User:Kharbaan Ghaltaan/sandbox2

Saddam Hussein
President of Iraq
In office 1979–2003
Preceded by	Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Succeeded by	Jalal Talabani
Vice President
Deputy	Tariq Aziz

Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006), known as Saddam Hussein, was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who served as the

Saddam was born in the village of Al-Awja, near Tikrit in northern Iraq, to a peasant Sunni Arab family. He joined the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 1957, and the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party, and its regional organization, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party. He played a key role in the 17 July Revolution and was appointed vice president by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. During his time as vice president, Saddam nationalized the Iraq Petroleum Company, diversifying the Iraqi economy. He presided over the 2nd Iraqi–Kurdish War (1974–1975). Following al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, Saddam formally took power, although he had already been the de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up only a fifth of the population. Upon taking office, Saddam instituted the Ba'ath Party Purge. Saddam ordered the 1980 invasion of Iran in a purported effort to capture Iran's Arab-majority Khuzistan province and thwart Iranian attempts to export their own 1979 revolution. The Iran–Iraq War ended after nearly eight years in a ceasefire after a gruelling stalemate that cost somewhere aroIraq's prime ministerund a million lives and economic losses of $561 billion in Iraq.

Later, Saddam accused its ally

Saddam Hussein was born in al-Awja, a small village near Tikrit to Hussein Abd Al-Majid and Subha Tulfah Al-Mussallat. They both were from the Albu Nasir tribe, a tribe that had descended from Ahmed Bin Hussein 'Nasiruddin' who was a descendant of Imam Hussein Bin Ali. The Albu Nasir tribe had settled in Tikrit after migrating from Yemen.^[1][2] Saddam's brother and father both died of cancer before his birth. These deaths made Saddam's mother, Subha Tulfah al-Mussallat, so depressed that she unsuccessfully attempted to abort her pregnancy and commit suicide. His mother was saved by a neighboring Jewish family.^[3] Subha "would have nothing to do with him," and Saddam would eventually be taken in by an uncle.^[4]

His mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return, and (according to a psychological profile created by the

Saddam dropped at the age of 20 and joined Ba'ath Party. During this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher.^[9] Ba'athist ideology originated in Syria and the Ba'ath Party had a large following in Syria at the time, but in 1955 there were fewer than 300 Ba'ath Party members in Iraq and it is believed that Saddam's primary reason for joining the party as opposed to the more established Iraqi nationalist parties was his familial connection to Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and other leading Ba'athists through his uncle.^[7]

Revolutionary sentiment was characteristic of the era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East. In Iraq progressives and socialists assailed traditional political elites (colonial-era bureaucrats and landowners, wealthy merchants and tribal chiefs, and monarchists).^[10] Moreover, the pan-Arab nationalism of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt profoundly influenced young Ba'athists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout the Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of Iraq, Egypt, and Libya.

Nasser inspired nationalists throughout the Middle East by fighting the

Army officers with ties to the Ba'ath Party overthrew Qasim in the Ramadan Revolution coup of February 1963; long suspected to be supported by the CIA,^[30][31] however pertinent contemporary documents relating to the CIA's operations in Iraq have remained classified by the U.S. government,^[32][33] although the Ba'athists are documented to have maintained supportive relationships with U.S. officials before, during, and after the coup.^[34][35] Ba'athist leaders were appointed to the cabinet and Abdul Salam Arif became president. Arif dismissed and arrested the Ba'athist leaders later that year in the November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état. Being exiled in Egypt at the time, Saddam played no role in the 1963 coup or the brutal anti-communist purge that followed; although he returned to Iraq after the coup, becoming a key organizer within the Ba'ath Party's civilian wing upon his return.^[36]

Unlike during the Qasim years, Saddam remained in Iraq following Arif's anti-Ba'athist purge in November 1963, and became involved in planning to assassinate Arif. In marked contrast to Qasim, Saddam knew that he faced no death penalty from Arif's government and knowingly accepted the risk of being arrested rather than fleeing to Syria again. Saddam was arrested in October 1964 and served approximately two years in prison before escaping in 1966.^[37] In 1966, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr appointed him Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command. Saddam, who would prove to be a skilled organizer, revitalized the party.^[38] He was elected to the Regional Command, as the story goes, with help from Michel Aflaq—the founder of Ba'athist thought.^[39] In September 1966, Saddam initiated an extraordinary challenge to Syrian domination of the Ba'ath Party in response to the Marxist takeover of the Syrian Ba'ath earlier that year, resulting in the Party's formalized split into two separate factions.^[40] Saddam then created a Ba'athist security service, which he alone controlled.^[41]

Overthrew of Arif

In July 1968, Saddam participated in a

Vice Presidency: 1968—1979

Economic boom

Within just a few years, Iraq was providing social services that were unprecedented among

With the help of increasing oil revenues, Saddam diversified the largely oil-based Iraqi economy.^[50] Saddam implemented a national infrastructure campaign that made great progress in building roads, promoting mining, and developing other industries.^[51] The campaign helped Iraq's energy industries.^[52] Electricity was brought to nearly every city in Iraq, and many outlying areas.^[53] Before the 1970s, most of Iraq's people lived in the countryside and roughly two-thirds were peasants.^[54] This number would decrease quickly during the 1970s as global oil prices helped revenues to rise from less than a half billion dollars to tens of billions of dollars and the country invested into industrial expansion.^[54] He nationalised independent banks, eventually leaving the banking system insolvent due to inflation and bad loans.^[54]

Saddam focused on fostering loyalty to the Ba'athists in the rural areas.^[54] After nationalizing foreign oil interests, Saddam supervised the modernization of the countryside, mechanizing agriculture on a large scale, and distributing land to peasant farmers.^[54] The Ba'athists established farm cooperatives and the government also doubled expenditures for agricultural development in 1974–1975.^[54] Saddam's welfare programs were part of a combination of "carrot and stick" tactics to enhance support for Saddam.^[54] The state-owned banks were put under his thumb.^[54] Lending was based on cronyism.^[54]

Foreign relations

In 1972, Saddam signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union. According to historian Charles R. H. Tripp, the treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States." In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians.

Peace treaty with Iran

A peace treaty, which aimed to address the Shatt al-Arab dispute, was signed in 1975. Under the accord, Iraq was granted sovereignty over the eastern bank of the waterway, while Iran retained control over the western bank. The agreement also allowed for joint navigation and other provisions. The 1975 Algiers Agreement, also known as the Algiers Accord, was a significant diplomatic agreement signed between Iran and Iraq on March 6, 1975, to settle border disputes and improve bilateral relations. The agreement was mediated by the then-President of Algeria,

The Algiers Agreement was based on the principles of territorial integrity, respect for sovereignty, non-interference in internal affairs, and the peaceful resolution of disputes. The agreement established a new border line along the Shatt al-Arab, dividing the waterway equally between Iran and Iraq up to the midpoint. Iran made significant concessions in the agreement, including relinquishing its claims on the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab, which had been under Iranian control. Saddam Hussein aimed to secure Iraq's territorial claims, particularly regarding the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which had been a longstanding source of contention between Iran and Iraq.

Both parties recognized each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity, affirming the principle of non-aggression. The Algiers Agreement called for the restoration of full diplomatic relations between Iran and Iraq, including the exchange of ambassadors. The agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between the two countries, particularly in areas such as trade, transport, and joint development projects. The signing of the Algiers Agreement occurred during a period of relative stability in Iraq, with Saddam Hussein gradually consolidating power within the ruling Ba'ath Party. As Vice President, Saddam Hussein played a pivotal role in the negotiations leading up to the Algiers Agreement, representing Iraq's interests. Saddam Hussein's growing influence within the Iraqi government allowed him to shape Iraq's approach and stance during the negotiation process. Following the agreement, Iraq and Iran restored full diplomatic relations and exchanged ambassadors, representing a significant diplomatic breakthrough. The Algiers Agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between Iraq and Iran, particularly in areas like trade and joint development projects. This agreement, while ultimately unable to prevent future hostilities, remained a notable diplomatic achievement for Iraq during Saddam Hussein's early political career.

