Strontium

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Strontium, 38Sr
Strontium
Pronunciation
Appearancesilvery white metallic; with a pale yellow tint[1]
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Sr)
Strontium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Ca
↑
Sr
↓
Ba
rubidium ← strontium → yttrium
kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization141 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity26.4 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 796 882 990 1139 1345 1646
Atomic properties
Discovery
William Cruickshank (1787)
First isolationHumphry Davy (1808)
Isotopes of strontium
Main isotopes[8] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
82Sr synth 25.36 d ε 82Rb
83Sr synth 1.35 d ε
83Rb
β+
 		83Rb
γ
 		–
84Sr 0.56%
stable
85Sr synth 64.84 d ε
85Rb
γ –
86Sr 9.86% stable
87Sr 7% stable
88Sr 82.6% stable
89Sr synth 50.52 d
β−
89Y
90Sr trace 28.90 y β− 90Y
 Category: Strontium
| references

Strontium is a

minerals celestine and strontianite
, and is mostly mined from these.

Both strontium and strontianite are named after Strontian, a village in Scotland near which the mineral was discovered in 1790 by Adair Crawford and William Cruickshank; it was identified as a new element the next year from its crimson-red flame test color. Strontium was first isolated as a metal in 1808 by Humphry Davy using the then newly discovered process of electrolysis. During the 19th century, strontium was mostly used in the production of sugar from sugar beets (see strontian process). At the peak of production of television cathode-ray tubes, as much as 75% of strontium consumption in the United States was used for the faceplate glass.[9] With the replacement of cathode-ray tubes with other display methods, consumption of strontium has dramatically declined.[9]

While natural strontium (which is mostly the isotope strontium-88) is stable, the synthetic strontium-90 is radioactive and is one of the most dangerous components of nuclear fallout, as strontium is absorbed by the body in a similar manner to calcium. Natural stable strontium, on the other hand, is not hazardous to health.

Characteristics

Oxidized dendritic strontium

Strontium is a

divalent silvery metal with a pale yellow tint whose properties are mostly intermediate between and similar to those of its group neighbors calcium and barium.[10] It is softer than calcium and harder than barium. Its melting (777 °C) and boiling (1377 °C) points are lower than those of calcium (842 °C and 1484 °C respectively); barium continues this downward trend in the melting point (727 °C), but not in the boiling point (1900 °C). The density of strontium (2.64 g/cm3) is similarly intermediate between those of calcium (1.54 g/cm3) and barium (3.594 g/cm3).[11] Three allotropes of metallic strontium exist, with transition points at 235 and 540 °C.[citation needed
]

The standard electrode potential for the Sr2+/Sr couple is −2.89 V, approximately midway between those of the Ca2+/Ca (−2.84 V) and Ba2+/Ba (−2.92 V) couples, and close to those of the neighboring alkali metals.[12] Strontium is intermediate between calcium and barium in its reactivity toward water, with which it reacts on contact to produce strontium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Strontium metal burns in air to produce both strontium oxide and strontium nitride, but since it does not react with nitrogen below 380 °C, at room temperature it forms only the oxide spontaneously.[11] Besides the simple oxide SrO, the peroxide SrO2 can be made by direct oxidation of strontium metal under a high pressure of oxygen, and there is some evidence for a yellow superoxide Sr(O2)2.[13] Strontium hydroxide, Sr(OH)2, is a strong base, though it is not as strong as the hydroxides of barium or the alkali metals.[14] All four dihalides of strontium are known.[15]

Due to the large size of the heavy

18-crown-6 forms relatively weak complexes with calcium and the alkali metals, its strontium and barium complexes are much stronger.[17]

Organostrontium compounds contain one or more strontium–carbon bonds. They have been reported as intermediates in

mercurocene or cyclopentadiene itself; replacing the C5H5 ligand with the bulkier C5(CH3)5 ligand on the other hand increases the compound's solubility, volatility, and kinetic stability.[21]

Because of its extreme reactivity with

flares.[11] Like calcium and barium, as well as the alkali metals and the divalent lanthanides europium and ytterbium, strontium metal dissolves directly in liquid ammonia to give a dark blue solution of solvated electrons.[10]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of strontium

Natural strontium is a mixture of four stable

1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident contaminated about 30,000 km2 with greater than 10 kBq/m2 with 90Sr, which accounts for about 5% of the 90Sr which was in the reactor core.[26]

History

Flame test for strontium

Strontium is named after the Scottish village of

Scottish Gaelic: Sròn an t-Sìthein), where it was discovered in the ores of the lead mines.[27]

In 1790,

mercuric oxide, and announced by him in a lecture to the Royal Society on 30 June 1808.[35] In keeping with the naming of the other alkaline earths, he changed the name to strontium.[36][37][38][39][40]

