History of anarchism

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    According to different scholars, the history of anarchism either goes back to ancient and prehistoric ideologies and social structures, or begins in the 19th century as a formal movement. As scholars and anarchist philosophers have held a range of views on what anarchism means, it is difficult to outline its history unambiguously. Some feel anarchism is a distinct, well-defined movement stemming from 19th-century class conflict, while others identify anarchist traits long before the earliest civilisations existed.

    religious sects espoused libertarian thought, and the Age of Enlightenment, and the attendant rise of rationalism and science
    , signalled the birth of the modern anarchist movement.

    Alongside

    First International in 1872. Anarchists participated enthusiastically in the Russian Revolution, but as soon as the Bolsheviks established their authority, anarchist movements, most notably the Makhnovshchina and the Kronstadt rebellion
    , were harshly suppressed.

    Anarchism played a historically prominent role during the

    labor unions
    in the cities and collectivised agriculture in the country, but ended in the defeat of the anarchists.

    In the 1960s, anarchism re-emerged as a global political and cultural force. In association with the

    Rojava revolution
    .

    Background

    Τhere has been some controversy over the

    class struggle. Others feel this perspective is far too narrow.[2][3] While the former group examines anarchism as a phenomenon that occurred during the 19th century, the latter group looks to ancient history to trace anarchism's roots.[4] Anarchist philosopher Murray Bookchin describes the continuation of the "legacy of freedom" of humankind (i.e. the revolutionary moments) that existed throughout history, in contrast with the "legacy of domination" which consists of states, capitalism and other organisational forms.[5]

    The three most common forms of defining anarchism are the "etymological" (an-archei, without a ruler, but anarchism is not merely a negation); the "anti-statism" (while this seems to be pivotal, it certainly does not describe the essence of anarchism); and the "anti-authoritarian" definition (denial of every kind of authority, which over-simplifies anarchism).[6][7] Along with the definition debates, the question of whether it is a philosophy, a theory or a series of actions complicates the issue.[8] Philosophy professor Alejandro de Agosta proposes that anarchism is "a decentralized federation of philosophies as well as practices and ways of life, forged in different communities and affirming diverse geohistories".[9]

    Precursors

    Main article: Precursors to anarchism

    Prehistoric and ancient era

    Many scholars of anarchism, including anthropologists Harold Barclay and David Graeber, claim that some form of anarchy dates back to prehistory. The longest period of human existence, that before the recorded history of human society, was without a separate class of established authority or formal political institutions.[10][11] Long before anarchism emerged as a distinct perspective, humans lived for thousands of years in self-governing societies without a special ruling or political class.[12] It was only after the rise of hierarchical societies that anarchist ideas were formulated as a critical response to, and a rejection of, coercive political institutions and hierarchical social relationships.[13]

    professor emeritus of history at California State University Milton W. Meyer has stated that in his opinion, early Taoists were "early anarchists" who believed in concepts often found in states such as anti-intellectualism and "laissez-faire".[18] Taoist anarchists did not believe in religious traditions such as rituals and the concepts of morality and good and evil.[18]

    Diogenes of Sinope
    advocated anarchistic forms of society

    Some convictions and ideas deeply held by modern anarchists were first expressed in

    courts or police, no temples and no public worship, and use no money—free gifts taking the place of monetary exchanges.[10][25]

    tyranny.[27]

    Among the ancient precursors of anarchism are often ignored movements within ancient

    Tanakh as well as in New Testament texts.[28]

    Middle Ages

    An illustration of the execution of Iranian prophet Mazdak
    The execution of Mazdak, an anarchist precursor in the Middle East whose followers faced the same fate

    In Persia during the Middle Ages a

    Najdiyya Khirijites. This form of revolutionary Islam was not communist or egalitarian. It did not resemble current concepts of anarchism, but preached the State was harmful, illegitimate, immoral and unnecessary.[30]

    In Europe, Christianity was overshadowing all aspects of life. The Brethren of the Free Spirit was the most notable example of heretic belief that had some vague anarchistic tendencies. They held anticleric sentiments and believed in total freedom. Even though most of their ideas were individualistic, the movement had a social impact, instigating riots and rebellions in Europe for many years.[31] Other anarchistic religious movements in Europe during the Middle Ages included the Hussites and Adamites.[32]

    20th-century historian James Joll described anarchism as two opposing sides. In the Middle Ages, zealotic and ascetic religious movements emerged, which rejected institutions, laws and the established order. In the 18th century another anarchist stream emerged based on rationalism and logic. These two currents of anarchism later blended to form a contradictory movement that resonated with a very broad audience.[33]

    Renaissance and early modern era

    See also: Anarchism and religion and Christian anarchism

    With the spread of the

    Etienne de la Boetie wrote his Discourse on Voluntary Servitude where he argued that tyranny resulted from voluntary submission and could be abolished by the people refusing to obey the authorities above them. Later still in France, Gabriel de Foigny perceived a utopia with freedom-loving people without government and no need of religion, as he wrote in The Southern Land, Known. For this, Geneva authorities jailed de Foigny. François Fénelon also used utopia to project his political views in the book Les Aventures de Télémaque that infuriated Louis XIV.[34]

    Some

    Anabaptists) are sometimes credited as the religious forerunners of modern anarchism. Even though the Reformation was a religious movement and strengthened the state, it also opened the way for the humanistic values of the French Revolution.[35] During the English Civil War, Christian anarchism found one of its most articulate exponents in Gerrard Winstanley, who was part of the Diggers movement. He published a pamphlet, The New Law of Righteousness, calling for communal ownership and social and economic organisation in small agrarian communities. Drawing on the Bible, he argued that "the blessings of the earth" should "be common to all" and "none Lord over others".[10] William Blake has also been said to have espoused an anarchistic political position.[27]