Presidency: 1979—2003

Domestic policy

Iraq under Saddam was a relatively prosperous, secular society. It had the highest number of female university graduates in the Middle East, and the highest percentage of paved roads. From beginning of his vice presidency itself, Iraq began emerging as a powerful and rich country in the Middle East and the Arab world. Infrastructure development continued in Iraq, with construction of roads, bridges and other transport facilities.^[55][56] Saddam built various palaces across the country for his personal use, which later became a popular tourist spot after his fall.^[57] Iraq became a powerful country with a well-equipped army.^[58]

The major instruments for accomplishing this control were the paramilitary and police organizations. Beginning in 1974, Taha Yassin Ramadan (himself a Kurdish Ba'athist), a close associate of Saddam, commanded the People's Army, which had responsibility for internal security. As the Ba'ath Party's paramilitary, the People's Army acted as a counterweight against any coup attempts by the regular armed forces. In addition to the People's Army, the Department of General Intelligence was the most notorious arm of the state-security system, feared for its use of torture and assassination. Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti, Saddam's younger half-brother, commanded Mukhabarat. Foreign observers believed that from 1982 this department operated both at home and abroad in its mission to seek out and eliminate Saddam's perceived opponents.

Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions (Dawa and SCIRI) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favored independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background, and repressive measures were taken against its opponents.

An Iraqi man, while speaking to

Saddam Hussein also took steps to promote women's rights within Iraq. By the late 1970s, women in Iraq held significant roles in society, representing 46% of all teachers, 29% of all doctors, 46% of all dentist and 70% of all pharmacists. These advancements signaled progress in women's participation in various professional fields.^[citation needed]

Freedom of Religion

Iraq under Saddam Hussein was known for religious tolerance, as different religious minorities coexisted peacefully.

During his tenure, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq, highlighting the country's diverse religious landscape.[69]^[70][71] Tariq Aziz, who was a Chaldean, held various political positions in the Ba'athist government, a friend of him and was a close advisor to Saddam Hussein.^[72] Due to close relations with Chaldeans, Saddam donated heavy amount to Chaldean churches and institutions across the United States, despite having hostile relations.^[73] After fall of his government in 2003, Christians in Iraq faced persecution.^[74]

During Saddam Hussein's rule, the

In 1979, Iran's

Saddam and Khomeini had a longstanding rivalry, and Khomeini's presence in Iraq fueled tensions.[87] When Khomeini began encouraging Iraqi Shi'ites to overthrow Saddam, Saddam expelled him to France.^[88] However, after Khomeini gained power in Iran, skirmishes over the Shatt al-Arab waterway led to increased tensions between Iraq and Iran. Despite publicly advocating for peaceful relations, Saddam privately revealed his intention to invade and occupy a significant part of Iran. He also sought support from the US and Western nations to topple the Islamic government in Iran.

In 1980, Iraq

In July 1982, a group of

Saddam Hussein personally oversaw the proceedings of the Revolutionary Court established to try those accused in the Dujail case.[101] The court operated without regard for due process, fair trial standards, or the presumption of innocence.^[102] Defendants were denied legal representation, and the court relied heavily on coerced confessions as evidence.^[103] In the aftermath of the trials, the Revolutionary Court handed down a series of harsh sentences, including death penalties.^[104] In total, over 140 individuals were executed in relation to the Dujail massacre.^[105] Some of those executed were as young as 11 years old. The retribution extended beyond those directly involved in the assassination attempt.^[105] The regime implemented a policy of collective punishment, targeting entire families and displacing them from their homes.^[105] Many properties were destroyed or confiscated, and families were forced to live in exile or in dire conditions.^[105] The Dujail massacre had a devastating impact on the town and its residents.^[106] Many families were left without their breadwinners, and the community was subjected to ongoing surveillance and repression by the regime's security apparatus.^[106]

The international community strongly condemned the Dujail massacre and the human rights abuses committed by Saddam Hussein's regime.^[106] Organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch documented the atrocities and called for justice.^[106] The legacy of the Dujail massacre continued to haunt the survivors and the wider community.^[106] The physical and psychological trauma inflicted on the victims, as well as the loss of loved ones, had long-lasting effects on their lives and well-being.^[106] Following the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003, in 2006, he faced trial in Iraq for crimes against humanity, including the massacre and sentenced to death.^[106]

Repression of Kurdish: 1986–1989

The

The primary targets of the Anfal campaign were the

One of the most notorious incidents associated with the Anfal campaign is the

The end of the war with Iran heightened tensions between Iraq and

As tensions escalated between Iraq and Kuwait, Saddam Hussein received conflicting information about how the US would respond to a potential invasion.[134] The US had previously cultivated a relationship with Iraq, providing significant assistance, including financial aid.^[135] In April 1990, Saddam threatened to use chemical weapons against Israel if it took action against Iraq.^[136] He also criticized US support for Israel and warned against policies that undermined Arab interests.^[137] In response, the US deployed warplanes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf.^[138]

During an emergency meeting on July 25, 1990, between the

The international community imposed sanctions on Iraq following the invasion of Kuwait. Oil-for-Food Programme maintained Iraq's strong trade relations with India. Healthcare and economy after the 1990–1991 war remained decline in Iraq, but the education sector was still developed. Iraq suffered huge loses aftermath of the war. The GDP of the country dropped and went down.

Foreign policy

Egypt's relations with Iraq deteriorated, after Anwar Sadat's peace treaty with Israel. In 1978, Baghdad hosted an Arab league summit which condemned the Camp David Accords and suspended Egypt's membership from the Arab League.

Vietnam War

Saddam Hussein developed strong relations with Vietnam. During the era of Cold War, the Vietnam War was a major conflict from 1955 to 1975. Not only did he provide assistance, loans and oil but he didn't demand any payment in return for it and even erased all debts that Vietnam owed.

Views on Israel and Palestine

2001 attacks in the United States

Vice Presidency: 1968—1979

Kurdish Agreement

The

During the negotiations and implementation of the Kurdish Agreement, Saddam Hussein was a key figure in the Iraqi government. Saddam Hussein played a significant role in the negotiations between the Iraqi government and the Kurdish rebel groups. He represented the government's interests and worked towards finding a resolution to the Kurdish insurgency that had been ongoing since the 1960s.

The Kurdish Agreement granted a degree of autonomy to the

Despite the initial optimism surrounding the Kurdish Agreement, its implementation faced significant challenges. Disputes arose over issues such as the distribution of power, revenue sharing, and the demarcation of the autonomous Kurdish region. These challenges strained the relationship between the Iraqi government and Kurdish authorities and eventually led to the collapse of the agreement in 1974. The breakdown of the Kurdish Agreement resulted in a renewed armed conflict between the Iraqi government and Kurdish rebel groups, including the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) led by Mustafa Barzani. The conflict continued until a ceasefire was established in 1975, but tensions between the Iraqi government and Kurdish groups persisted for many years.

Yom Kippur War

Saddam Hussein played a significant role in supporting Egypt and Syria, who were the main Arab belligerents in the war against Israel.^[169] He provided both political and military assistance to these countries during the conflict.^[170] Iraq provided financial assistance to support the war efforts of Egypt and Syria.^[171] The exact amount of financial aid is not widely documented, but it aimed to assist with the procurement of military equipment and other necessities for the Arab armies.^[172]

On the military front, Iraq sent a contingent of troops and military equipment to support Syria. The

Iraq, along with other OAPEC members such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, implemented the oil embargo.^[180][181] As a major oil producer, Iraq's participation in the embargo had a significant impact on global oil markets.^[182] The reduced oil supply resulted in a sharp increase in oil prices and created economic challenges for countries heavily dependent on oil imports and increased worth of Iraq and other Arab countries.^[183] The 1973 oil crises changed the landscape of oil industry in the Arab world and the Middle East forever. After 1973 oil crisis, France followed pro-Arab foreign policy and developed a strong relation with the Arab world, specially Iraq. Saddam regime developed a strong relation with France. Since then, France is closest ally of Iraq among the European countries.

Kurdish War

The Iraqi government, led by President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and his deputy, Saddam Hussein, agreed to a peace treaty with the Kurdish rebels in 1970. The treaty, known as the March Manifesto, promised limited autonomy for the Kurds in exchange for their disarmament. However, tensions persisted between the Iraqi government and the Kurdish groups, particularly the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) led by Mustafa Barzani. Disputes over the implementation of the March Manifesto, control of oil-rich territories, and political power-sharing led to a breakdown of the agreement. At the same time, the Ba'athist government began an Arabization program in oil rich regions of Kirkuk and Khanaqin.

In 1974, the Iraqi government launched a military offensive against the KDP-controlled areas in northern Iraq. The government forces, backed by heavy artillery and air power, aimed to suppress the Kurdish resistance and regain control over the region. The Kurdish insurgents, including the Peshmerga fighters, engaged in guerrilla warfare tactics and fought to defend their territories. The conflict escalated with both sides committing human rights abuses and atrocities against civilians. The Iraqi government used scorched-earth tactics, including the destruction of villages and displacement of thousands of Kurdish civilians. Chemical weapons were also reportedly used by the government forces during the conflict.