The first large-scale application of strontium was in the production of sugar from

Granada basin were known for some time the large scale mining did not start before the 1950s.[44]

During atmospheric nuclear weapons testing, it was observed that strontium-90 is one of the nuclear fission products with a relatively high yield. The similarity to calcium and the chance that the strontium-90 might become enriched in bones made research on the metabolism of strontium an important topic.[45][46]

Occurrence

The mineral celestine (SrSO4)
See also: Category:Strontium minerals

Strontium commonly occurs in nature, being the 16th most

parts per million in the Earth's crust[47] and is found chiefly as the sulfate mineral celestine (SrSO4) and the carbonate strontianite (SrCO3). Of the two, celestine occurs much more frequently in deposits of sufficient size for mining. Because strontium is used most often in the carbonate form, strontianite would be the more useful of the two common minerals, but few deposits have been discovered that are suitable for development.[48]
Because of the way it reacts with air and water, strontium only exists in nature when combined to form minerals. Naturally occurring strontium is stable, but its synthetic isotope Sr-90 is only produced by nuclear fallout.

In groundwater strontium behaves chemically much like calcium. At intermediate to acidic pH Sr2+ is the dominant strontium species. In the presence of calcium ions, strontium commonly forms coprecipitates with calcium minerals such as calcite and anhydrite at an increased pH. At intermediate to acidic pH, dissolved strontium is bound to soil particles by cation exchange.[49]

The mean strontium content of ocean water is 8 mg/L.[50][51] At a concentration between 82 and 90 μmol/L of strontium, the concentration is considerably lower than the calcium concentration, which is normally between 9.6 and 11.6 mmol/L.[52][53] It is nevertheless much higher than that of barium, 13 μg/L.[11]

Production

Grey and white world map with China colored green representing 50%, Spain colored blue-green representing 30%, Mexico colored light blue representing 20%, Argentina colored dark blue representing below 5% of strontium world production.
Strontium producers in 2014[54]

The three major producers of strontium as celestine as of 2015 are China (150,000 

t), Spain (90,000 t), and Mexico (70,000 t); Argentina (10,000 t) and Morocco (2,500 t) are smaller producers. Although strontium deposits occur widely in the United States, they have not been mined since 1959.[54]

A large proportion of mined celestine (SrSO4) is converted to the carbonate by two processes. Either the celestine is directly leached with sodium carbonate solution or the celestine is roasted with coal to form the sulfide. The second stage produces a dark-coloured material containing mostly

carbothermic reduction
:

SrSO4 + 2 C → SrS + 2 CO2

About 300,000 tons are processed in this way annually.[56]

The metal is produced commercially by reducing strontium oxide with aluminium. The strontium is distilled from the mixture.[56] Strontium metal can also be prepared on a small scale by electrolysis of a solution of strontium chloride in molten potassium chloride:[12]

Sr2+ + 2
e−
 → Sr
2 Cl− → Cl2 + 2
e−

Applications

Most of the world's production of strontium used to be consumed in the production of cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays. The glass contained strontium and barium oxide to block X-rays.

Consuming 75% of production, the primary use for strontium was in glass for colour television cathode-ray tubes,[56] where it prevented X-ray emission.[57][58] This application for strontium has been declining because CRTs are being replaced by other display methods. This decline has a significant influence on the mining and refining of strontium.[48] All parts of the CRT must absorb X-rays. In the neck and the funnel of the tube, lead glass is used for this purpose, but this type of glass shows a browning effect due to the interaction of the X-rays with the glass. Therefore, the front panel is made from a different glass mixture with strontium and barium to absorb the X-rays. The average values for the glass mixture determined for a recycling study in 2005 is 8.5% strontium oxide and 10% barium oxide.[59]

Because strontium is so similar to calcium, it is incorporated in the bone. All four stable isotopes are incorporated, in roughly the same proportions they are found in nature. However, the actual distribution of the isotopes tends to vary greatly from one geographical location to another. Thus, analyzing the bone of an individual can help determine the region it came from.[60][61] This approach helps to identify the ancient migration patterns and the origin of commingled human remains in battlefield burial sites.[62]

87Sr/86Sr ratios are commonly used to determine the likely provenance areas of sediment in natural systems, especially in

Late Quaternary.[64]

More recently, 87Sr/86Sr ratios have also been used to determine the source of ancient archaeological materials such as timbers and corn in

Chaco Canyon, New Mexico.[65][66] 87Sr/86Sr ratios in teeth may also be used to track animal migrations.[67][68]

Strontium aluminate is frequently used in glow in the dark toys, as it is chemically and biologically inert.[69]

red fireworks
Strontium salts are added to fireworks in order to create red colors.