    In the

    Nouveaux voyages dans l'Amérique septentrionale, 1703 (New Voyages in Northern America). He described indigenous American society as having no state, laws, prisons, priests or private property as being in anarchy.[36]

    The

    Quaker sect, mostly because of their ahierarchical governance and social relations, based on their beliefs of the divine spirit universally within all people and humanity's absolute equality, had some anarchistic tendencies; such values must have influenced Benjamin Tucker the editor and publisher of the individualist anarchist periodical Liberty.[37][38]

    Early anarchism

    Developments of the 18th century

    Modern anarchism grew from the secular and humanistic thought of the Enlightenment. The scientific discoveries that preceded the Enlightenment gave thinkers of the time confidence that humans can reason for themselves. When nature was tamed through science, society could be set free. The development of anarchism was strongly influenced by the works of Jean Meslier, Baron d'Holbach, whose materialistic worldview later resonated with anarchists, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, especially in his Discourse on Inequality and arguments for the moral centrality of freedom. Rousseau affirmed the goodness in the nature of men and viewed the state as fundamentally oppressive. Denis Diderot's Supplément au voyage de Bougainville (The Supplement to the Voyage of Bougainville) was also influential.[39][40]

    Illustration of the painting Storming of the Bastille
    The Storming of the Bastille inspired generations of anarchists

    The

    Jean Varlet wrote in 1794 that "government and revolution are incompatible, unless the people wish to set its constituted authorities in permanent insurrection against itself".[10][42] In his Manifeste des Égaux (Manifesto of the Equals) of 1801, Sylvain Maréchal looked forward to the disappearance, once and for all, of "the revolting distinction between rich and poor, of great and small, of masters and valets, of governors and governed".[10] The French Revolution came to depict in the minds of anarchists that as soon as rebels seize power they become the new tyrants, as evidenced by the state-orchestrated violence of the Reign of Terror. The proto-anarchist groups of Enragés and sans-culottes were ultimately executed by guillotine.[43]

    The debate over the effects of the French Revolution on the anarchist cause continues to this day. To anarchist historian Max Nettlau, French revolutions did nothing more than re-shape and modernise the militaristic state.[44] Russian revolutionary and anarchist thinker Peter Kropotkin, however, traced the origins of the anarchist movement to the struggle of the revolutionaries.[45] In a more moderate approach, independent scholar Sean Sheehan points out that the French Revolution proved that even the strongest political establishments can be overthrown.[46]

    Painted portrait of William Godwin
    William Godwin, a founder of modern anarchist theory

    property rights and even the institution of marriage. He considered the basic foundations of society as constraining the natural development of individuals to use their powers of reasoning to arrive at a mutually beneficial method of social organisation. In each case, government and its institutions are shown to constrain the development of one's capacity to live wholly in accordance with the full and free exercise of private judgement.[52]

    Proudhon and Stirner

    Portrait photograph of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
    Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, the first self-described anarchist and founder of mutualism

    Frenchman

    free associations of individuals are linked in a decentralised federation based on a "Bank of the People" that supplies workers with free credit.[55][56] He contrasted this with what he called "possession", or limited ownership of resources and goods only while in more or less continuous use. Later, Proudhon also added that "Property is liberty" and argued that it was a bulwark against state power.[57]

    Mutualists would later play an important role in the

    First International, especially at the first two Congresses held in Geneva and Lausanne, but diminished in European influence with the rise of anarcho-communism. Instead, Mutualism would find fertile ground among American individualists in the late 19th century.[56]

    In Spain,

    Catalan politician Francesc Pi i Margall became the principal translator of Proudhon's works into Spanish.[59] He would later briefly become president of Spain in 1873 while leader of the Democratic Republican Federal Party,[59] where he tried to implement some of Proudhon's ideas.[58]

    An influential form of individualist anarchism called egoism or egoist anarchism, was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, German philosopher Max Stirner.[60][61] Stirner's The Ego and Its Own (German: Der Einzige und sein Eigentum; also translated as The Individual and his Property or The Unique and His Property), published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.[61] Stirner was critical of capitalism as it creates class warfare where the rich will exploit the poor, using the state as its tool.[62] He also rejected religions, communism and liberalism, as all of them subordinate individuals to God, a collective, or the state.[63] According to Stirner the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire, without regard for God, state, or morality.[64] He held that society does not exist, but "the individuals are its reality".[65] Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will, which proposed as a form of organisation in place of the state.[66][67] Egoist anarchists claimed that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.[68] Stirner was proposing an individual rebellion, which would not seek to establish new institutions nor anything resembling a state.[63]

    Revolutions of 1848

    Europe was shocked by another revolutionary wave in 1848 which started once again in Paris. The new government, consisting mostly of Jacobins, was backed by the working class but failed to implement meaningful reforms. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Russian revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin were involved in the events of 1848. The failure of the revolution shaped Proudhon's views. He became convinced that a revolution should aim to destroy authority, not grasp power. He saw capitalism as the root of social problems and government, using political tools only, as incapable of confronting the real issues.[69] The course of events of 1848, radicalised Bakunin who, due to the failure of the revolutions, lost his confidence in any kind of reform.[70]

