Wales in the Middle Ages
History of Wales |
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Wales in the Middle Ages covers the history of the country that is now called Wales, from the departure of the Romans in the early fifth century to the annexation of Wales into the Kingdom of England in the early sixteenth century. This period of about 1,000 years saw the development of regional Welsh kingdoms, Celtic conflict with the Anglo-Saxons, reducing Celtic territories, and conflict between the Welsh and the Anglo-Normans from the 11th century.
Early Middle Ages: 411–1066
When the Roman garrison of Britain was withdrawn in 410, the various British states were left self-governing. Evidence for a continuing Roman influence after the departure of the Roman legions is provided by an inscribed stone from Gwynedd dated between the late 5th and mid-6th centuries commemorating a certain Cantiorix who was described as a citizen (cives) of Gwynedd and a cousin of Maglos the magistrate (magistratus).[1] There was considerable Irish colonisation in Dyfed, where there are many stones with ogham inscriptions.[2] Wales had become Christian under the Romans, and the 'age of the saints' (approximately 500–700) was marked by the establishment of monastic settlements throughout the country, by religious leaders such as Saint David, Illtud and Saint Teilo.[3]
One of the reasons for the Roman withdrawal was the pressure put upon the empire's military resources by the incursion of barbarian tribes from the east. These tribes, including the Angles and Saxons, gradually took control of eastern and southern Britain. At the Battle of Chester in 616, the forces of Powys and other British kingdoms were defeated by the Northumbrians under Æthelfrith, with king Selyf ap Cynan among the dead.[4] It has been suggested that this battle finally severed the land connection between Wales and the kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd ("Old North"), the Brittonic-speaking regions of what is now southern Scotland and northern England, including Rheged, Strathclyde, Elmet and Gododdin, where Old Welsh was also spoken.[citation needed] From the 8th century on, Wales was by far the largest of the three remnant Brittonic areas in Britain, the other two being the Hen Ogledd and Cornwall.
Wales was divided into a number of separate kingdoms, the largest of these being
Rise of Gwynedd: 700–1066
Powys as the easternmost of the major kingdoms of Wales came under the most pressure from the English in Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire. This kingdom originally extended east into areas now in England, and its ancient capital, Pengwern, has been variously identified as modern Shrewsbury or a site north of Baschurch.[7] These areas were lost to the kingdom of Mercia. The construction of the earthwork known as Offa's Dyke (usually attributed to Offa of Mercia in the 8th century) may have marked an agreed border.[8]
For a single man to rule the whole country during this period was rare. This is often ascribed to the inheritance system practised in Wales. All sons received an equal share of their father's property (including illegitimate sons), resulting in the division of territories. However, the Welsh laws prescribe this system of division for land in general, not for kingdoms, where there is provision for an edling (or heir) to the kingdom to be chosen, usually by the king. Any son, legitimate or illegitimate, could be chosen as edling and there were frequently disappointed candidates prepared to challenge the chosen heir.[9]
The first to rule a considerable part of Wales was
Wales was now coming under increasing attack by Vikings, particularly Danish raids in the period between 950 and 1000. According to the chronicle Brut y Tywysogion, Godfrey Haroldson carried off two thousand captives from Anglesey in 987, and the king of Gwynedd, Maredudd ab Owain is reported to have redeemed many of his subjects from slavery by paying the Danes a large ransom.[13]
Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was the only ruler to be able to unite the Welsh kingdoms under his rule. Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1055 he was ruler of almost all of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. However, he was defeated by Harold Godwinson in 1063 and killed by his own men. His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms.[14][15]
High Middle Ages: 1067–1283
At the time of the
The killing of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn in 1075 led to civil war and gave the Normans an opportunity to seize lands in northern Wales. In 1081, Gruffudd ap Cynan, who had just won the throne of Gwynedd from Trahaearn ap Caradog at the Battle of Mynydd Carn, was enticed to a meeting with the Earl of Chester and Earl of Shrewsbury and promptly seized and imprisoned, leading to the seizure of much of Gwynedd by the Normans.[19] Rhys ap Tewdwr of Deheubarth was killed in 1093 in Brycheiniog, and his kingdom was seized and divided between various Norman lordships.[20] The Norman conquest of Wales appeared virtually complete.
