Theistic evolution
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Theistic evolution (also known as theistic evolutionism or God-guided evolution) is a view that God acts and creates through laws of nature. It posits that the concept of God is compatible with the findings of modern science, including evolution. Theistic evolution is not in itself a scientific theory, but includes a range of views about how science relates to religious beliefs and the extent to which God intervenes. It rejects the strict creationist doctrines of special creation, but can include beliefs such as creation of the human soul. Modern theistic evolution accepts the general scientific consensus on the age of the Earth, the age of the universe, the Big Bang, the origin of the Solar System, the origin of life, and evolution.[1]
Supporters of theistic evolution generally attempt to harmonize evolutionary thought with belief in God and reject the conflict between religion and science; they hold that religious beliefs and scientific theories do not need to contradict each other.[2][3] Diversity exists regarding how the two concepts of faith and science fit together.[4]
Definition
Francis Collins describes theistic evolution as the position that "evolution is real, but that it was set in motion by God",[5] and characterizes it as accepting "that evolution occurred as biologists describe it, but under the direction of God".[6] He lists six general premises on which different versions of theistic evolution typically rest. They include:[7]
- The prevailing cosmological model, with the universe coming into being about 13.8 billion years ago;
- The fine-tuned universe;
- Evolution and natural selection;
- No special supernatural intervention is involved once evolution got under way;
- Humans are a result of these evolutionary processes; and
- Despite all these, humans are unique. The concern for the Moral Law (the knowledge of right and wrong) and the continuous search for God among all human cultures defy evolutionary explanations and point to our spiritual nature.
The executive director of the National Center for Science Education in the United States of America, Eugenie Scott, has used the term to refer to the part of the overall spectrum of beliefs about creation and evolution holding the theological view that God creates through evolution. It covers a wide range of beliefs about the extent of any intervention by God, with some approaching deism in rejecting the concepts of continued intervention or special creation, while others believe that God has directly intervened at crucial points such as the origin of humans. In the Catholic version of theistic evolution, human evolution may have occurred, but God must create the human soul,[1] and the creation story in the book of Genesis should be read metaphorically.[8][9][10]
When evolutionary science developed, so did different types of theistic evolution. Creationists Henry M. Morris and John D. Morris have listed different terms which were used to describe different positions from the 1890s to the 1920s: "Orthogenesis" (goal-directed evolution), "nomogenesis" (evolution according to fixed law), "emergent evolution", "creative evolution", and others.[11]
The Jesuit paleontologist
Alternative terms
Others see "evolutionary creation"[12] (EC, also referred to by some observers as "evolutionary creationism") as the belief that God, as Creator, uses evolution to bring about his plan. Eugenie Scott states in Evolution Vs. Creationism that it is a type of evolution rather than creationism, despite its name. "From a scientific point of view, evolutionary creationism is hardly distinguishable from Theistic Evolution ... [the differences] lie not in science but in theology.[13] Those who hold to evolutionary creationism argue that God is involved to a greater extent than the theistic evolutionist believes.[14]
Canadian biologist Denis Lamoureux published a 2003 article and a 2008 theological book, both aimed at Christians who do not believe in evolution (including young Earth creationists), and at those looking to reconcile their Christian faith with evolutionary science. His main argument was that Genesis presents the "science and history of the day" as "incidental vessels" to convey spiritual truths. Lamoureux rewrote his article as a 2009 journal paper, incorporating excerpts from his books, in which he noted the similarities of his views to theistic evolution, but objected to that term as making evolution the focus rather than creation. He also distanced his beliefs from the deistic or more liberal beliefs included in theistic evolution. He also argued that although referring to the same view, the word arrangement in the term "theistic evolution" places "the process of evolution as the primary term, and makes the Creator secondary as merely a qualifying adjective".[15]
Divine intervention is seen at critical intervals in history in a way consistent with scientific explanations of speciation, with similarities to the ideas of progressive creationism that God created "kinds" of animals sequentially.[1][16]
Regarding the embracing of Darwinian evolution, historian Ronald Numbers describes the position of the late 19th-century geologist George Frederick Wright as "Christian Darwinism".[17]
Jacob Klapwijk[18] and Howard J. Van Till[19] have, while accepting both theistic creation and evolution, rejected the term "theistic evolution".
In 2006, American
Historical development
Historians of science (and authors of pre-evolutionary ideas) have pointed out that scientists had considered the concept of biological change well before Darwin.