    Other anarchists active in the 1848 Revolution in France include Anselme Bellegarrigue, Ernest Coeurderoy and the early anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque, who was the first person to call himself a libertarian.[71] Unlike Proudhon, Déjacque argued that "it is not the product of his or her labour that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature".[72] Déjacque was also a critic of Proudhon's mutualist theory and anti-feminist views.[10] Returning to New York, he was able to serialise his book in his periodical Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement social.[73] The French anarchist movement, though self-described as "mutualists", started gaining pace during 1860s as workers' associations began to form.[74]

    Classical anarchism

    The decades of the late 19th and the early 20th centuries constitute the

    working class struggles (alongside Marxism) in Europe as well as the Americas, Asia, and Oceania.[75][80] Modernism, mass migration, railroads and access to printing all helped anarchists to advance their causes.[81]

    First International and Paris Commune

    collectivist anarchist who clashed with Karl Marx at the Hague Congress of 1872 causing a schism in the First International[82][83]

    In 1864, the creation of the International Workingmen's Association (IWA, also called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents including socialist Marxists, trade unionists, communists and anarchists.[84][85] Karl Marx was a leading figure of the International and a member of its General Council.[86][87]

    Four years later, in 1868,

    centralist. Because of this, he predicted if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the ruling class they had fought against.[91] Followers of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, the mutualists, also opposed Marx's state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings.[86][87]

    Meanwhile, an uprising after the

    Blanquists and to a lesser extent Marxists. The uprising was greatly influenced by anarchists and had a great impact on anarchist history.[92] Radical socialist views, like Proudhonian federalism, were implemented to a small extent. Most importantly the workers proved they could run their own services and factories. After the defeat of the Commune, anarchists like Eugène Varlin, Louise Michel, and Élisée Reclus were shot or imprisoned.[93] Socialist ideas were persecuted in France for a decade. Leading members of the International who survived the bloody suppression of the Commune fled to Switzerland where the Anarchist St. Imier International would later be formed.[92]

    In 1872, the conflict between Marxists and anarchists climaxed. Marx had, since 1871, proposed the creation of a political party, which anarchists found to be an appalling and unacceptable prospect. Various groups (including Italian sections, the Belgian Federation and the

    1872 Hague Congress. They saw it as an attempt to create state socialism that would ultimately fail to emancipate humanity. In contrast, they proposed political struggle through social revolution.[94] Finally, anarchists were expelled from the First International. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the St. Imier Congress, adopting a revolutionary anarchist programme.[72]

    Emergence of anarcho-communism

    Photographic portrait of Peter Kropotkin
    Peter Kropotkin, a prominent anarcho-communist thinker who aimed to ground anarchism in scientific theory[95]

    First International.[96][97] It was the convincing critique of Carlo Cafiero and Errico Malatesta that paved the way for anarcho-communism to surpass collectivism, arguing that collectivism would inevitably end in competition and inequality.[98] Essayist Alain Pengam comments that between 1880 and 1890 the perspective of a revolution was thought to be closed. Anarcho-communists had anti-organisational tendencies, opposed political and trade union struggles (such as the eight-hour day) as being overly reformist, and in some cases favoured acts of terrorism.[99] Finding themselves increasingly isolated, they opted to join the workers' movements after 1890.[99]

    With the aid of Peter Kropotkin's optimism and persuasive writing, anarcho-communism became the major anarchist current in Europe and abroad—except Spain where anarcho-syndicalism prevailed.[100] The theoretical work of Kropotkin and Errico Malatesta grew in importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organisationalist and insurrectionary anti-organisationalist sections.[99] Kropotkin elaborated on the theory behind the revolution of anarcho-communism saying, "it is the risen people who are the real agent and not the working class organised in the enterprise (the cells of the capitalist mode of production) and seeking to assert itself as labour power, as a more 'rational' industrial body or social brain (manager) than the employers".[99]

    Organised labour and syndicalism

    An engraving by Walter Crane of the Chicago anarchists executed following the Haymarket affair
    A sympathetic engraving by Walter Crane of the Chicago anarchists executed following the Haymarket affair, a highly significant event for international May Day observances
    Artistic depiction of Haymarket Affair

    Due to a high influx of European immigrants, Chicago was the centre of the American anarchist movement during the 19th century. On

    reformist.[101] On May 3, a fight broke out in Chicago when strikebreakers attempted to cross the picket line. Two workers died when police opened fire on the crowd.[102] The next day anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.[103] A bomb was thrown from a side alley.[104] In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.[105] Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.[106] Eight anarchists, directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally, were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officers. They became international political celebrities in the labour movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide before his execution. The incident became known as the Haymarket affair and was a setback for the movement and the struggle for the eight-hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organise for the eight-hour day was made. It had the secondary purpose of memorialising those workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.[107] Although it had initially been conceived as a one-off event, by the following year the commemoration of International Workers' Day on May Day had become firmly established as an international workers' holiday.[108]

    labour syndicates should focus not only on the conditions and wages of workers but also on revolutionary objectives.[109]

    The French

    Confédération Générale du Travail (General Confederation of Labour) was one of Europe's most prominent syndicalist organisations and, while rejecting illegalism, was heavily influenced by anarchism.[113] As a grassroots organisation and lab for revolutionary ideas, its structure was exported to other like-minded European organisations. The organisation would later take a reformist path after 1914.[114]

    In 1907, the International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam gathered delegates from most European countries, the United States, Japan and Latin America.[115] A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and trade unionism.[116] Errico Malatesta and Pierre Monatte strongly disagreed on this issue. Monatte thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions for a social revolution, while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.[117][118] He thought the trade-union movement was reformist and even conservative, citing the phenomenon of professional union officials as essentially bourgeois and anti-worker. Malatesta warned that the syndicalist aims were of perpetuating syndicalism itself, whereas anarchists must always have anarchy as their end goal and consequently must refrain from committing to any particular method of achieving it.[119]