The war attracted international attention, with neighboring countries and major powers becoming involved. Iran, under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, supported the Kurdish insurgents as part of its regional ambitions and to exert pressure on the Iraqi government. The Shah provided military aid and a safe haven for the Kurdish leadership. The Second Iraqi-Kurdish War had a significant impact on the Kurdish population and the political landscape of Iraq. It further deepened mistrust between the Kurdish people and the Iraqi government, laying the groundwork for future conflicts and aspirations for an independent Kurdish state.

Shatt al-Arab

The Shatt al-Arab is a river that forms the boundary between Iraq and Iran.

The Iraqi government insisted on the implementation of the 1937 Algiers Agreement as the basis for resolving the dispute.[190] The Algiers Agreement had established the border between Iran and Iraq along the Shatt al-Arab.^[191] However, the Shah of Iran abrogated the agreement in 1969, claiming the entire waterway should be under Iranian control.^[192][193] Saddam Hussein and the Iraqi government opposed the Shah's unilateral abrogation of the Algiers Agreement and sought to assert Iraq's rights over the Shatt al-Arab.^[194][195] They advocated for the restoration of the agreement and the recognition of Iraq's sovereignty over the waterway.^[196]

In 1969, Saddam stated "Iraq's dispute with Iran is in connection with

Houari Boumediene.^[201] Prior to the Algiers Agreement, Iran and Iraq had been engaged in a long-standing territorial dispute over the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which serves as the border between the two countries.^[201] Algeria played a crucial role in mediating the negotiations between Iran and Iraq, with President Boumediene acting as the chief mediator.^[201]

The Algiers Agreement was based on the principles of territorial integrity, respect for sovereignty, non-interference in internal affairs, and the peaceful resolution of disputes.[201] The agreement established a new border line along the Shatt al-Arab, dividing the waterway equally between Iran and Iraq up to the midpoint.^[201] Iran made significant concessions in the agreement, including relinquishing its claims on the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab, which had been under Iranian control.^[201] Saddam Hussein aimed to secure Iraq's territorial claims, particularly regarding the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which had been a longstanding source of contention between Iran and Iraq.^[201]

Both parties recognized each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity, affirming the principle of non-aggression.^[201] The Algiers Agreement called for the restoration of full diplomatic relations between Iran and Iraq, including the exchange of ambassadors.^[201] The agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between the two countries, particularly in areas such as trade, transport, and joint development projects.^[201] The signing of the Algiers Agreement occurred during a period of relative stability in Iraq, with Saddam Hussein gradually consolidating power within the ruling Ba'ath Party.^[201] As Vice President, Saddam Hussein played a pivotal role in the negotiations leading up to the Algiers Agreement, representing Iraq's interests.^[201] Saddam Hussein's growing influence within the Iraqi government allowed him to shape Iraq's approach and stance during the negotiation process.^[201] Following the agreement, Iraq and Iran restored full diplomatic relations and exchanged ambassadors, representing a significant diplomatic breakthrough.^[201] The Algiers Agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between Iraq and Iran, particularly in areas like trade and joint development projects.^[201] This agreement, while ultimately unable to prevent future hostilities, remained a notable diplomatic achievement for Iraq during Saddam's early political career.^[201]

Succession

In 1976, Saddam rose to the position of general in the Iraqi armed forces, and rapidly became the

strongman of the government.^[202] As the ailing, elderly al-Bakr became unable to execute his duties, Saddam took on an increasingly prominent role as the face of the government both internally and externally.^[203] He soon became the architect of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations.^[204] He was the de facto leader of Iraq some years before he formally came to power in 1979.^[204]

He slowly began to consolidate his power over Iraq's government and the Ba'ath party.

Hafiz al-Assad would become deputy leader in a union, and this would drive Saddam to obscurity.^[204] Saddam acted to secure his grip on power.^[204] He forced the ailing al-Bakr to resign on 16 July 1979, and formally assumed the presidency.^[204]

Presidency: 1979—2003

Iran Iraq War: 1980–1988

Main article:

Shi'ite Islam, which worried Saddam Hussein in Iraq. Only a few years ago, a dispute with Iran was solved by an agreement. Saddam feared that radical Islamic ideas—hostile to his secular rule—were rapidly spreading inside his country among the majority Shi'ite population. As that time Iraq, other than Muslims, was also home to many Christians, Yazidis and minority of Jews. The Ba'ath Party

led by Saddam was a secular party.

Saddam and Khomeini had a longstanding rivalry, and Khomeini's presence in Iraq fueled tensions.^[87] When Khomeini began encouraging Iraqi Shi'ites to overthrow Saddam, Saddam expelled him to France.^[88] However, after Khomeini gained power in Iran, skirmishes over the Shatt al-Arab waterway led to increased tensions between Iraq and Iran. Despite publicly advocating for peaceful relations, Saddam privately revealed his intention to invade and occupy a significant part of Iran. He also sought support from the US and Western nations to topple the Islamic government in Iran.

In 1980, Iraq

US, and Europe, Saddam Hussein positioned himself as the defender of the Arab world against revolutionary Iran.^[90] Despite international law violations and the use of chemical warfare, Iraq received economic and military support.^[91]

Initially, Iraq made gains but faced losses from Iran's human wave attacks. In 1982, Iraq found itself on the defensive and sought ways to end the war. Amid discussions, Saddam considered stepping down temporarily, but later sacked and arrested Health Minister Dr. Riyadh Ibrahim, who had suggested the idea. Gruesomely, pieces of Ibrahim's dismembered body were delivered to his wife.

During the Iraq-Iran war, Iraq faced a prolonged and destructive war of attrition. They used

chemical weapons against Iranian and Kurdish forces, utilizing materials and technology supplied by Western companies. The US provided satellite photos and removed Iraq from the list of State Sponsors of Terrorism, aiming to support Iraq's war efforts. The Soviet Union, France, and China

were major arms suppliers to Iraq. Saddam sought financial and political support from other Arab governments due to damage to Iraq's oil industry.

The war persisted despite calls for a ceasefire by the

UN Security Council

, and it finally ended on August 20, 1988. The eight-year war between Iraq and Iran ended in a stalemate, with estimates of casualties ranging from 1 to 2 million. Both sides suffered significant losses, but Iran's were greater. The war left the southern oil-rich region in ruins and the borders largely unchanged. Saddam Hussein borrowed billions of dollars from Arab states and other sources to fund the war, but this strategy backfired, as it boosted Islamic radicalism and created tensions within Iraq. After the war, Saddam sought funds for postwar reconstruction.

Assassination attempt

Main article: Dujail Massacre

In July 1982, a group of

gunfire aimed at Saddam's motorcade, failed to kill him but resulted in the death of several members of his security detail.^[93] In response to the assassination attempt, Saddam Hussein's regime launched a campaign of brutal retribution against the residents of Dujail.^[94] The town was subjected to a period of intense repression and violence as the regime sought to quash any dissent and deter future challenges to Saddam's rule.^[95] The Iraqi security forces, under the command of Saddam's regime, conducted mass arrests in Dujail following the failed assassination attempt.^[96]

Those suspected of involvement or having any connection to the attack were targeted, as well as their families. Many detainees were subjected to severe torture, including beatings, electric shocks, and other forms of physical and psychological abuse. To extract confessions, detainees in Dujail were subjected to extreme torture methods. These included hanging by the limbs, burning with hot irons, and being submerged in sewage water. Many detainees, under duress, confessed to crimes they did not commit.

Saddam Hussein personally oversaw the proceedings of the Revolutionary Court established to try those accused in the Dujail case. The court operated without regard for due process, fair trial standards, or the presumption of innocence. Defendants were denied legal representation, and the court relied heavily on coerced confessions as evidence. In the aftermath of the trials, the Revolutionary Court handed down a series of harsh sentences, including death penalties. In total, over 140 individuals were executed in relation to the Dujail massacre. Some of those executed were as young as 11 years old. The retribution extended beyond those directly involved in the assassination attempt. The regime implemented a policy of collective punishment, targeting entire families and displacing them from their homes. Many properties were destroyed or confiscated, and families were forced to live in exile or in dire conditions. The Dujail massacre had a devastating impact on the town and its residents. Many families were left without their breadwinners, and the community was subjected to ongoing surveillance and repression by the regime's security apparatus.

The international community strongly condemned the Dujail massacre and the human rights abuses committed by Saddam Hussein's regime. Organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch documented the atrocities and called for justice. The legacy of the Dujail massacre continued to haunt the survivors and the wider community. The physical and psychological trauma inflicted on the victims, as well as the loss of loved ones, had long-lasting effects on their lives and well-being. Following the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime in 2003, efforts were made to hold him accountable for his crimes, including his involvement in the Dujail massacre. In 2006, he faced trial in Iraq for crimes against humanity, including the massacre. He was found guilty and sentenced to death.

