentenced to death, four to life imprisonment, and the rest to shorter terms. In 1950, the military governor of Japan, General [[Douglas MacArthur]], commuted all of the death sentences and significantly reduced most of the prison terms. All of those involved in relation to the university vivisection, with the exception of [[Isamu Yokoyama]], the general most responsible for allowing the experimentation to happen, walked free no later than 1958. Yokoyama died in prison in 1952. In 1980, an author found that one of the doctors who was supposed to be executed was still alive and practicing medicine.<ref>Landas p.255</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Tanabe |first=Kunio Francis |date=1980-10-12 |title=Facts and Fiction of a Japanese War Crime |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1980/10/12/facts-and-fiction-of-a-japanese-war-crime/f459239a-2511-4b61-83d2-aa0d3205c394/ |access-date=2023-06-19 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>
@@ Line 186: / Line 188: @@
 The [[Imperial House of Japan]] was responsible for the human experimentation programs, as members of the imperial family, including [[Prince Higashikuni Naruhiko]], [[Prince Chichibu]], [[Prince Mikasa]] and [[Prince Takeda Tsuneyoshi]], participated in the programs in various ways, which included authorizing, funding, supplying, and inspecting biomedical facilities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Sheldon |title=Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–45, and the American Cover-Up |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |isbn=978-0415932141}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Large |first=Stephen |title=Emperor Hirohito and Showa Japan, A Political Biography |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |isbn=9781-138009110 |pages=67–68, 134, 117–119, 144–145}}</ref>
+General Ishii Shirō's mistress recruited Japanese girls as prostitutes for the [[Recreation and Amusement Association]] where up to 70,000 Japanese girls were forced to serve US soldiers in brothels.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tanaka |first=Yuki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eWClDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT102&dq=one+of+these+brothels+was+managed+by+the+mistress+of+General+Ishii&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiSm5vs3oKAAxUiwTgGHapXCHQQ6AF6BAgOEAI |title=Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes In World War Ii |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0429720890 |edition=reprint |page=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tanaka |first=Toshiyuki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bPNmAAAAMAAJ&q=one+of+these+brothels+was+managed+by+the+mistress+of+General+Ishii&dq=one+of+these+brothels+was+managed+by+the+mistress+of+General+Ishii&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiSm5vs3oKAAxUiwTgGHapXCHQQ6AF6BAgHEAI   |title=Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes In World War Ii |date= |publisher=Avalon Publishing |isbn=0813327172 |edition=3, illustrated |series=Transitions: Asia and the Pacific |page=105}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tanaka |first1=Toshiyuki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I1zzAAAAMAAJ&q=one+of+these+brothels+was+managed+by+the+mistress+of+General+Ishii&dq=one+of+these+brothels+was+managed+by+the+mistress+of+General+Ishii&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiSm5vs3oKAAxUiwTgGHapXCHQQ6AF6BAgGEAI |title=Rape and War: The Japanese Experience |last2=Tanaka |first2=Yukiko |date=1995 |publisher=Japanese Studies Centre |isbn=0732606462 |volume=24 of Papers of the Japanese Studies Centre |page=43 |issn=0725-0177}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |url=https://books.google.com.sbooks?id=u0TbaPWrOO4C&pg=PT987&dq=one+of+these+brothels+was+managed+by+the+mistress+of+General+Ishii&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiSm5vs3oKAAxUiwTgGHapXCHQQ6AF6BAgJEAI |title=The Second World War |date=2012 |publisher=Hachette UK |isbn=0297860704 |page=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ac9KAQAAIAAJ&q=one+of+these+brothels+was+managed+by+the+mistress+of+General+Ishii&dq=one+of+these+brothels+was+managed+by+the+mistress+of+General+Ishii&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiSm5vs3oKAAxUiwTgGHapXCHQQ6AF6BAgCEAI |journal=Michigan State University-DCL journal of international law |volume=8 |issue=2-3 |page=467}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tanaka |first=Yuki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CCkzDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=one+of+these+brothels+was+managed+by+the+mistress+of+General+Ishii&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiSm5vs3oKAAxUiwTgGHapXCHQQ6AF6BAgIEAI |title=Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II |date=2017 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=1538102706 |edition=2, illustrated, reprint |page=117}}</ref>
+The US military forced Japanese members of Unit 731 to conduct experiments on Japanese people in Japan in 1952, with a Japanese girl dying after multiple Japanese babies were deliberately infected with colt bacteria at Nagoya City University Hospital by Jiro Ogawa. Japanese patients at a mental hospital were infected with scrub typhus in 1953-1956 with one of them killing himself to escape the torture and another 9 Japanese patients died of the typhus itself.<ref>{{cite news |last=McGILL |first=PETER |date=Aug 21, 1983 |title=Postwar Japan: "US Backed Japan's Germ Tests on Mentally Sick" |page=6 |location=London, Greater London, England |url=https://theguardian.newspapers.com/article/122763034/postwar-japan-us-backed-japans-germ/ |work=The Observer}}</ref>
 ===Use of chemical weapons===