    In Spain, syndicalism had grown significantly during the 1880s but the first anarchist related organisations didn't flourish. In 1910 however, the

    Federación Obrera Regional Argentina (Argentine Regional Workers' Federation) reached a quarter of a million members, surpassing social democratic unions.[122]

    By the early 20th century, revolutionary syndicalism had spread across the world, from Latin America to Eastern Europe and Asia, with most of its activity then taking place outside of Western Europe.[123]

    Propaganda of the deed

    Main article: Propaganda of the deed
    enemies of the people

    The use of revolutionary

    Sergei Nechaev who developed significant insurrectionary strategies.[129]

    Paul Brousse, a medical doctor and active militant of violent insurrection, popularised the actions of propaganda of the deed.[130][74] In the United States, Johann Most advocated publicising violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda".[131] Russian anarchist-communists employed terrorism and illegal acts in their struggle.[132] Numerous heads of state were assassinated or attacked by members of the anarchist movement.[133] In 1901, the Polish-American anarchist Leon Czolgosz assassinated the president of the United States, William McKinley. Emma Goldman, who was erroneously suspected of being involved, expressed some sympathy for Czolgosz and incurred a great deal of negative publicity.[134] Goldman also supported Alexander Berkman in his failed assassination attempt of steel industrialist Henry Frick in the wake of the Homestead Strike, and she wrote about how these small acts of violence were incomparable to the deluge of violence regularly committed by the state and capital.[135] In Europe, a wave of illegalism (the embracement of a criminal way of life) spread throughout the anarchist movement, with Marius Jacob, Ravachol, intellectual Émile Henry and the Bonnot Gang being notable examples. The Bonnot Gang in particular justified illegal and violent behavior by claiming that they were "taking back" property that did not rightfully belong to capitalists.[136][137] In Russia, Narodnaya Volya ("People's Will" which was not an anarchist organisation but nevertheless drew inspiration from Bakunin's work), assassinated Tsar Alexander II in 1881 and gained some popular support. However, for the most part, the anarchist movement in Russia remained marginal in the following years.[138][139]

    As early as 1887, important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves from both illegalism and propaganda of the deed. Peter Kropotkin, for example, wrote in Le Révolté that "a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite".

    State repression of the anarchist and labour movements, including the infamous 1894 French lois scélérates ("villainous laws"), following a number of successful bombings and assassinations may have contributed to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although state repression may have played an equal role in their adoption.[128] Early proponents of propaganda of the deed, like Alexander Berkman, started to question the legitimacy of violence as a tactic. A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favour of collective revolutionary action through the trade union movement.[142][143][144]

    By the end of the 19th century, it became clear that propaganda of the deed was not going to spark a revolution. Though it was employed by only a minority of anarchists, it gave anarchism a violent reputation and it isolated anarchists from broader social movements.[145] It was abandoned by the majority of the anarchist movement in the early 20th century.[146]


    Revolutionary wave

    Nestor Makhno of Ukraine (left) and Ricardo Flores Magón of Mexico (right), prominent anarchist revolutionaries of the 20th century

    The

    autonomous region of four hundred square miles with a population of approximately seven million. Anarchists who had fought in the Russian Civil War at first against the anti-Bolshevik White Army now also fought the Red Army, Ukrainian People's Army, and the German and Austrian forces who fought under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.[153] This conflict culminated in the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion, a garrison in Kronstadt where Baltic Fleet sailors and citizens made demands for reforms. The new government suppressed the rebellion.[152] The Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine, led by Nestor Makhno, continued to fight until August 1921 when it was crushed by the state only months after the Kronstadt rebellion.[154][155]

    Confédération Générale du Travail (General Confederation of Labour) and Industrial Workers of the World left these organisations to join the Communist International.[158]

    From the collapse of anarchism in the newly formed

    Dielo Truda by a group of Russian exiles, including Nestor Makhno. Their main objective, as proponent Piotr Arsinov wrote, was to create a non-hierarchical party that would offer "common organisation of our forces on a basis of collective responsibility and collective methods of action".[159][157] They considered that a lack of organisation was a basic reason of why anarchism had failed. Platformism had the purpose of providing a strategy for class struggle, as Bakunin and Kropotkin had suggested before.[160] The other trend emerged as an organisational alternative to platformism, since it had similarities to party structure. Anarchist intellectual Volin was one of the most notable opponents of platformism, and he pointed toward to what is today known as synthesis anarchism.[161]

    During the German Revolution of 1918–1919, anarchists Gustav Landauer and Erich Mühsam took important leadership positions within the revolutionary councilist structures of the Bavarian Soviet Republic.[162] In Italy, the syndicalist trade union Unione Sindacale Italiana (Italian Syndicalist Union), had half a million members. It played a prominent role in events known as the Biennio Rosso ("Two Red Years") and Settimana Rossa ("Red Week"). In the latter, the monarchy was almost overthrown.[163]

    In

    'Land and Liberty').[164] Magón's journal Regeneración ('Regeneration') had a significant circulation, and he helped urban workers turn to anarcho-syndicalism. He also influenced the Zapata movement.[165]

    armed robbery and the murders of two people in 1920. After a controversial trial and a series of appeals they were sentenced to death and executed on 23 August 1927.[166] Following their deaths, critical opinion overwhelmingly held that the two men were convicted largely because of their anarchist political beliefs and were unjustly executed.[167] After the Sacco and Vanzetti case, and despite worldwide protests and mainstream media headlines, the anarchist movement faded in the United States.[166][168]

    Rise of fascism

    Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists.