In the 17th century, the English
18th-century scientist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) published Systema Naturae (1735), a book in which he considered that new varieties of plants could arise through hybridization, but only under certain limits fixed by God. Linnaeus had initially embraced the Aristotelian idea of immutability of species (the idea that species never change), but later in his life he started to challenge it. Yet, as a Christian, he still defended "special creation", the belief that God created "every living creature" at the beginning, as read in Genesis, with the peculiarity a set of original species of which all the present species have descended.[22]
Linnaeus wrote:
Let us suppose that the Divine Being in the beginning progressed from the simpler to the complex; from few to many; similarly that He in the beginning of the plant kingdom created as many plants as there were natural orders. These plant orders He Himself, there from producing, mixed among themselves until from them originated those plants which today exist as genera. Nature then mixed up these plant genera among themselves through generations -of double origin (hybrids) and multiplied them into existing species, as many as possible (whereby the flower structures were not changed) excluding from the number of species the almost sterile hybrids, which are produced by the same mode of origin.
— Systema Vegetabilium (1774)[23]
Linnaeus attributed the active process of biological change to God himself, as he stated:
We imagine that the Creator at the actual time of creation made only one single species for each natural order of plants, this species being different in habit and fructification from all the rest. That he made these mutually fertile, whence out of their progeny, fructification having been somewhat changed, Genera of natural classes have arisen as many in number as the different parents, and since this is not carried further, we regard this also as having been done by His Omnipotent hand directly in the beginning; thus all Genera were primeval and constituted a single Species. That as many Genera having arisen as there were individuals in the beginning, these plants in course of time became fertilised by others of different sort and thus arose Species until so many were produced as now exist ... these Species were sometimes fertilised out of congeners, that is other Species of the same Genus, whence have arisen Varieties.
— From his Fundamenta fructificationis (1742)[24]
Jens Christian Clausen (1967), refers to Linnaeus' theory as a "forgotten evolutionary theory [that] antedates Darwin's by nearly 100 years", and reports that he was a pioneer in doing experiments about hybridization.[26]
Later observations by Protestant botanists
The comparative anatomist Richard Owen (1804–1892), a prominent figure in the Victorian era scientific establishment, opposed transmutation throughout his life. When formulating homology he adapted idealist philosophy to reconcile natural theology with development, unifying nature as divergence from an underlying form in a process demonstrating design. His conclusion to his On the Nature of Limbs of 1849 suggested that divine laws could have controlled the development of life, but he did not expand this idea after objections from his conservative patrons. Others supported the idea of development by law, including the botanist Hewett Watson (1804–1881) and the Reverend Baden Powell (1796–1860), who wrote in 1855 that such laws better illustrated the powers of the Creator.[35] In 1858 Owen in his speech as President of the British Association said that in "continuous operation of Creative power" through geological time, new species of animals appeared in a "successive and continuous fashion" through birth from their antecedents by a Creative law rather than through slow transmutation.[36]
On the Origin of Species
When
Darwin himself, in his second edition of the Origin (January 1860), had written in the conclusion:
I believe that animals have descended from at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from an equal or lesser number. Analogy would lead me one step further, namely, to the belief that all animals and plants have descended from some one prototype. But analogy may be a deceitful guide. Nevertheless all living things have much in common, in their chemical composition, their germinal vesicles, their cellular structure, and their laws of growth and reproduction. We see this even in so trifling a circumstance as that the same poison often similarly affects plants and animals; or that the poison secreted by the gall-fly produces monstrous growths on the wild rose or oak-tree. I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed by the Creator.