In 1094, however, there was a general Welsh revolt against Norman rule, and gradually territories were won back. Gruffudd ap Cynan was eventually able to build a strong kingdom in Gwynedd. His son, Owain Gwynedd, allied with Gruffydd ap Rhys of Deheubarth, won a crushing victory over the Normans at the Battle of Crug Mawr in 1136 and annexed Ceredigion. Owain followed his father on the throne of Gwynedd the following year and ruled until his death in 1170.[21] He was able to profit from the Anarchy in England to extend the borders of Gwynedd further east than ever before as Stephen of Blois and the Empress Matilda were engaged in a struggle for the English throne.
The Kingdom of Powys also had a strong ruler at this time in Madog ap Maredudd, but when his death in 1160 was quickly followed by the death of his heir, Llywelyn ap Madog, Powys was split into two parts and never subsequently reunited.[22]
In the south, Gruffydd ap Rhys was killed in 1137, but his four sons, who all ruled Deheubarth in turn, were eventually able to win back most of their grandfather's kingdom from the Normans. The youngest of the four, Rhys ap Gruffydd, ruled from 1155 to 1197. In 1171 Rhys met Henry II of England and came to an agreement with him whereby Rhys had to pay a tribute but was confirmed in all his conquests and was later named Justiciar of South Wales. Rhys held a festival of poetry and song at his court at Cardigan over Christmas 1176, which is generally regarded as the first recorded Eisteddfod. Owain Gwynedd's death led to the splitting of Gwynedd between his sons, while Rhys made Deheubarth dominant in Wales for a time.[23]
Out of the power struggle in Gwynedd eventually arose one of the greatest of Welsh leaders,
Gruffudd had left four sons, and a period of internal conflict between three of these ended in the rise to power of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, known as "Llywelyn Our Last Leader" (Welsh: Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf) or "Llywelyn the Last". The Treaty of Montgomery in 1267 confirmed Llywelyn in control, directly or indirectly, over a large part of Wales. However, Llywelyn's claims in Wales conflicted with Edward I of England, and war followed in 1277. Llywelyn was obliged to seek terms, and the Treaty of Aberconwy greatly restricted his authority. War broke out again when Llywelyn's brother Dafydd ap Gruffydd attacked Hawarden Castle on Palm Sunday 1282. On 11 December 1282, Llywelyn was lured into a meeting in Builth Wells castle with unknown Marchers, where he was killed and his army subsequently destroyed. Dafydd continued an increasingly forlorn resistance but was captured in June 1283 and was hanged, drawn and quartered at Shrewsbury. In effect, Wales became England's first colony until it was formally annexed through the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542.
Late Middle Ages: 1283–1542
to consolidate his conquestAfter passing the Statute of Rhuddlan, which restricted Welsh law, King Edward's ring of impressive stone castles assisted the domination of Wales, and he crowned his conquest by giving the title Prince of Wales to his son and heir in 1301.[27] Wales became, effectively, part of England, even though its people spoke a different language and had a different culture. English kings appointed a Council of Wales, sometimes presided over by the heir to the throne. This Council normally sat in Ludlow, now in England but at that time still part of the disputed border area in the Welsh Marches. Welsh literature, particularly poetry, continued to flourish however, with the lesser nobility now taking over from the princes as the patrons of the poets. Dafydd ap Gwilym, who flourished in the middle of the 14th century, is considered by many to be the greatest of the Welsh poets.