    Anteo Zamboni narrowly failed an assassination attempt against Benito Mussolini. Italian anarchists formed various partisan groups during World War II.[173]

    In France, where the

    dissident Marxists and anarchists.[177]

    In Germany, the Nazis crushed anarchism upon seizing power.[162] Apart from Spain, nowhere else could the anarchist movement provide a solid resistance to various fascist regimes throughout Europe.[178]

    Spanish Revolution

    Map of Spain depicting the areas of Nationalist/Franco control along its west and Republican (communist/anarchist) control along its east
    Map of Spain in September 1936 with republican/anarchist control depicted in purple

    The Spanish Revolution of 1936 was the first and only time that libertarian socialism became an imminent reality. It stood on the ground of a strong anarchist movement in Spain that dated back to the 19th century. Anarchist groups enjoyed broad social support particularly in Barcelona, Aragon, Andalusia, Levante. Anarchism in Spain leaned towards syndicalism and this yielded to the formation of the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) in 1910.[179] The CNT declared that its aim was a libertarian communist society and was organising strikes all over Spain.[180] The Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI) was founded later to keep CNT on a pure anarchist path amidst dictator Miguel Primo de Rivera's crackdown on labour movements.[179][181] The Second Spanish Republic was pronounced in 1931 and brought to power a Republican–Socialist alliance. But instead of the high hopes of the CNT (mostly among gradualists) and others, the repression of the labour movement continued. FAI gained more control of CNT.[182]

    In 1936, the

    anarcho-feminist group Mujeres Libres (Free Women) had an active role in the social transformation in Barcelona. This rebellious culture impressed visitors such as George Orwell. Enterprises and farms were collectivised, and working conditions improved drastically. In rural Aragon money was abolished and the economy was collectivised.[185][186] Villages were run by popular assemblies in a direct democratic fashion, without coercing individuals to join.[187] Anarchist militia columns, fighting without martial discipline or military rank, despite shortages in military materials, made significant gains at the war front.[188]

    Anarchist Buenaventura Durruti was renowned for his actions in the Spanish Revolution

    Anarchists of CNT-FAI faced a major dilemma after the coup had failed in July 1936: either continue their fight against the state or join the anti-fascist left-wing parties and form a government. They opted for the latter and by November 1936, four members of CNT-FAI became ministers in the government of the former trade unionist Francisco Largo Caballero. This was justified by CNT-FAI as a historical necessity since war was being waged, but other prominent anarchists disagreed, both on principle and as a tactical move.[189] In November 1936 the prominent anarcho-feminist Federica Montseny was installed as minister of Health—the first woman in Spanish history to become a cabinet minister.[190]

    During the course of the events of the Spanish Revolution, anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the

    Stalinists of the Spanish Communist Party, who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republicans received from the Soviet Union.[191] Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both dissident Marxists and anarchists.[177] The fight among anarchists and communists escalated during the May Days, as the Soviet Union sought to control the Republicans.[191]

    The 1939 defeat of Republican Spain marked the end of anarchism's classical period.[192][193] In light of continual anarchist defeats, one can argue about the naivety of 19th-century anarchist thinking—the establishment of state and capitalism was too strong to be destroyed. According to political philosophy professor Ruth Kinna and lecturer Alex Prichard, it is uncertain whether these defeats were the result of a functional error within the anarchist theories, as New Left intellectuals suggested some decades later, or the social context that prevented the anarchists from fulfilling their ambitions. What is certain, though, is that their critique of state and capitalism ultimately proved right, as the world was marching towards totalitarianism and fascism.[194]

    Anarchism in the colonial world

    As empires and capitalism were expanding at the turn of the century, so was anarchism which soon flourished in Latin America, East Asia, South Africa and Australia.[195]

    Photograph of an anarchist demonstration in Argentina
    Anarchist demonstration in Argentina, around 1900

    Anarchism found fertile ground in Asia and was the most vibrant ideology among other socialist currents during the first decades of 20th century. The works of European philosophers, especially Kropotkin's, were popular among revolutionary youth. Intellectuals tried to link anarchism to earlier philosophical currents in Asia, like Taoism,

    anti-statist.[203]

    Anarchism travelled to the

    egalitarian. It had some anarchist elements, without class divisions, formal hierarchies and access to the means of production by all members of the localities. African Communalism was far from being an ideal anarchist society. Gender privileges were apparent, feudalism and slavery did exist in a few areas but not on a mass scale.[204]

    Anarchism travelled to Latin America through European immigrants. The most impressive presence was in

    Sao Paulo as well saw the growth of anarchist pockets. Anarchists had a much larger impact on trade unions than their authoritarian left counterparts.[201][205] In Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil, a strong anarcho-syndicalist current was formed—partly because of the rapid industrialisation of these countries. In 1905, anarchists took control of the Argentine Regional Workers' Federation (FORA) in Argentina, overshadowing social democrats. Likewise, in Uruguay, FORU was created by anarchists in 1905. These syndicates organised a series of general strikes in the following years. After this the success of the Bolsheviks, anarchism gradually declined in these three countries which had been the strongholds of anarchism in Latin America.[206] It is worth noting that the notion of imported anarchism in Latin America has been challenged, as slave rebellions appeared in Latin America before the arrival of European anarchists.[207]