— Chapter XIV: "Conclusions", page 428.[38]
Within a decade most scientists had started espousing evolution, but from the outset some expressed opposition to the concept of natural selection and searched for a more purposeful mechanism. In 1860 Richard Owen attacked Darwin's Origin of Species in an anonymous review while praising "Professor Owen" for "the establishment of the axiom of the continuous operation of the ordained becoming of living things".[39] In December 1859 Darwin had been disappointed to hear that Sir John Herschel apparently dismissed the book as "the law of higgledy-pigglety",[40] and in 1861 Herschel wrote of evolution that "[a]n intelligence, guided by a purpose, must be continually in action to bias the direction of the steps of change–to regulate their amount–to limit their divergence–and to continue them in a definite course". He added "On the other hand, we do not mean to deny that such intelligence may act according to law (that is to say, on a preconceived and definite plan)".[41] The scientist Sir David Brewster (1781–1868), a member of the Free Church of Scotland, wrote an article called "The Facts and Fancies of Mr. Darwin" (1862) in which he rejected many Darwinian ideas, such as those concerning vestigial organs or questioning God's perfection in his work. Brewster concluded that Darwin's book contained both "much valuable knowledge and much wild speculation", although accepting that "every part of the human frame had been fashioned by the Divine hand and exhibited the most marvellous and beneficent adaptions for the use of men".[42]
In the 1860s theistic evolutionism became a popular compromise in science and gained widespread support from the general public. Between 1866 and 1868 Owen published a theory of derivation, proposing that species had an innate tendency to change in ways that resulted in variety and beauty showing creative purpose. Both Owen and Mivart (1827–1900) insisted that natural selection could not explain patterns and variation, which they saw as resulting from divine purpose. In 1867 the Duke of Argyll published The Reign of Law, which explained beauty in plumage without any adaptive benefit as design generated by the Creator's laws of nature for the delight of humans. Argyll attempted to reconcile evolution with design by suggesting that the laws of variation prepared rudimentary organs for a future need.[43]
Cardinal John Henry Newman wrote in 1868: "Mr Darwin's theory need not then to be atheistical, be it true or not; it may simply be suggesting a larger idea of Divine Prescience and Skill ... and I do not [see] that 'the accidental evolution of organic beings' is inconsistent with divine design — It is accidental to us, not to God."[44]
In 1871 Darwin published his own research on human ancestry in
Acceptance
According to
Theistic evolutionism has been described as arguing for compatibility between science and religion, and as such it is viewed with disdain both by some atheists and many young Earth creationists.[49]
Hominization
Scientific accounts of the
Several 19th-century theologians and evolutionists attempted specific solutions, including the Catholics John Augustine Zahm and St. George Jackson Mivart, but tended to come under attack from both the theological and biological camps.[54] and 20th-century thinking tended to avoid proposing precise mechanisms.[55]
Relationship to other positions
19th-century 'theistic evolution'
The American botanist
Non-theistic evolution
The major criticism of theistic evolution by non-theistic evolutionists focuses on its essential belief in a supernatural creator. Physicist Lawrence Krauss considers that, by the application of Occam's razor, sufficient explanation of the phenomena of evolution is provided by natural processes (in particular, natural selection), and the intervention or direction of a supernatural entity is not required.[59] Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins considers theistic evolution a "superfluous attempt" to "smuggle God in by the back door".[60]
Intelligent design
A number of notable proponents of theistic evolution, including
Young Earth creationism
See also
Notes
References
- ^ a b c "The Creation/Evolution Continuum". National Center for Science Education. 22 June 2022. Archived from the original on 26 January 2024. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ Numbers 2006, pp. 34–38.
- ^ Evolution Vs. Creationism, Eugenie Scott, Niles Eldredge, p. 62–63
- ^ Jim Stump (13 March 2019). "Defining the Relationship between Evolution and Divine Intervention". Sapientia. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
- PMID 16837980.
- ^ Stipe, Claude E., "Scientific Creationism and Evangelical Christianity", American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 87, No. 1 (Mar., 1985), p. 149, Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association, JSTOR
- ISBN 9781416542742.
- ^ Pope John Paul II, 3 October 1981 to the Pontifical Academy of Science, "Cosmology and Fundamental Physics"
- ^ "An Open Letter Concerning Religion and Science". University of Wisconsin Oshkosh. Archived from the original on 12 March 2005.
- ISBN 978-0-9787186-1-9.
- ^ The Modern Creation Trilogy (1998), New Leaf Publishing Group, p. 36
- S2CID 17953449– via ualberta.ca.
- ISBN 978-0-520-26187-7. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
- ^ Eugenie Scott (13 February 2018). "The Creation/Evolution Continuum". NCSE. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
- ^ Denis O. Lamoureux (2003). "Evolutionary Creation: A Christian Approach to Evolution" (PDF). University of Alberta. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
The most important word in the term evolutionary creation is the noun "creation". These Christian evolutionists are first and foremost thoroughly committed and unapologetic creationists. They believe that the world is a creation that is absolutely dependent for every instant of its existence on the will and grace of the Creator. The qualifying word in this category is the adjective "evolutionary", indicating simply the method through which the Lord made the cosmos and living organisms. This view of origins is often referred to as "theistic evolution". However, such a word arrangement places the process of evolution as the primary term, and makes the Creator secondary as merely a qualifying adjective.
- ^ see also Scott (1997), p. 271 for another definition
- ^ Compare: Numbers 1993, p. 36
- .