Al Anfal Campaign: 1986–1989

Main article:

Al Anfal Campaign

The

Qur'anic chapter 8 (al-ʾanfāl), which was used as a code name by the former Iraqi Ba'athist administration for a series of attacks.^[108]

The primary targets of the Anfal campaign were the

chemical weapons

.

One of the most notorious incidents associated with the Anfal campaign is the

U.S. State Department initially held the position that Iran was partially to blame for the attack.^[125] A study by the Defense Intelligence Agency also attributed responsibility to Iran. However, it is widely accepted today that Iraq was the perpetrator of the Halabja massacre. This assessment was subsequently used by the Central Intelligence Agency for much of the early 1990s.^[126] Despite this, few observers today doubt that it was Iraq that executed the Halabja massacre.^[127]

After capture, when Saddam and his people were on trial, they denied that they were intended to target Kurdish civilians.

Kurdish rebels who were fighting alongside them.^[128] Al-Tai, the commander of the Anfal task force, emphasized that their objective was to combat an organized armed army, not civilians.^[128] Al-Douri, the director of military intelligence, claimed that their actions were necessary to clear northern Iraq of Iranian troops and to protect Baghdad from potential flooding if nearby dams were destroyed.^[128] Both defendants asserted that civilians in the Anfal region had been relocated to safe areas, including the city of Kirkuk.^[128] They maintained that they acted in defense of their country and denied any guilt, stating that they implemented their orders precisely and sincerely without turning a blind eye to any violations.^[128]

Tensions with Kuwait: 1988–1990

Further information: Iraq–Kuwait relations

The end of the war with Iran heightened tensions between Iraq and

Iraq-Kuwait border.^[133]

As tensions escalated between Iraq and Kuwait, Saddam Hussein received conflicting information about how the US would respond to a potential invasion.[134] The US had previously cultivated a relationship with Iraq, providing significant assistance, including financial aid.^[135] In April 1990, Saddam threatened to use chemical weapons against Israel if it took action against Iraq.^[136] He also criticized US support for Israel and warned against policies that undermined Arab interests.^[137] In response, the US deployed warplanes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf.^[138]

During an emergency meeting on July 25, 1990, between the

US ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, and Saddam Hussein, tensions were high.^[139] Saddam criticized American policy towards Kuwait and the UAE, expressing concerns about their disregard for Iraq's rights.^[140] He also warned that Iraq could cause harm if pressured. Glaspie, in response, acknowledged Iraq's need for funds and expressed a lack of opinion on Arab-Arab conflicts.^[141] However, she expressed concern about Iraq's deployment of troops and perceived aggression towards Kuwait.^[142][143] Saddam mentioned attempting negotiations with Kuwait but emphasized that Iraq would not accept defeat.^[144]

US officials tried to maintain a conciliatory approach with Iraq, expressing a desire to avoid the use of force but refraining from taking a position on the Iraq-Kuwait boundary dispute. However, Saddam Hussein's troops invaded Kuwait after failed negotiations. As tensions escalated, the Soviet Union, led by Mikhail Gorbachev, strengthened its military relationship with Saddam, providing military advisers, arms, and aid.

Gulf War: 1990–1991

Main articles:

Invasion of Kuwait

1988 Iraq and Iran truce.^[149] He overran Kuwait, confronting his Gulf neighbors in the name of Arab nationalism and Islam.^[150] When asked why he invaded Kuwait, Saddam first claimed it was Iraq's rightful 19th province. Later, he stated, "When I get something into my head I act. That's just the way I am".^[151] Saddam had the means to pursue military aggression due to the funds poured into Iraq by Kuwait and the Gulf states. He also had access to weapons and technology provided by the Soviet Union, Germany, and France.^[152]

In addition to economic disputes, an insulting exchange between the

Mercedes 200 Series cars to top editors in Egypt and Jordan.^[155] He reportedly offered Egypt's President Hosni Mubarak 50 million dollars in cash, ostensibly for grain, just two days before the attacks.^[156] US President George H. W. Bush responded cautiously initially, considering Kuwait's previous hostility towards Israel and its friendly relations with the Soviets.^[157][158] However, concerns about stability in the region, the world economy, and British interests influenced his stance.^[159] Cooperation between the US and the Soviet Union led to the passage of UN resolutions setting a deadline for Iraq to leave Kuwait.^[160] The fear of Iraqi retaliation against Saudi Arabia, a key US ally, prompted a deployment of troops along the Saudi border with Kuwait and Iraq.^[161] During the invasion, Saddam's officers looted Kuwait, even taking the marble from its palaces for Saddam's personal use.^[162]

In 1991, Saddam ordered firing of scud missiles towards Israel. Later Saddam agreed to pay US$74 million in compensate to Israel, which was borrowed from the amount of oil-for-food program. During the war, missiles were also fired in cities of Saudi Arabia.

Saddam Hussein ignored the

Security Council deadline, leading to a US-led coalition launching missile and aerial attacks on Iraq starting on January 16, 1991.^[163] Israel refrained from retaliating to maintain the coalition.^[164] The coalition's ground forces, primarily US and British divisions, expelled Saddam's army from Kuwait in February 1991 and occupied southern Iraq.^[165] On March 6, 1991, President Bush announced the vision of a "new world order" where diverse nations unite for peace, security, freedom, and the rule of law.^[166] The Iraqi army was unable to match the coalition's superior forces and air support. Thousands of Iraqis were taken prisoner, and casualties exceeded 85,000. As part of the cease-fire agreement, Iraq agreed to dismantle chemical and biological weapons and allow UN inspections. Trade sanctions remained until Iraq fully complied. Saddam publicly claimed victory at the end of the war.^[167]

Unrest in Iraq: Uprisings and sanctions

Main articles:

Iraqi Uprising of 1991 and International sanctions against Iraq

Iraq's ethnic and religious divisions, together with the brutality of the conflict that this had engendered, laid the groundwork for postwar rebellions. In the aftermath of the fighting, social and ethnic unrest among Shi'ite Muslims, Kurds, and dissident military units threatened the stability of Saddam's government. Uprisings erupted in the Kurdish north and Shi'a southern and central parts of Iraq, but were ruthlessly repressed. Uprisings in 1991 led to the death of 100,000–180,000 people, mostly civilians.^[205]

The US, which had urged Iraqis to rise up against Saddam, did nothing to assist the rebellions. The Iranians, despite the widespread Shi'ite rebellions, had no interest in provoking another war, while Turkey opposed any prospect of Kurdish independence, and the Saudis and other conservative Arab states feared an Iran-style Shi'ite revolution. Saddam, having survived the immediate crisis in the wake of defeat, was left firmly in control of Iraq, although the country never recovered either economically or militarily from the Gulf War.^[206]

The United Nations-placed

sanctions against Iraq for invading Kuwait were not lifted, blocking Iraqi oil exports. During the late 1990s, the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.^{[207][208][209][210][211]} On 9 December 1996, Saddam's government accepted the Oil-for-Food Programme

that the UN had first offered in 1992.

Following invasion of Kuwait and initiating the Gulf War, Iraq was

UN, which caused economic decline. In 1995, then U.S. president Bill Clinton introduced Oil-for-Food Programme, in which Iraq sold oil on the world market in exchange for humanitarian needs. The program was accepted by the Ba'athist government in 1996.^[212] By 1995, GDP of Iraq dropped to US$9 billion from US$44.36 billion in 1990. Iraq had lost around US$170 billion of oil revenues. The economy of Iraq improved in 2000, as its GDP increased to U$23.73 billion by 2000.^[213]

Hostility with the West and U.S

See also: 1998 bombing of Iraq

weapons of mass destruction

and other banned weaponry, and violating the UN-imposed sanctions.

Also during the 1990s, President Bill Clinton maintained sanctions and ordered air strikes in the "Iraqi no-fly zones" (Operation Desert Fox), in the hope that Saddam would be overthrown by political enemies inside Iraq. Western charges of Iraqi resistance to UN access to suspected weapons were the pretext for crises between 1997 and 1998, culminating in intensive US and British missile strikes on Iraq, 16–19 December 1998. After two years of intermittent activity, US and British warplanes struck harder at sites near Baghdad in February 2001. Former CIA case officer Robert Baer reports that he "tried to assassinate" Saddam in 1995,^[214] amid "a decade-long effort to encourage a military coup in Iraq."^[215]

In 2002, Austrian prosecutors investigated Saddam government's transactions with

Fritz Edlinger that possibly violated Austrian money laundering and embargo regulations.^[216] Fritz Edlinger, president of the General Secretary of the Society for Austro-Arab relations (GÖAB) and a former member of Socialist International's Middle East Committee, was an outspoken supporter of Saddam Hussein. In 2005, an Austrian journalist revealed that Fritz Edlinger's GÖAB had received $100,000 from an Iraqi front company as well as donations from Austrian companies soliciting business in Iraq.^[217]

In 2002, a resolution sponsored by the

the use of rape as a political tool and all enforced and involuntary disappearances."^[218]

Improvement of Iraq

By late 1990s and early 2000, the economic condition of Iraq began improving. The oil revenue pick up pace. Iraq already suffered huge loses and was not ready to suffer again same loses. Although his relations with the U.S and the west remain hostile, but he had donated huge amount to charities of those countries. In 2001, shortly before

suicide bombers

.