    Anarchists became involved in the anti-colonial national-independence struggles of the early 20th century. Anarchism inspired anti-authoritarian and egalitarian ideals among national independence movements, challenging the nationalistic tendencies of many national liberation movements.[208]

    Individualist anarchism

    In the United States

    Photograph of Henry David Thoreau
    Henry David Thoreau, a prominent figure of early American individualism

    American anarchism has its roots in religious groups that fled Europe to escape religious persecution during the 17th century. It sprouted towards individual anarchism as distrust of government was widespread in North America during the next centuries. In sharp contrast with their European counterparts, according to the scholar Marshall, American anarchism was leaning towards individualism and was mainly pro-capitalist, hence described as right-wing libertarianism; however Marshall later stated that capitalism and anarchism are incompatible and American anarchists like Tucker and Spooner were left libertarians.[209] The scholar Martin stated the American anarchists were mutualist anarchists in support of the labor theory of value.[210] American anarchist justified private property as the safeguard of personal autonomy.[211] Henry David Thoreau was an important early influence on individualist anarchist thought in the United States in the mid 19th century. He was skeptical towards government—in his work Civil Disobedience he declared that "That government is best which governs least". He has frequently been cited as an anarcho-individualist, even though he was never rebellious.[212][23] Josiah Warren was, at the late 19th century, a prominent advocate of a variant of mutualism called equitable commerce, a fair trade system where the price of a product is based on labor effort instead of the cost of manufacturing.[213][214] Benjamin Tucker, also influenced by Proudhon, was the editor of the prominent anarchist journal Liberty and a proponent of individualism.[215][214]

    In the shade of individualism, there was also anarcho-Christianism as well as some socialist pockets, especially in Chicago.[216] It was after Chicago's bloody protests in 1886 when the anarchist movement became known nationwide. But anarchism quickly declined when it was associated with terrorist violence.[214][217]

    An important concern for American individualist anarchism was free love. Free love particularly stressed women's rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women, for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.[218] Openly bisexual radical Edna St. Vincent Millay and lesbian anarchist Margaret Anderson were prominent among them. Discussion groups organised by the Villagers were frequented by Emma Goldman, among others.[219]

    A heated debate among American individualist anarchists of that era was the natural rights versus egoistic approaches. Proponents of naturals rights claimed that without them brutality would prevail, while egoists were proposing that there is no such right, it only restricted the individual. Benjamin Tucker, who tried to determine a scientific base for moral right or wrong, ultimately sided with the latter.[220]

    The

    Montessori methods and equipment, and emphasised academic freedom rather than fixed subjects, such as spelling and arithmetic.[222]

    In Europe and the arts

    Anarchism's social theory paralleled neo-impressionist aesthetics (Pissarro's The Garden of the Tuileries on a Spring Morning pictured). Both currents favoured the harmonious blending of nature, physical laws, science and society as a synthesis of ideals and reality.[223][224]

    European individualist anarchism proceeded from the roots laid by William Godwin and Max Stirner.[225] Many artists, poets and writers interested in freedom were exploring different aspects of anarchism.[226][227] Anarcho-individualists were more interested in personal development, challenging the social norms and demanding sexual freedom rather than engaging in social struggles.[228]

    Stirnerist Émile Armand who was a defender of polyamory and homosexuality.[234]

    Post-war

    Following the end of the Spanish Civil War and World War II, the anarchist movement was a "ghost" of its former self, as proclaimed by anarchist historian

    Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements published 1962, he wrote that after 1936 it was "a ghost that inspires neither fear among governments nor hope among peoples nor even interest among newspapermen".[236] Capitalism continued to grow throughout the post-war period despite predictions from Marxist scholars that it would soon collapse under its own contradictions, yet anarchism gained a surprising surge in popular interest during the 1960s. Reasons for this were believed to be the gradual demystification of the Soviet Union and tensions at the climax of the Cold War.[237][238] The New Left, which arose in the 1950s, was a libertarian socialist movement that was closer to anarchism. Prominent thinkers such as Herbert Marcuse and Wright Mills were critical of United States and Soviet Marxism.[239]

    Neither gods nor masters; The more you consume the less you live; All power to the imagination; Be realistic: demand the impossible.[240]

    In France, a wave of protests and demonstrations confronted the right-wing government of Charles de Gaulle in May 1968. Even though the anarchists had a minimal role, the events of May had a significant impact on anarchism.[241][242] There were huge demonstrations with crowds in some places reaching one million participants. Strikes were called in many major cities and towns involving seven million workers—all grassroots, bottom-up and spontaneously organised.[243] Various committees were formed at universities, lyceums, and in neighbourhoods, mostly having anti-authoritarian tendencies.[244] Slogans that resonated with libertarian ideas were prominent such as: "I take my desires for reality, because I believe in the reality of my desires."[245] Even though the spirit of the events leaned mostly towards libertarian communism, some authors draw a connection to anarchism.[246] The wave of protests eased when a 10% pay raise was granted and national elections were proclaimed. The paving stones of Paris were only covering some reformist victories.[247] Nevertheless, the 1968 events inspired a new confidence in anarchism as workers' management, self-determination, grassroots democracy, antiauthoritarianism, and spontaneity became relevant once more. After decades of pessimism 1968 marked the revival of anarchism, either as a distinct ideology or as a part of other social movements.[248]

    Originally founded in 1957, The Situationist International rose to prominence during events of 1968 with the principal argument that life had turned into a "spectacle" because of the corrosive effect of capitalism.[249] They later dissolved in 1972.[250] The late 1960s saw the flourish of anarcha-feminism. It attacked the state, capitalism and patriarchy and was organized in a decentralised manner.[251] As the ecological crisis was becoming a greater threat to the planet, Murray Bookchin developed the next generation of anarchist thought. In his social ecology theory, he claims that certain social practises, and priorities threaten life on Earth. He goes further to identify the cause of such practises as social oppressions. Libertarian municipalism was his major advancement of anarchist thought—a proposal for the involvement of people in political struggles in decentralized federated villages or towns.[252]

    Contemporary anarchism

    Main article: Contemporary anarchism
    Anarchism has been a vital part of the anti-globalization movement. Here a block marches in Warsaw, 2004.