cations in the flame test. Fireworks consume about 5% of the world's production.[56] Strontium carbonate is used in the manufacturing of hard ferrite magnets.[71][72]

Strontium chloride is sometimes used in toothpastes for sensitive teeth. One popular brand includes 10% total strontium chloride hexahydrate by weight.[73] Small amounts are used in the refining of zinc to remove small amounts of lead impurities.[11] The metal itself has a limited use as a getter, to remove unwanted gases in vacuums by reacting with them, although barium may also be used for this purpose.[12]

The ultra-narrow optical transition between the [Kr]5s2 1S0 electronic ground state and the metastable [Kr]5s5p 3P0 excited state of 87Sr is one of the leading candidates for the future re-definition of the second in terms of an optical transition as opposed to the current definition derived from a microwave transition between different hyperfine ground states of 133Cs.[74] Current optical atomic clocks operating on this transition already surpass the precision and accuracy of the current definition of the second.[75]

Radioactive strontium

osteogenesis. This localization focuses the radiation exposure on the cancerous lesion.[24]

RTGs from Soviet-era lighthouses

nuclear waste. The latter must be prepared by irradiating 237Np with neutrons then separating the modest amounts of 238Pu. The principal disadvantage of 90Sr is the high energy beta particles produce Bremstrahlung as they encounter nuclei of other nearby heavy atoms such as adjacent strontium. This is mostly in the range of X-rays. Thus strong beta emitters also emit significant secondary X-rays in most cases. This requires significant shielding measures which complicates the design of RTGs using 90Sr. The Soviet Union deployed nearly 1000 of these RTGs on its northern coast as a power source for lighthouses and meteorology stations.[78][79]

Biological role

Strontium
Hazards
GHS labelling:
GHS02: FlammableGHS07: Exclamation mark
Danger
H261, H315
P223, P231+P232, P370+P378, P422[80]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 2: Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury. E.g. chloroformFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 2: Undergoes violent chemical change at elevated temperatures and pressures, reacts violently with water, or may form explosive mixtures with water. E.g. white phosphorusSpecial hazard W: Reacts with water in an unusual or dangerous manner. E.g. sodium, sulfuric acid
2
0
2
W

Acantharea, a relatively large group of marine radiolarian protozoa, produce intricate mineral skeletons composed of strontium sulfate.[81] In biological systems, calcium is substituted to a small extent by strontium.[82] In the human body, most of the absorbed strontium is deposited in the bones. The ratio of strontium to calcium in human bones is between 1:1000 and 1:2000, roughly in the same range as in the blood serum.[83]

Effect on the human body

The human body absorbs strontium as if it were its lighter congener calcium. Because the elements are chemically very similar, stable strontium isotopes do not pose a significant health threat. The average human has an intake of about two milligrams of strontium a day.[84] In adults, strontium consumed tends to attach only to the surface of bones, but in children, strontium can replace calcium in the mineral of the growing bones and thus lead to bone growth problems.[85]

The

bone metabolism.[93]

The drug strontium ranelate aids bone growth, increases bone density, and lessens the incidence of vertebral, peripheral, and hip fractures.[94][95] However, strontium ranelate also increases the risk of venous thromboembolism, pulmonary embolism, and serious cardiovascular disorders, including myocardial infarction. Its use is therefore now restricted.[96] Its beneficial effects are also questionable, since the increased bone density is partially caused by the increased density of strontium over the calcium which it replaces. Strontium also bioaccumulates in the body.[97] Despite restrictions on strontium ranelate, strontium is still contained in some supplements.[98][99] There is not much scientific evidence on risks of strontium chloride when taken by mouth. Those with a personal or family history of blood clotting disorders are advised to avoid strontium.[98][99]

Strontium has been shown to inhibit sensory irritation when applied topically to the skin.[100][101] Topically applied, strontium has been shown to accelerate the recovery rate of the epidermal permeability barrier (skin barrier).[102]

Nuclear waste

Main article: Strontium-90

Strontium-90 is a

bone cancer[103] and primary hyperparathyroidism.[104]

Remediation

Algae has shown selectivity for strontium in studies, where most plants used in bioremediation have not shown selectivity between calcium and strontium, often becoming saturated with calcium, which is greater in quantity and also present in nuclear waste.[103]

Researchers have looked at the bioaccumulation of strontium by Scenedesmus spinosus (algae) in simulated wastewater. The study claims a highly selective biosorption capacity for strontium of S. spinosus, suggesting that it may be appropriate for use in treating nuclear wastewater.[105]

A study of the pond alga Closterium moniliferum using non-radioactive strontium found that varying the ratio of barium to strontium in water improved strontium selectivity.[103]

See also

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Bibliography

External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strontium&oldid=1218851791"