On 31 December 2000, Saddam organized largest parade in Iraq, since the Gulf War.^[223] With close relations with France, Saddam met Roger Etchegaray.^[219] Saddam condemned the September 11 attacks.^[224] He replied personally to an email, sent by an American, where he condemn the attack and express sympathy for victims and their families.^[225][226] In 2000, Russian leaders made a visit to Iraq.^[219] Economy of Iraq began improving by 2000. In 2000, the GDP was increased to $23.73 billion. Between 1990 to 2000, as a result of the Gulf War and later sanction, economy of Iraq was severely affected.^[227]

Governance of Saddam (1968—2003)

Main article: Ba'athist Iraq

Saddam became Vice President of Iraq and Vice-Chairman for the Revolutionary Command Council. Al-Bakr was president, but the government gradually came under Saddam's control. He became like a de facto leader of Iraq, where he took responsibility of handling economic situation, educational and healthcare aspects of the government. Saddam handled foreign affairs of Iraq and engaged in military operations and peace agreements

Social and economy

Saddam actively fostered the modernization of the Iraqi economy along with the creation of a strong security apparatus to prevent coups within the power structure and insurrections apart from it.

1973 energy crisis, and skyrocketing revenues enabled Saddam to expand his agenda.^[231] Saddam focused on fostering loyalty to the Ba'athists in the rural areas.^[232] After nationalizing foreign oil interests, Saddam supervised the modernization of the countryside, mechanizing agriculture on a large scale, and distributing land to peasant farmers.^[233][234] The Ba'athists established farm cooperatives and the government also doubled expenditures for agricultural development in 1974–1975.^[235][236] Saddam's welfare programs were part of a combination of "carrot and stick" tactics to enhance support for Saddam.^{[237][238][239]} The state-owned banks were put under his thumb. Lending was based on cronyism.^[240]

With the help of increasing oil revenues, Saddam diversified the largely oil-based Iraqi economy.^[241] Saddam implemented a national infrastructure campaign that made great progress in building roads, promoting mining, and developing other industries.^[242] The campaign helped Iraq's energy industries.^[243] Electricity was brought to nearly every city in Iraq, and many outlying areas.^[244] Before the 1970s, most of Iraq's people lived in the countryside and roughly two-thirds were peasants.^[245] This number would decrease quickly during the 1970s as global oil prices helped revenues to rise from less than a half billion dollars to tens of billions of dollars and the country invested into industrial expansion.^[246] He nationalised independent banks, eventually leaving the banking system insolvent due to inflation and bad loans.^[247] The state-owned banks were put under his thumb. Lending was based on cronyism.^[248]

Saddam Hussein also took steps to promote women's rights within Iraq. Women were given employment in Iraq. Saddam promoted education among women's society in Iraq. This efforts successfully implemented women's right in Iraq. By the late 1970s, women in Iraq held significant roles in society, representing 46% of all

pharmacists. These advancements signaled progress in women's participation in various professional fields.^[249]

The government also supported families of soldiers and gave subsidies to farmers. Saddam's government noted for repressing Turk and Kurdish revolts, sometimes subjected to be anti-Kurd or anti-Turk. However, Saddam maintained that he opposes only separatist movements being carried out by these groups. Saddam was noted for supporting Palestinian cause. Palestinian refugees who fled Iraq were granted equal rights, as other ordinary Iraqis. Overall it can be said that, they were treated as a normal citizen of the country and not like a refugee. Food rationing was a good system to save the poor from famine.

Freedom of Religion

Iraq under Saddam Hussein was known for religious tolerance, as different religious minorities coexisted peacefully.

Salafi extremist ideology of Al-Qaeda from taking root in the country.^[66] The country was free of any sectarian violence or civil disorder.^[67] The Ba'athist ideology followed by Saddam, was founded by Michel Aflaq, who was a Syrian Christian.^[68]

During his tenure, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq, highlighting the country's diverse religious landscape.[69]^[70][71] Tariq Aziz, who was a Chaldean, held various political positions in the Ba'athist government and was a close advisor to Saddam Hussein.^[72] Due to close relations with Chaldeans, Saddam donated heavy amount to Chaldean churches and institutions across the United States, despite having hostile relations.^[73] After fall of his government in 2003, Christians in Iraq faced persecution.^[74]

During Saddam Hussein's rule, the

Arab countries.^[83] Ezekiel's Tomb, a Jewish site was protected by Ba'ath security forces.^[84]

Education and healthcare

Within just a few years, Iraq was providing social services that were unprecedented among Middle Eastern countries. Saddam established and controlled the "National Campaign for the Eradication of Illiteracy" and the campaign for "Compulsory Free Education in Iraq", and largely under his auspices, the government established universal free schooling up to the highest education levels; hundreds of thousands learned to read in the years following the initiation of the program.

The Iraqi people were the most educated population in the whole of the Arab world. Iraq had a higher University enrolment as a percentage of the total population than anywhere else in the Arab world. Iraq had more PHDs per capita than the rest of the Arab world combined. All children as a result went to school regardless of the gender of the child which is a big thing in that part of the world. Universal schooling including school meals, pens, pencils, paper, and of course the education was free for all Iraqis up until the highest levels of University education.

The government granted free hospitalization to everyone. Free healthcare services to every citizen of Iraq were provided by the government. Iraq created one of the most modernized public-health systems in the Middle East, earning Saddam an award from the UNESCO.^[250][251] After the Gulf War, the government cut 90% of funds for healthcare sector and caused severe deterioration in healthcare system of the country.

Freedom of religion

Iraq under Saddam Hussein was known for religious tolerance, as different religious minorities coexisted peacefully. The government led by Saddam was a secularist based. During his tenure, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq, highlighting the country's diverse religious landscape. Tariq Aziz, who was a Chaldean, held various political positions in the Ba'athist government and was a close advisor to Saddam Hussein. Due to close relations with Chaldeans, Saddam donated heavy amount to Chaldean churches and institutions across the United States, despite having hostile relations.^{[citation needed]}

During Saddam Hussein's rule, the

Jewish community in Iraq was treated fairly.^[75] They were among the various religious minority groups in the country. They had the freedom to practice their religion.^[77]The Iraqi government even helped restore the Baghdad Synagogue about ten years before he was ousted.^[80] An incident took place on 4 October 1998, when a Palestinian man opened fire, killing four people including two Jews. Following the arrest of Palestinian perpetrator, the Iraqi government pledged to ensure prompt justice. As a precautionary measure, police guards were stationed at the synagogue, and the Iraqi Cabinet released a statement denouncing the shooting incident. The Cabinet emphasized that the Jewish community in Iraq are Iraqis that should not be associated with Zionist activities aimed at disrupting the political, economic, social, and health security of Arab countries.^[83] Ezekiel's Tomb, a Jewish site was protected by Ba'ath security forces.^{[citation needed}

]

Foreign Affairs

Main article:

Rolex watches, to his friends worldwide. He once sent a Boeing 747 filled with gifts to his ally Kenneth Kaunda. Saddam maintained a close relationship with Russian intelligence agent Yevgeny Primakov, which spanned several decades and potentially aided his stay in power in 1991. Despite his lengthy rule, Saddam only visited two Western countries: Spain in 1974 at the invitation of Francisco Franco, and France in 1975 where he met with Prime Minister Jacques Chirac.^[252][253]

There have been claims that Saddam Hussein financed French politician Jacques Chirac's party, with seized documents suggesting personal benefits for French officials and businessmen close to Chirac. France was Iraq's largest trade partner and provided arms to Saddam during his rule. Tariq Aziz represented Iraq at diplomatic meetings since Saddam rarely left the country. Saddam aimed for Iraq to have a leading role in the Middle East and initially had close ties with the Soviet Union before shifting towards the West until the Gulf War in 1991.