    The anthropology of anarchism has changed in the contemporary era as the traditional lines or ideas of the 19th century have been abandoned. Most anarchists are now younger activists informed with feminist and ecological concerns. They are involved in

    temporary autonomous zones, and events such as Carnival Against Capital.[253][254] These movements are not anarchist, but rather anarchistic.[254]

    Mexico saw another uprising at the turn of the 21st century.

    Syrian Civil War and Rojava's decentralized model is founded upon Bookchin's ideas of libertarian municipalism and social ecology within a secular framework and ethnic diversity.[256] Chiapas and Rojava share the same goal, to create a libertarian community despite being surrounded by state apparatus.[256]

    Anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and

    affinity groups and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet.[257][259] Occupy Wall Street movement had roots in anarchist philosophy.[260]

    According to anarchist scholar

    neo-liberalism [...] One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological, or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment, and disenfranchisement that is so palpable locally and globally".[261]

    See also

    • List of anarchist communities

    References

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    7. ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 27–29.
    8. ^ de Acosta 2009, p. 26.
    9. ^ de Acosta 2009, p. 33.
    10. ^ a b c d e f Graham 2005, pp. xi–xiv.
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    28. ^ Peter Marshall, Demanding the Impossible, PM Press, 2009, chapter 5.
    29. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 86.
    30. ^ Crone 2000, pp. 3, 21–25: Anarchist historian David Goodway is also convinced that the Muslim sects e Mu'tazilite and Najdite are part of anarchist history. (Interview in The Guardian 7 September 2011)
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    76. ^ Avrich 1982, p. 441, "... the classical age of anarchism, bounded by the Paris Commune and the Spanish Civil War ..."
    77. ^ Levy & Newman 2019, p. 12.
    78. ^ Cornell 2016, p. 5.
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    90. ^ Engel 2000, p. 140.
    91. ^ a b Bakunin 1991: Mikhail Bakunin wrote in 1873: "These elected representatives, say the Marxists, will be dedicated and learned socialists. The expressions "learned socialist," "scientific socialism," etc., which continuously appear in the speeches and writings of the followers of Lassalle and Marx, prove that the pseudo-People's State will be nothing but a despotic control of the populace by a new and not at all numerous aristocracy of real and pseudo-scientists. The "uneducated" people will be totally relieved of the cares of administration, and will be treated as a regimented herd. A beautiful liberation, indeed!"
      ; Goldman 2003, p. xx: Emma Goldman wrote in 1924 "My critic further charged me with believing that 'had the Russians made the Revolution à la Bakunin instead of à la Marx' the result would have been different and more satisfactory. I plead guilty to the charge. In truth, I not only believe so; I am certain of it."
      ; Avrich 1970, pp. 137–128: Paul Avrich wrote "But if Bakunin foresaw the anarchistic nature of the Russian Revolution, he also foresaw its authoritarian consequences..."
      ; Marshall 1993, p. 477: Peter Marshall writes "The result, anticipated so forcefully by Bakunin, was that the Bolshevik revolution made in the name of Marxism had degenerated into a form of State capitalism which operated in the interests of a new bureaucratic and managerial class."
      ; Mbah & Igariwey 1997, pp. 22–23: Igariwey and Mbah write "As Bakunin foresaw, retention of the state system under socialism would lead to a barrack regime..."
    92. ^ a b Woodcock 1962, pp. 288–290.
    93. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 435.
    94. ^ Graham 2019, pp. 334–335.
    95. ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 158–59.
    96. ^ Graham 2005, "Chapter 41: The "Anarchists".
    97. ^ Pernicone 2016, pp. 111–113.
    98. ^ Turcato 2019, p. 238.
    99. ^ a b c d Pengam 1987, pp. 60–82.
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    102. ^ Avrich 1984, p. 190.
    103. ^ Avrich 1984, p. 193.
    104. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 499
    105. ^ Avrich 1984, p. 209: Avrich is quoting Chicago Tribune, 27 June 1886
    106. ^ Zimmer 2019, p. 357.
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    112. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 264.
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    116. ^ Graham 2005, p. 206.
    117. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 444.
    118. ^ Graham 2005, pp. 206–208.
    119. ^ Skirda 2002, p. 89.
    120. ^ Zimmer 2019, p. 358.
    121. ^ Woodcock 1962, p. 375.
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    123. ^ Schmidt & van der Walt 2009.
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    125. ^ Graham 2019, p. 338.
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    128. ^ a b Anderson 2004.
    129. ^ Bantman 2019, p. 373.
    130. ^ Graham 2005, p. 150.
    131. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 415.
    132. ^ Pengam 1987, The Reformulation of Communist Anarchism in the 'International Working Men's Association' (IWMA).
    133. ^ Bantman 2019, p. 373
    134. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 398.
    135. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 404.
    136. ^ Woodcock 1962, p. 316.
    137. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 439.
    138. ^ a b Marshall 1993, p. 470.
    139. ^ Ivianski 1988, p. 49.
    140. ^ Billington 1999, p. 417.