The theory of evolution only makes sense in the light of creation, for creation is a force that drives all of temporal history [...]The short summary [of 'theistic evolution'] often is: God creates through evolution.[...]Thus I see "Creation through evolution" as a groundless statement. First of all, it contradicts the Biblical witness in Genesis of a completed creation.
- Ronald L. Numbers. Darwinism comes to America. Harvard University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-674-19312-1 pp.12,57,163
- ^ "What is Evolutionary Creation?". BioLogos. Retrieved 2024-04-22.
- ^ On the Origins of New Forms of Life, A new Theory, by Eugene M. McCarthy.
- ISBN 9781606084908.
In his Disquisitio de Sexu Plantarum (1756), Linnaeus had argued that the genera were the original units of creation and that the species within them had originated by subsequent hybridization. In 1766, he dropped his famous maxim about the permanance of species from the final edition of the Systema Naturae. Glass (1959b, p. 151) summarizes his mature views this way: 'In the end he believed in the evolution of the smaller systematic categories, of the species as he knew species, and maybe of the genera. But the original Creation was still that of a multitude of forms, distinct then and forever.'
- ^ Alistair Cameron Crombie, Michael A. Hoskin (1988), "History of Science" Science History Publications. p. 43
- ^ As quoted from Ramsbottom, (1938); in David Briggs (1997), "Plant Variation and Evolution", p. 16
- ^ "Rocky Road: Thomas Hawkins". www.strangescience.net. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
- ^ Jens Christian Clausen (1967), "Stages in the Evolution of Plant Species", Harper, p. 5
- ^ "Do Species Change?". Answers in Genesis.
- ^ a b Pablo Lorenzano. "An Analysis of the Work of Joseph Gottlieb Kölreuter and its Relation to Gregor Mendel's Work" (PDF). Plorenzano.files.wordpress.com. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
- ^ Hallam, A. (1998). "Lyell's views on organic progression, evolution and extinction" (PDF). In Blundell, D. J.; Scott, A. C. (eds.). Lyell: the Past is the Key to the Present. Special Publications. Vol. 143. London: Geological Society. pp. 133–136.
- ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 108–109, 113–118, 133–134.
- ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 120–134.
- ^ Larson 2004, pp. 42–46.
- S2CID 202574857.
- ^ Bowler 1992, pp. 47–49.
- ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 125–126, 139.
- ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 428–429.
- ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 203–205.
- ^
Compare:
Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Landmarks of science (5 ed.). New York: D. Appleton and Company (published 1860). pp. 431–432. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
Page 420, fifteen lines from top, after 'deceitful guide,' [...] omit whole remainder of paragraph, and insert, instead, as follows: Nevertheless, all living things have much in common; in their chemical composition, their germinal vesicles, their cellular structure, and their laws of growth and reproduction. We see this even in so trifling a circumstance as that the same poison often similarly affects plants and animals; or that the poison secreted by the gall-fly produces monstrous growths on the wild rose or oak-tree. [...] Therefore I should infer that probably all organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed by the Creator.
- ^ Owen, Richard. 1860. Review of Origin & other works. Edinburgh Review 111: 487–532, p. 500.
- ^ Letter from Charles Darwin to Charles Lyell [10 December 1859],Darwin Correspondence Project, Letter no. 2575", accessed on 10 February 2019,
- ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 186, 204.
- ^ Good Words (1862), Volume 3. p. 170.
- ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 204–207.
- ^ Newman, John Henry (22 May 1868). "John Henry Newman to J. Walker of Scarborough on Darwin's Theory of Evolution". In Dessain, C.S.; Gornall, T. (eds.). The Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman. Vol. XXIV. Oxford: Clarendon Press (published 1973). pp. 77–78.
- ^ Darwin (1871), The Descent of Man, p. 389
- ^ Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man. 1 vol. 1st edition, Feb. 1863 (John Murray, London)
- ^ "Wrestling with doubt – Christian History Magazine". Christian History Institute.
- S2CID 152990938.
- S2CID 170207377.
- , The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–07. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
- ^ Including the Catholic Church, see Rahner, section "Hominization" by Karl Rahner in entry on "Evolution", 484–485; Scott (1997), pp. 271–272. Note that "special creation of man" in Catholic references is a far more restricted concept than "special creation" (q.v.) in typical Creationist usage.
- ^ Rahner 1975, pp. 484–488.
- ^ Artigas, Glick & Martínez 2006, pp. 19, 23, 24, 35, etc..