Assad, Bouteflika and Khaddan at 1978 Arab League summit

Iraq's relations with the Arab world have experienced significant fluctuations. In 1977, Iraq severed ties with Egypt due to its peace initiatives with Israel. In 1978, an Arab League summit hosted by Baghdad condemned and isolated Egypt for accepting the Camp David Accords. However, during the war with Iran, Egypt's support for Iraq fostered warmer relations and increased high-level contacts, despite the absence of formal ambassadorial representation. Since 1983, Iraq has repeatedly called for restoration of Egypt's "natural role" among Arab countries. Saddam initiated Iraq's nuclear enrichment project in the 1980s, with French assistance. In 1972, Saddam signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union. According to historian Charles R. H. Tripp, the treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States."^[254] In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians.^[254]

After the oil crisis of 1973, France shifted to a pro-Arab policy, which led to closer ties with Saddam Hussein. In 1975, Saddam made a state visit to France, strengthening connections with French business and political circles. He also negotiated an agreement with Iran, resolving border disputes and stopping Iranian support for Iraqi Kurdish opposition. Saddam opposed the Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel in 1979, asserting Arab opposition. Since its establishment in 1920, Iraq has faced challenges with Kurdish separatists in the northern region. In 1970, Saddam Hussein negotiated an autonomy agreement with Kurdish leaders, but it eventually collapsed, leading to violent conflict and Iraqi airstrikes on Kurdish villages in Iran. This deteriorated Iraq's relations with Iran. Following Saddam's 1975 treaty with Iran, the Shah withdrew support for the Kurds, resulting in their defeat.

Israeli—Palestinian conflict

See also: Iraq–Israel relations and Iraq–Palestine relations

The first Iraqi nuclear reactor was named by the French "

Osirak". Osirak was destroyed on 7 June 1981^[255] by an Israeli air strike (Operation Opera). Saddam Hussein was widely known for his commitment to the Palestinian cause and his anti-Israel stance. However, the official position of Ba'athist Iraq on the conflict was that the future of Iraq's relation with Israel would be determined by the solution accepted by the Palestinians. In 1982, Saddam said to then U.S. congressman:^[256]

Existence of an independent Palestinian state accepted by the Palestinians, and it is also necessary to have a state of security for the Israelis. No single Arab official includes in his policy now the so-called destruction of Israel or wiping it out of existence, but there is not one Arab who believes in coexistence with an aggressive and expansionist entity.

— Saddam Hussein

Vietnam War

Main article: Iraq–Vietnam relations

During his time in power, Saddam Hussein developed close relations with Vietnam and provided support and funding to the country both during and after the Vietnam War. These ties were characterized by mutual cooperation, shared ideological perspectives, and economic exchanges. Following the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, Saddam Hussein admired the resilience and determination of the Vietnamese people in their struggle against foreign intervention. He saw Vietnam as a fellow socialist nation that had successfully resisted Western imperialism. Saddam Hussein and the ruling Ba'ath Party in Iraq shared a common ideological framework with Vietnam's Communist Party. Both leaders emphasized anti-imperialism, socialism, and the pursuit of national liberation.

Saddam Hussein sought to strengthen economic ties with Vietnam. Iraq provided financial aid and technical assistance to Vietnam to support its post-war reconstruction efforts. This assistance included infrastructure development, agriculture, and healthcare projects. Iraq supplied military equipment and training to Vietnam during and after the war. This support aimed to enhance Vietnam's defense capabilities and assist in rebuilding its armed forces. Saddam Hussein expressed political support for Vietnam's territorial integrity and sovereignty. He condemned any foreign interference in Vietnam's internal affairs and advocated for peaceful resolutions to regional conflicts.

Saddam Hussein's government provided humanitarian assistance to Vietnam, particularly during times of natural disasters. Iraq sent relief supplies and financial aid to support Vietnam's recovery efforts. Despite the political changes and conflicts that followed Saddam Hussein's downfall, Iraq and Vietnam maintained diplomatic relations. The depth of the historical ties formed during Saddam's era helped sustain some level of cooperation between the two countries.

Iraq War (2003—2006)

Main articles: Iraq War and 2003 invasion of Iraq

Many members of the

nerve gas, and nuclear weapons for over a decade ... Iraq continues to flaunt its hostility toward America and to support terror."^[257][258]

Documents provided by the CIA and the British government, regarding weapons of mass destruction were found to be unreliable.

After the passing of

IAEA inspections,^[259] Saddam allowed U.N. weapons inspectors led by Hans Blix to return to Iraq. During the renewed inspections beginning in November 2002, Blix found no stockpiles of WMD and noted the "proactive" but not always "immediate" Iraqi cooperation as called for by Resolution 1441.^[260]

With war still looming on 24 February 2003, Saddam Hussein took part in an interview with CBS News reporter Dan Rather. Talking for more than three hours, he denied possessing any weapons of mass destruction, or any other weapons prohibited by UN guidelines. He also expressed a wish to have a live televised debate with George W. Bush, which was declined. It was his first interview with a US reporter in over a decade.^[261] CBS aired the taped interview later that week. Saddam Hussein later told an FBI interviewer that he once left open the possibility that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction in order to appear strong against Iran.^[262][263] Supporters of Saddam protested against the coalition forces on the streets of Baghdad.

The Iraqi government and military collapsed within three weeks of the beginning of the US-led

guerrilla tactics, and it appeared that Saddam had lost control of Iraq. He was last seen in a video which purported to show him in the Baghdad suburbs surrounded by supporters. When Baghdad fell to US-led forces on 9 April, marked symbolically by the toppling of his statue,^[264] Saddam was nowhere to be found. In July 2003, his sons Uday and Qusay and 14-year-old grandson Mustapha were killed in a three-hour gunfight with US forces.^[265][266]

Saddam released a tape audio, addressing the killing of his sons and grandson, by calling them "martyr".

Capture and Interrogation

Main articles: Capture of Saddam Hussein and Interrogation of Saddam Hussein

In April 2003, Saddam's whereabouts remained in question during the weeks following the fall of Baghdad and the conclusion of the major fighting of the war. Various sightings of Saddam were reported in the weeks following the war, but none were authenticated. At various times Saddam released audio tapes promoting popular resistance to his ousting.

Saddam was placed at the top of the

Operation Red Dawn, Saddam was captured by American forces after being found hiding in a hole in the ground near a farmhouse in ad-Dawr, near Tikrit. Following his capture, Saddam was transported to a US base near Tikrit, and later taken to the American base near Baghdad. Documents obtained and released by the National Security Archive detail FBI interviews and conversations with Saddam while he was in US custody.^[267] On 14 December, US administrator in Iraq Paul Bremer confirmed that Saddam Hussein had indeed been captured at a farmhouse in ad-Dawr near Tikrit.^[268]

Bremer presented video footage of Saddam in custody.

Saddam was shown with a full beard and hair longer than his familiar appearance. He was described by US officials as being in good health. Bremer reported plans to put Saddam on trial, but claimed that the details of such a trial had not yet been determined. Iraqis and Americans who spoke with Saddam after his capture generally reported that he remained self-assured, describing himself as a "firm, but just leader."[269]

British tabloid newspaper

FBI agent George Piro.^[272]

The guards at the Baghdad detention facility called their prisoner "Vic", which stands for "Very Important Criminal" and let him plant a small garden near his cell. The nickname and the garden are among the details about the former Iraqi leader that emerged during a March 2008 tour of the Baghdad prison and cell where Saddam slept, bathed, kept a journal, and wrote poetry in the final days before his execution; he was concerned to ensure his legacy and how the history would be told. The tour was conducted by US Marine Maj. Gen. Doug Stone, overseer of detention operations for the US military in Iraq at the time.^[273] During his imprisonment he exercised and was allowed to have his personal garden; he also smoked his cigars and wrote his diary in the courtyard of his cell.^[274]

Trial

Main article: Trial of Saddam Hussein

After his capture by the coalition forces, Saddam was interrogated by officials and authorities at the Baghdad International Airport.^[275][276] Later he was sent to court for trial.^[277][278] On 30 June 2004, Saddam Hussein, held in custody by US forces at the US base "Camp Cropper", along with 11 other senior Ba'athist leaders, was handed over to the interim Iraqi government to stand trial for crimes against humanity and other offences.^[279]

Saddam hired his long-time friend and supporter Bhim Singh from India to fight the case from his side.^[280] However, his way to Baghdad was blocked by American authorities. Failed to help Saddam, Singh panned the U.S invasion of Iraq and defended Saddam, which sparked controversy and criticism of Singh. He also said that "A dead Saddam can be more dangerous than alive Saddam". Singh later also condemned the execution of Saddam.