    141. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 633: Marshall also quotes Kropotkin: "Personally I hate these explosions, but I cannot stand as a judge to condemn those who are driven to despair". Elsewhere he wrote: "Of all parties I now see only one party - the Anarchist - which respects human life, and loudly insists upon the abolition of capital punishment, prison torture and punishment of man by man altogether. All other parties teach every day their utter disrespect of human life."
    142. Tolstoy
    143. anarcho-syndicalist Fernand Pelloutier
      argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labor movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter"
    144. ^ Woodcock 1962, p. 15: Woodcock also mentions Malatesta and other prominent Italian anarchists in p.346
    145. ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 633–634.
    146. ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 634–636.
    147. ^ Dirlik 1991.
    148. ^ D'Agostino 2019, p. 423.
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    153. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 473.
    154. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 475.
    155. ^ D'Agostino 2019, p. 426.
    156. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 476.
    157. ^ a b Marshall 1993, p. 477.
    158. ^ Nomad 1966, p. 88.
    159. ^ Skirda 2002, pp. 122–123.
    160. ^ Skirda 2002, pp. 123–124.
    161. ^ Skirda 2002, p. 123.
    162. ^ a b Marshall 1993, p. 482.
    163. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 450.
    164. ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 510–511.
    165. ^ Woodcock 1962, p. 427.
    166. ^ a b Marshall 1993, p. 501.
    167. ^ Montgomery 1960, p. v.
    168. ^ Woodcock 1962, p. 467.
    169. ^ Holborow 2002.
    170. ^ Pugliese 2004, pp. 55–56.
    171. ^ Pugliese 2004, pp. 55–58.
    172. ^ Graham 2005, p. 408.
    173. ^ Goodway 2013, pp. 73–74.
    174. ^ Berry 1999, pp. 52–54.
    175. ^ a b Beevor 2006, p. 46.
    176. ^ Bolloten 1984, p. 1107.
    177. ^ a b Birchall 2004, p. 29.
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    179. ^ a b Yeoman 2019, pp. 429–430.
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    193. ^ Kinna & Prichard 2009, p. 271.
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    195. ^ Levy 2010, pp. 18–19.
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    200. ^ Dirlik 2010, p. 133.
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    202. ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 527–528.
    203. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 528.
    204. ^ Mbah & Igariwey 1997, pp. 28–29 & 33.
    205. ^ Laursen 2019, p. 157.
    206. ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 504–508.
    207. ^ Laursen 2019, pp. 157–58.
    208. ^ Laursen 2019, p. 162.
    209. ISBN 9781604860641
    210. ISBN 9780879260064
    211. ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 496–497.
    212. ^ Fiala 2013, Emerson and Thoreau on Anarchy and Civil Disobedience.
    213. ^ Wilbur 2019, p. 220.
    214. ^ a b c Marshall 1993, p. 499.
    215. ^ Wilbur 2019, pp. 220–222.
    216. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 498.
    217. ^ Wilbur 2019, p. 222.
    218. ^ Ryley 2019, p. 232.
    219. ^ Katz 1976.
    220. ^ McElroy 2003, pp. 52–56.
    221. ^ Avrich 2005, p. 212.
    222. ^ Avrich 2005, p. 230.
    223. ^ Roslak 1991, p. 381-83.
    224. ^ Hutton 2004.
    225. ^ Woodcock 1962, p. 20.
    226. ^ Goodway 2006, p. 9.
    227. ^ Conversi 2016, p. 7, Bohémiens, Artists, and Anarchists in Paris.
    228. ^ Bookchin 1995, 2. Individualist Anarchism and Reaction.
    229. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 440.
    230. Steinlen and Maximilien Luce
    231. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Matthew Arnold, Henry James, Hugo Ball, and Luis Buñuel
    232. ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 440–441.
    233. ^ Woodcock 1962, pp. 315–316.
    234. ^ Long 2013, p. 223.
    235. ^ Evren & Kinna 2015, p. 47.
    236. ^ Woodcock 1962, p. 468, epilogue.
    237. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 539
    238. ^ Thomas 1985, p. 4
    239. ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 540–542
    240. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 547.
    241. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 548
    242. ^ Berry 2019, p. 449.
    243. ^ Berry 2019, p. 453.
    244. ^ Berry 2019, p. 455.
    245. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 548.
    246. ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 546–547: Marshall names Daniel Guerin, Tom Nairn, Jean Maitron
    247. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 546: Peter Marshall makes a pun, commenting on the protestors: "They had failed to uncover the beach under the paving stones of Paris."
    248. ^ Berry 2019, pp. 457–465.
    249. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 551.
    250. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 553.
    251. ^ Marshall 1993, p. 557.
    252. ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 164–65.
    253. ^ Graeber & Grubacic 2004.
    254. ^ a b Kinna & Prichard 2009, p. 273.
    255. ^ Dupuis-Déri 2019, pp. 471–472.
    256. ^ a b Ramnath 2019, p. 691.
    257. ^ a b Rupert 2006, p. 66.
    258. ^ Dupuis-Déri 2019, p. 474.
    259. European Union meeting in Gothenburg (June 2001), the G8 Summit in Genoa (July 2001), the G20 summit in Toronto (2010) and the G20 summit in Hamburg
      (2017)."
    260. S2CID 144776094.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link
      )
    261. ^ Critchley 2013, p. 125.

    Sources

    Secondary sources (books and journals)

    Tertiary sources (encyclopedias and dictionaries)

    External links

    Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_anarchism&oldid=1219560129"