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 After the defeat of Japan, some of the non-European victims received no compensation or apology<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Neill |first=Claire |date=June 4, 2011 |title=Comfort Women: Untold Stories of Wartime Abuse |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2011/06/04/134271795/comfort-women-untold-stories-of-wartime-abuse}}</ref> and the exploitation of them was ignored.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tanaka |first=Yuki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mV5dymPXNBgC&dq=%22Dutch+were+equally+indifferent+to+victims+who+were+not+white+and+Dutch%22&pg=PA78 |title=Japan's Comfort Women |date=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1134650124 |pages=78–82, 85, 86 |quote=As much as the Japanese were unconcerned about the exploitation of non-Europeans, the Dutch were equally indifferent to victims who were not white and Dutch. However, there were at least two exceptional cases brought by the Dutch ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://dokumen.pub/japans-comfort-women-asias-transformations-1nbsped-0415194008-9780415194006.html | title=Japan's Comfort Women (Asia's Transformations) |edition=1st |isbn=9780415194006 | last1=Tanaka | first1=Toshiyuki | year=2002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Stetz |first1=Margaret D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RW2mBgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Dutch+were+equally+indifferent+to+victims+who+were+not+white+and+Dutch%22&pg=PA61 |title=Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II |last2=Oh |first2=Bonnie B. C. |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317466253 |edition=illustrated |location= |pages=61–68 |quote=Japanese were unconcerned about the non-Europeans, so too the Dutch were equally indifferent to non-European victims who were not white and Dutch.}}</ref>
-In addition to the systematic use of comfort women, Japanese troops engaged in wholesale rape in China. [[John Rabe]], the leader of a Safety Zone in [[Nanjing]], [[China]], kept a diary during the [[Nanjing Massacre]], and wrote about the Japanese atrocities committed against the people in the Safety Zone.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Woods |first=John E. |title=The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe |year=1998 |page=77 |quote=Two Japanese soldiers have climbed over the garden wall and are about to break into our house. When I appear they give the excuse that they saw two Chinese soldiers climb over the wall. When I show them my party badge, they return the same way. In one of the houses in the narrow street behind my garden wall, a woman was raped, and then wounded in the neck with a bayonet. I managed to get an ambulance so we can take her to Kulou Hospital ... Last night up to 1,000 women and girls are said to have been raped, about 100 girls at [[Ginling College]]&nbsp;... alone. You hear nothing but rape. If husbands or brothers intervene, they're shot. What you hear and see on all sides is the brutality and bestiality of the Japanese soldiers.}}<!--ISSN/ISBN needed--></ref>
+The Japanese systematically used comfort women and committed non-comfort women related rape in multiple war zones, including at the [[Battle of Manila (1945)#Encirclement and massacres|Battle of Manila.]] [[John Rabe]], the leader of a Safety Zone in [[Nanjing]], [[China]], kept a diary during the [[Nanjing Massacre]], and wrote about the Japanese atrocities committed against the people in the Safety Zone.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Woods |first=John E. |title=The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe |year=1998 |page=77 |quote=Two Japanese soldiers have climbed over the garden wall and are about to break into our house. When I appear they give the excuse that they saw two Chinese soldiers climb over the wall. When I show them my party badge, they return the same way. In one of the houses in the narrow street behind my garden wall, a woman was raped, and then wounded in the neck with a bayonet. I managed to get an ambulance so we can take her to Kulou Hospital ... Last night up to 1,000 women and girls are said to have been raped, about 100 girls at [[Ginling College]]&nbsp;... alone. You hear nothing but rape. If husbands or brothers intervene, they're shot. What you hear and see on all sides is the brutality and bestiality of the Japanese soldiers.}}<!--ISSN/ISBN needed--></ref>
-===Looting===
+=== Looting and destruction of heritage ===
 Several scholars have claimed that the Japanese government, along with Japanese military personnel, engaged in widespread [[looting]] during the period of 1895 to 1945.<ref>Kenneth B. Lee, 1997, ''Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix'', Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group</ref><ref>Sterling & Peggy Seagrave, 2003, ''Gold warriors: America's secret recovery of Yamashita's gold'', London: Verso Books ({{ISBN|1-85984-542-8}})</ref> The stolen property included private land, as well as many different kinds of valuable goods looted from banks, depositories, [[Safe deposit box|vaults]], temples, churches, mosques, art galleries, commercial offices, libraries (including Buddhist monasteries), museums and other commercial premises, as well as private homes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Johnson |first=Chalmers |date=20 November 2003 |title=The Looting of Asia |pages=3–6 |work=London Review of Books |url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/v25/n22/chalmers-johnson/the-looting-of-asia |access-date=7 April 2019 |issn=0260-9592}}</ref>
@@ Line 323: / Line 329: @@
 In 1965, when Japan and South Korea negotiated a treaty to reestablish diplomatic relations the issue of returning the cultural artifacts was raised. However, the then South Korean dictator, [[Park Chung-hee]], preferred to receive cash compensation that would allow him to build highways and [[Steel mill|steelworks]]; works of art and cultural goods were not a priority. As a result, at the time the Koreans had to settle for the return of only 1,326 items, including 852 rare books and 438 ceramic pieces. The Japanese claim that this put an end to any Korean claim regarding reparation for cultural goods (or of any other nature).<ref name="Time"/><ref name="Glosserman">{{Cite web |last=Glosserman |first=Brad |date=4 December 2002 |title=Japan slams the door on stolen artwork |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2002/12/04/commentary/japan-slams-the-door-on-stolen-artwork/ |access-date=13 September 2020 |work=[[The Japan Times]]}}</ref> American journalist Brad Glosserman has stated that an increasing number of South Koreans are raising the issue of the [[repatriation]] of stolen cultural artifacts from Japan due to rising affluence among the general populace as well as increased national confidence.<ref name="Glosserman" />
+Hundreds of [[Utsul]] Muslim houses and mosques in Sanya, Hainan were destroyed by the Japanese in order to build an airport.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thurgood |first1=Graham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzDnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA20#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=A Grammatical Sketch of Hainan Cham: History, Contact, and Phonology |last2=Thurgood |first2=Ela |last3=Li |first3=Fengxiang |date=2014 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=1614516049 |edition=reprint |volume=643 of Pacific Linguistics [PL] |page=20}}</ref>
 ===Perfidy===