A few weeks later, he was charged by the

Iraqi Special Tribunal with crimes committed against residents of Dujail in 1982, following a failed assassination attempt against him. Specific charges included the murder of 148 people, torture of women and children and the illegal arrest of 399 others.^[281][282]

Their were many challenges in his trial. Saddam Hussein's fingerprints were obtained by the National Security Archive for trial.

Saddam and his lawyers contesting the court's authority and maintaining that he was still the President of Iraq.^[283] The assassinations and attempted assassinations of several of Saddam's lawyers. The replacement of the chief presiding judge midway through the trial. Saddam delivered strong statements during both his trial and hearing, which later became popular among his supporters.

On 5 November 2006, Saddam was found guilty of crimes against humanity and

Allah Akbar". Saddam's half-brother, Barzan Ibrahim, and Awad Hamed al-Bandar, head of Iraq's Revolutionary Court in 1982, were convicted of similar charges. The verdict and sentencing were both appealed, but subsequently affirmed by Iraq's Supreme Court of Appeals.^[284]

Execution

Main article: Execution of Saddam Hussein

Saddam was hanged on the first day of Eid ul-Adha, 30 December 2006,^[285] despite his wish to be executed by firing squad (which he argued was the lawful military capital punishment, citing his military position as the commander-in-chief of the Iraqi military).^[286] The execution was carried out at Camp Justice, an Iraqi army base in Kadhimiya, a neighborhood of northeast Baghdad. Saudi Arabia condemned Iraqi authorities for carrying on with the execution on a holy day. A presenter from the Al-Ikhbariya television station officially stated: "There is a feeling of surprise and disapproval that the verdict has been applied during the holy months and the first days of Eid al-Adha. Leaders of Islamic countries should show respect for this blessed occasion ... not demean it."^[287]

Video of the execution was recorded on a mobile phone and his captors could be heard insulting Saddam. The video was leaked to electronic media and posted on the Internet within hours, becoming the subject of global controversy.^[288] It was later claimed by the head guard at the tomb where his remains lay that Saddam's body had been stabbed six times after the execution.^[289] Saddam's demeanor while being led to the gallows has been discussed by two witnesses, Iraqi Judge Munir Haddad and Iraqi national security adviser Mowaffak al-Rubaie. The accounts of the two witnesses are contradictory as Haddad describes Saddam as being strong in his final moments whereas al-Rubaie says Saddam was clearly afraid.^[290]

Saddam's last words during the execution, "May God's blessings be upon

Messenger of Allah." One of the crowd shouted, "The tyrant [dictator] has collapsed!" Saddam said, "May God's blessings be upon Muhammad and his household (family)". He recited the Shahada one and a half times, as while he was about to say 'Muhammad' on the second Shahada, the trapdoor opened, cutting him off mid-sentence. The rope broke his neck, killing him instantly.^[291] Not long before the execution, Saddam's lawyers released his last letter.^[292] A second unofficial video, apparently showing Saddam's body on a trolley, emerged several days later. It sparked speculation that the execution was carried out incorrectly as Saddam Hussein had a gaping hole in his neck.^[293]

Saddam was buried at his birthplace of Al-Awja in Tikrit, Iraq, on 31 December 2006. He was buried 3 km (2 mi) from his sons Uday and Qusay Hussein.[294] His tomb was reported to have been destroyed in March 2015.^[295] Before it was destroyed, a Sunni tribal group reportedly removed his body to a secret location, fearful of what might happen.^[296]

Philanthropy

In 1979, Jacob Yasso of

key to the city of Detroit to Saddam Hussein. At the time, Saddam then asked Yasso, "I heard there was a debt on your church. How much is it?" After the inquiry, Saddam then donated another $200,000 to Chaldean Sacred Heart Church. Yasso said that Saddam made donations to Chaldean churches all over the world, and even went on record as saying "He's very kind to Christians."^[297]

In 2001, Saddam chaired a meeting with Iraqi government and planned to donate US$94 million to poverty affected peoples across the United States. The Iraqi National Cabinet stated: “The Cabinet decided, on humanitarian grounds, to allocate 100 million euros [about $94 million] to be distributed to poor Americans,”.^[298] He donated the amount before George W. Bush took presidency.^[299] Saddam said about the aid that, " it is for humanitarian reasons and not for the American government".^[300]

In 2003, Saddam donated $260,000 to 26 families of Palestinians killed.^[301]

Views

Legacy (I)

Invasion of Kuwait and the Gulf War.^[307] These actions resulted in significant loss of life and destabilized the region.^[308][309] While there were economic development initiatives, Saddam Hussein's regime was also marked by mismanagement and widespread corruption.^[310] The economic sanctions imposed on Iraq during his rule further exacerbated economic hardships for the country's population.^[311]

During his rule, he implemented various policies and initiatives that some people viewed as beneficial for Iraq and the broader

Middle Eastern region. Iraq during Saddam was developed in terms of education and Saddam Hussein's government invested heavily in infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges, and public buildings.^[312][313] This development contributed to the modernization of Iraq's cities and improved the country's overall infrastructure.^[314] Under Saddam Hussein's regime, there was an emphasis on improving access to education and healthcare.^{[314][315][316]} The government invested in building schools and hospitals, and literacy rates in Iraq increased significantly during his rule.^{[317][318][319]} Saddam Hussein's government implemented policies aimed at advancing women's rights in Iraq.^[320] Women were encouraged to participate in education and the workforce, and many held high-ranking positions in government and public institutions.^[321][322] Saddam Hussein's regime had a secular character, which meant that religion did not play a dominant role in the government's policies. This allowed for a degree of religious diversity and tolerance within Iraq. Still today, many Iraqi Jews respect Saddam, for his treatment to Jews.^[323]

In the

Kurdish separatists, Saddam developed good relations with some Kurds who supported him.^[335] A town in Sri Lanka, was named as Saddam Hussein Nagar, in his memory.^[336] Many Iraqi Jews regard Saddam as he granted protection them.^[337]

Cultural depictions of Saddam can be found on various movies. Three documentary movies made on Saddam. Saddam's Tribe, released in 2007, explores the complex relationship between Saddam Hussein and the Albu Nasir tribe, a powerful tribal group in Iraq. In 2008, a TV series based on his life — House of Saddam was released. Irish actor Barry Keoghan will appear on a new movie, being made on Saddam, which was announced in 2024.^[338] Saddam dominated politics of Iraq for 35 years and developed a cult of personality in the world.

See also

In the

Palestinian cause. A memorial dedicated to Saddam was built in Qalqilya, Palestine. Also many portraits and other forms of memorials are found throughout Palestine. During his regime, Iraq and India shared a strong relationship. Still today, Saddam have a huge fan-following in India. Indian singer Sidhu Moose Wala mentioned Saddam in his song Bambiha Bole. He stated about Saddam that he was a well-reputed person. Saddam was an admirer of Indira Gandhi, whom Saddam met in 1974, during an international trip to India. A beach near Indian city of Malappuram has been named as Saddam Beach.^[339] Saddam is still loved among many Jordanians.^[340] Despite having tense-relations with Kurdish separatists, Saddam developed good relations with some Kurds, who supported him.^[335] Former US president Donald Trump praised Saddam for militant suppression and stability during his presidency in Iraq.^[333] A town in Sri Lanka, was named as Saddam Hussein Nagar, in his memory.^[336]

He is considered by Muslims as "hero of Islam".

Three documentary movies made on Saddam. Saddam's Tribe, released in 2007, explores the complex relationship between Saddam Hussein and the Albu Nasir tribe, a powerful tribal group in Iraq. In 2008, a TV series based on his life — House of Saddam was released.