There were a number of rebellions including ones led by
In 1400, a Welsh nobleman, Owain Glyndŵr, revolted against Henry IV of England. Owain inflicted a number of defeats on the English forces and for a few years controlled most of Wales. Some of his achievements included holding the first Welsh Parliament at Machynlleth and plans for two universities. Eventually the king's forces were able to regain control of Wales and the rebellion died out, but Owain himself was never captured. His rebellion caused a great upsurge in Welsh identity and he was widely supported by Welsh people throughout the country.[30]
As a response to Glyndŵr's rebellion, the English parliament passed the
In the
In 1485 Jasper's nephew, Henry Tudor, landed in Wales with a small force to launch his bid for the throne of England. Henry was of Welsh descent, counting princes such as Rhys ap Gruffydd among his ancestors, and his cause gained much support in Wales. Henry defeated King Richard III of England at the Battle of Bosworth Field with an army containing many Welsh soldiers and gained the throne as Henry VII of England. Henry VII again created a Council of Wales and the Marches for his son Prince Arthur.[32]
Under his son,
See also
- King of the Britons
- King of Wales
- List of rulers of Wales
- Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
- Sub-Roman Britain
Notes
- ^ Lynch 1995, p. 126.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 52.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, pp. 143–159.
- ^ Charles-Edwards 2013, p. 345.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, p. 131.
- ^ Maund 2006, p. 36.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 64.
- ^ Davies 1994, pp. 65–66.
- ^ For a discussion of this, see Stephenson 1984, pp. 138–141.
- ^ Maund 2006, pp. 50–54.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, p. 337.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, pp. 343–344.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, pp. 351–352.
- ^ Maund 2006, pp. 87–97.
- ^ Maund, K. L. 1991, p. 64.
- ^ a b Davies 1987, pp. 28–30.
- ^ Davies 2000, p. 27.
- ^ Davies 2000, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Maund 2006, p. 110.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, p. 398.
- ^ Maund 2006, pp. 162–171.
- ^ Lloyd 1911b, pp. 508–509.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, p. 536.
- ^ Moore 2005, pp. 108–109.
- ^ Moore 2005, p. 124.
- ^ Lloyd 1911b, p. 693.
- ^ Davies 1987, p. 386.
- ^ Moore 2005, p. 159.
- ^ Moore 2005, pp. 164–166.
- ^ Moore 2005, pp. 169–185.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 199.
- ^ Williams 1987, pp. 217–226.
- ^ Williams 1987, pp. 268–273.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 233.
References
- Capelli, Cristian; Redhead, Nicola; Abernethy, Julia K.; Gratrix, Fiona; Wilson, James F.; Moen, Torolf; Hervig, Tor; et al. (2003). "A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles" (PDF). Current Biology. 13 (11). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cell Press: 979–984. S2CID 526263. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
- Charles-Edwards, T. M. (2013). Wales and the Britons, 350-1064. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-821731-2.
- ISBN 0-14-014581-8.
- ISBN 0-19-821732-3.
- Davies, R. R. (2000). The Age of Conquest. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820878-5.
- Lloyd, John Edward (1911a). A History of Wales: From the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest. Vol. I. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. Retrieved 19 January 2016 – via Internet Archive.
- Lloyd, John Edward (1911b). A History of Wales: From the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest. Vol. II. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. – via Internet Archive.
- Lynch, Frances M. B. (May 1995). Gwynedd: A Guide to Ancient and Historic Wales. ISBN 978-0-117015-74-6.
- Maund, K. L. (1991), Ireland, Wales, and England in the Eleventh Century, Boydell & Brewer Ltd, ISBN 978-0-85115-533-3
- Maund, Kari (2006). The Welsh Kings: Warriors, Warlords and Princes (3rd ed.). Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-2973-6.
- Moore, David (2005). The Welsh Wars of Independence: c.410–c.1415. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-7524-3321-9.
- Stephenson, David (1984). The Governance of Gwynedd. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 0-7083-0850-3.
- ISBN 978-0-19-821733-6.