- ^ The six leading examples are the subject of Artigas's book. Each of these has a chapter in Artigas: Léroy, Zahm, Bonomelli, Mivart, the English Bishop John Hedley, and Raffaello Caverni. All are also covered by Brundell.
- ^
Compare: ISBN 9780802863591. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Meanwhile, theology had withdrawn from asserting the direct creation of the whole world by God: first to the direct creation of the human body (not from the animal world); then to that of the human soul (in contrast to the human body). Finally – it seems today – a direct intervention in the development of the world and human beings is dispensed with altogether. The English philosopher Antony Flew was unfortunately right when he stated that through this constantly repeated strategy of protection and withdrawal with which we are familiar (and which for long decades kept young Catholics especially from the study of biology 'which endangers the faith'), the hypothesis of God was being 'killed by inches, the death of a thousand qualifications.' [...] Is such an attitude credible belief in God? It isn't surprising that it is increasingly being put in question.
- ^ a b c Larson 2004, pp. 125–128
- .
- ^ Campbell, George (1867). The Reign of Law. Strahan.
- ISBN 978-1-4516-2445-8p.146 f.
- ISBN 9780582446946.
- ISBN 978-0890515099
- ^ The Serious Consequences of Theistic Evolution (excerpted from The Occult Invasion by Dave Hunt)
- ISBN 978-0890514832
Sources
- ISBN 9780801883897.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-4391-4.
- ISBN 978-0-520-23693-6.
- Brundell, Barry, "Catholic Church Politics and Evolution Theory, 1894-1902", The British Journal for the History of Science, Vol. 34, No. 1 (Mar., 2001), pp. 81–95, Cambridge University Press on behalf of The British Society for the History of Science, JSTOR
- Desmond, Adrian J.; Moore, James Richard (1991) [1969]. Darwin. Michael Joseph.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-0763-2. ]
- ISBN 978-0-679-64288-6.
- ISBN 9780520083936.
- ISBN 978-0-674-02339-0.
- ISBN 978-0-8601-2006-3.
- JSTOR 2952523.
Further reading
Contemporary approaches
- ISBN 0-7432-8639-1
- ISBN 0-452-29534-3
- ISBN 0-8308-2742-0
- ISBN 0-06-093049-7
- ISBN 0-8028-0512-4
- Corrado Ghinamo; (2013) The Beautiful Scientist: a Spiritual Approach to Science ISBN 978-1621474623
Accounts of the history
- Appleby, R. Scott. Between Americanism and Modernism; John Zahm and Theistic Evolution, in Critical Issues in American Religious History: A Reader, Ed. by Robert R. Mathisen, 2nd revised edn., Baylor University Press, 2006,
- Harrison, Brian W., Early Vatican Responses to Evolutionist Theology, Living Tradition, Organ of the Roman Theological Forum, May 2001.
- Morrison, John L., "William Seton: A Catholic Darwinist", The Review of Politics, Vol. 21, No. 3 (Jul., 1959), pp. 566–584, Cambridge University Press for the University of Notre Dame du lac, JSTOR
- O'Leary, John. Roman Catholicism and modern science: a history, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006,
External links
- Evolutionary Creation: A Christian Approach to Evolution by St. Joseph's College, Edmonton)
- About: Agnosticism/Atheism on 'Theistic Evolution & Evolutionary Creationism' by Austin Cline; overview of various viewpoints
- Creationism: What's a Catholic to Do? by Michael D. Guinan, O.F.M.; critical assessment of creationism and intelligent design from a Roman Catholic perspective.
- What is Creationism? by Mark Isaak, presents various forms of creationism
- What is Evolution? by Laurence Moran, presents a standard definition for evolution
- Old Earth Ministries Old Earth Creationism, with section on theistic evolution
- Evolution & Creation: A Theosophic Synthesis Surveys critical problems in Darwinist explanations and common theistic views; explores ancient and modern "excluded middle" alternatives
- The Vatican's View of Evolution: The Story of Two Popes by Doug Linder (2004)
- Nobel Prize winner Charles Townes on evolution and "intelligent design"
- Spectrum of Creation Beliefs From Flat Earthism to Atheistic Evolutionism, including Theistic Evolution
- Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).
Proponents of theistic evolution
Organizations
- God and Evolution at the TalkOrigins Archive
- BioLogos
- Perspectives on Theistic Evolution An examination of both the theological and scientific aspects of theistic evolution.
- The "Clergy Letter" Project signed by thousands of clergy supporting evolution and faith