Honors and awards(1)

In 1991, the

Iraqi government awarded Saddam the Rafidain medal, also known as Order of the Two Rivers, the country's highest honor, as a recognition of his "historic role" and "noble services to Iraq".^[341][342] This announcement was made following a Cabinet meeting, and Information Minister Hamid Youssef Hummadi stated that the decision was unanimous.^[341][342] The award was bestowed on Saddam Hussein, during his 54th birthday, in appreciation of his exceptional contributions and significant impact on Iraq.^[341]

He was honored by titles such as "Field Marshal" and "Comrade". Saddam Hussein is one of the recipients

Key to the City.^[343][344] In 1980, Saddam Hussein was awarded a key to the city of Detroit after he donated almost half a million dollars to a church in the city of Detroit.^[345][346] The Ba'ath government led by Saddam Hussein, successfully turned Iraq into a leading hub for healthcare and education.^[347] This improved quality of life in Iraq.^[348] For improving quality of life of Iraqis, Saddam was honored by an award from UNESCO.^[349]

Saddam received a number of medals, which were displayed at a museum in

1973 war with Israel.^[353]

Saddam Hussein was awarded the title of "Hero of the Revolution" in 1979, following his rise to power as

Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party declared Saddam Hussein the "Great Leader of the Arab Nation."^[354]

Personal life

Saddam Hussein married his cousin Sajida Talfah, with whom his pair was fixed since childhood. With her, he had two sons

See also

• Ba'athist Iraq

References

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17. ^ Sale, Richard (April 10, 2003). "Exclusive: Saddam Key in Early CIA Plot". United Press International. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
18. ISBN 9781134036721
    . The documentary record is filled with holes. A remarkable volume of material remains classified, and those records that are available are obscured by redactions – large blacked-out sections that allow for plausible deniability. While it is difficult to know exactly what actions were taken to destabilize or overthrow Qasim's regime, we can discern fairly clearly what was on the planning table. We also can see clues as to what was authorized.
19. ^
    ISBN 9781134036721
    .
20. ISBN 978-1-137-48711-7
    .
21. ^ Coughlin 2005, p. 30. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCoughlin2005 (help)
22. ISBN 978-0-8021-3978-8
    .
23. ISBN 978-0-520-92124-5
    .
24. ISBN 978-0-06-050543-1
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25. ISBN 978-1-5036-1382-9
    .
26. ISBN 978-0-8021-3978-8
    .
27. ^ "Saddam Hussein". Britannica. 29 May 2023.
28. ISBN 978-0-8021-3978-8
    .
29. ISBN 9780857713735
    .
30. ^ For sources that agree or sympathize with assertions of U.S. involvement, see:
    • Wolfe-Hunnicutt, Brandon; Middle East Studies Pedagogy Initiative (MESPI) (July 20, 2018). "Essential Readings: The United States and Iraq before Saddam Hussein's Rule". Jadaliyya. CIA involvement in the 1963 coup that first brought the Ba'th to power in Iraq has been an open secret for decades. American government and media have never been asked to fully account for the CIA's role in the coup. On the contrary, the US government has put forward and official narrative riddled with holes–redactions that cannot be declassified for "national security" reasons.
    • Citino, Nathan J. (2017). "The People's Court". Envisioning the Arab Future: Modernization in US-Arab Relations, 1945–1967.
      ISBN 978-1-108-10755-6
      . Washington backed the movement by military officers linked to the pan-Arab Ba'th Party that overthrew Qasim in a coup on February 8, 1963.
    • Jacobsen, E. (2013-11-01). "A Coincidence of Interests: Kennedy, U.S. Assistance, and the 1963 Iraqi Ba'th Regime". Diplomatic History. 37 (5): 1029–1059.
      ISSN 0145-2096
      . There is ample evidence that the CIA not only had contacts with the Iraqi Ba'th in the early sixties, but also assisted in the planning of the coup.
    • Ismael, Tareq Y.; Ismael, Jacqueline S.; Perry, Glenn E. (2016). Government and Politics of the Contemporary Middle East: Continuity and Change (2nd ed.).
      ISBN 978-1-317-66282-2
      . Ba'thist forces and army officers overthrew Qasim on February 8, 1963, in collaboration with the CIA.
    • Little, Douglas (2004-10-14). "Mission Impossible: The CIA and the Cult of Covert Action in the Middle East". Diplomatic History. 28 (5): 663–701.
      ISSN 1467-7709
      . Such self-serving denials notwithstanding, the CIA actually appears to have had a great deal to do with the bloody Ba'athist coup that toppled Qassim in February 1963. Deeply troubled by Qassim's steady drift to the left, by his threats to invade Kuwait, and by his attempt to cancel Western oil concessions, U.S. intelligence made contact with anticommunist Ba'ath activists both inside and outside the Iraqi army during the early 1960s.
    • Osgood, Kenneth (2009). "Eisenhower and regime change in Iraq: the United States and the Iraqi Revolution of 1958". America and Iraq: Policy-making, Intervention and Regional Politics.
      ISBN 9781134036721
      . Working with Nasser, the Ba'ath Party, and other opposition elements, including some in the Iraqi army, the CIA by 1963 was well positioned to help assemble the coalition that overthrew Qasim in February of that year. It is not clear whether Qasim's assassination, as Said Aburish has written, was 'one of the most elaborate CIA operations in the history of the Middle East.' That judgment remains to be proven. But the trail linking the CIA is suggestive.
    • Sluglett, Peter. "The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq: A Study of Iraq's Old Landed and Commercial Classes and of its Communists, Ba'thists and Free Officers (Review)" (PDF). Democratiya. p. 9. Batatu infers on pp. 985–86 that the CIA was involved in the coup of 1963 (which brought the Ba'ath briefly to power): Even if the evidence here is somewhat circumstantial, there can be no question about the Ba'ath's fervent anti-communism.
    • Wolfe-Hunnicutt, Brandon (2021). The Paranoid Style in American Diplomacy: Oil and Arab Nationalism in Iraq. Stanford University Press. p. 119.
      ISBN 978-1-5036-1382-9
      . Weldon Matthews, Malik Mufti, Douglas Little, William Zeman, and Eric Jacobsen have all drawn on declassified American records to largely substantiate the plausibility of Batatu's account. Peter Hahn and Bryan Gibson (in separate works) argue that the available evidence does support the claim of CIA collusion with the Ba'th. However, each makes this argument in the course of a much broader study, and neither examines the question in any detail.
    • Mitchel, Timothy (2002). Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity.
      ISBN 9780520928251
      . Qasim was killed three years later in a coup welcomed and possibly aided by the CIA, which brought to power the Ba'ath, the party of Saddam Hussein.
    • ISBN 9780307455628
      . The agency finally backed a successful coup in Iraq in the name of American influence.
31. ^ For sources that dispute assertions of U.S. involvement, see:
    • Gibson, Bryan R. (2015). Sold Out? US Foreign Policy, Iraq, the Kurds, and the Cold War.
      ISBN 978-1-137-48711-7
      . Barring the release of new information, the balance of evidence suggests that while the United States was actively plotting the overthrow of the Qasim regime, it did not appear to be directly involved in the February 1963 coup.
    • Hahn, Peter (2011). Missions Accomplished?: The United States and Iraq Since World War I.
      ISBN 9780195333381
      . Declassified U.S. government documents offer no evidence to support these suggestions.
    • Barrett, Roby C. (2007). The Greater Middle East and the Cold War: US Foreign Policy Under Eisenhower and Kennedy.
      ISBN 9780857713087
      . Washington wanted to see Qasim and his Communist supporters removed, but that is a far cry from Batatu's inference that the U.S. had somehow engineered the coup. The U.S. lacked the operational capability to organize and carry out the coup, but certainly after it had occurred the U.S. government preferred the Nasserists and Ba'athists in power, and provided encouragement and probably some peripheral assistance.
    • West, Nigel (2017). Encyclopedia of Political Assassinations.
      ISBN 9781538102398
      . Although Qasim was regarded as an adversary by the West, having nationalized the Iraq Petroleum Company, which had joint Anglo-American ownership, no plans had been made to depose him, principally because of the absence of a plausible successor. Nevertheless, the CIA pursued other schemes to prevent Iraq from coming under Soviet influence, and one such target was an unidentified colonel, thought to have been Qasim's cousin, the notorious Fadhil Abbas al-Mahdawi who was appointed military prosecutor to try members of the previous Hashemite monarchy.
32. ISBN 978-1-5036-1382-9
    . What really happened in Iraq in February 1963 remains shrouded behind a veil of official secrecy. Many of the most relevant documents remain classified. Others were destroyed. And still others were never created in the first place.
33. S2CID 159490612
    . Archival sources on the U.S. relationship with this regime are highly restricted. Many records of the Central Intelligence Agency's operations and the Department of Defense from this period remain classified, and some declassified records have not been transferred to the National Archives or cataloged.
34. S2CID 159490612
    . [Kennedy] Administration officials viewed the Iraqi Ba'th Party in 1963 as an agent of counterinsurgency directed against Iraqi communists, and they cultivated supportive relationships with Ba'thist officials, police commanders, and members of the Ba'th Party militia. The American relationship with militia members and senior police commanders had begun even before the February coup, and Ba'thist police commanders involved in the coup had been trained in the United States.
35. ISSN 0145-2096
    .
36. ISBN 978-1-5036-1382-9
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37. ISBN 978-0-8021-3978-8
    .
38. ISBN 978-0-521-87823-4
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39. ^ The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton 1978).
40. ISBN 978-0-8021-3978-8
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41. ISBN 978-0-8021-3978-8
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42. ISBN 978-0-8047-7415-4
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43. ISBN 978-0-8021-3978-8
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