Chardonnay

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the grape variety. For the village in France, see Chardonnay, Saône-et-Loire.
"Moreau blanc" redirects here. For another French wine grape that is also known as Moreau blanc, see Gouais blanc.
"Gentil blanc" redirects here. For another wine grape that is also known as Gentil blanc, see Chasselas.
"Auvernat blanc" redirects here. For another wine grape that is also known as Auvernat blanc and shares several other synonyms with Chardonnay, see Savagnin.
Chardonnay
Chablis, white Burgundy, Champagne, Italian Franciacorta
Ideal soilChalk, limestone
HazardsMillerandage, powdery mildew, frost and coulure
VIVC number2455
Wine characteristics
Cool climateLean, crisp, high acidity
Medium climateHoney, tropical fruit

Chardonnay (

England to New Zealand. For new and developing wine regions, growing Chardonnay is seen as a 'rite of passage' and an easy entry into the international wine market.[3]

The Chardonnay grape itself is neutral, with many of the flavors commonly associated with the wine being derived from such influences as

Marlborough region of New Zealand), the flavors become more citrus, peach, and melon, while in very warm locations (such as the Central Coast AVA of California), more fig and tropical fruit notes such as banana and mango come out. Wines that have gone through malolactic fermentation tend to have softer acidity and fruit flavors with buttery mouthfeel and hazelnut notes.[5]

Chardonnay is an important component of many sparkling wines around the world, including Champagne and Franciacorta in Italy. Chardonnay's popularity peaked in the late 1980s, then gave way to a backlash among those wine connoisseurs who saw the grape as a leading negative component of the globalization of wine. Nonetheless, it is one of the most widely planted grape varieties, with 210,000 hectares (520,000 acres) worldwide, second only to Airén among white wine grapes and fifth among all wine grapes.[6]

History

Gouais blanc, one of the parent varieties of Chardonnay

For much of its history, a connection was assumed between Chardonnay and

indigenous vine found in Cyprus.[8]

Modern

DNA fingerprinting research at University of California, Davis, now suggests that Chardonnay is the result of a cross between the Pinot noir and Gouais blanc (Heunisch) grape varieties.[4] The Romans are thought to have brought Gouais blanc from Croatia, and it was widely cultivated by peasants in eastern France.[9]

The Pinot of the French

Melon, Knipperlé, Peurion, Roublot, Sacy,[10] and Dameron.[11]

Clones, crossing, and mutations

Chardonnay grapes after harvest

As of 2006, 34

Mendoza' clone, which produced some of the early California Chardonnays. The 'Mendoza' clone is prone to develop millerandage, also known as "hens and chicks", where the berries develop unevenly.[4] In places such as Oregon, the use of newer Dijon clones has had some success in those regions of the Willamette Valley with climates similar to that of Burgundy.[8]

Chardonnay has served as parent to several French-American

Mutations of the Chardonnay grape include the rare pink-berried 'Chardonnay Rose'; also 'Chardonnay Blanc Musqué', which produces an intensely aromatic wine.[4] Chardonnay Blanc Musqué is mostly found around the Mâconnais village of Clessé and sometimes confused with the 'Dijon-166' clone planted in South Africa, which yields Muscat-like aromas.[8]

In the 1930s, Chardonnay was crossed with a

Seibel grape to create the hybrid grape Ravat blanc.[12]

Viticulture

Chardonnay grapes in Champagne

Chardonnay has a wide-ranging reputation for relative ease of cultivation and ability to adapt to different conditions. The grape is very "malleable", in that it reflects and takes on the impression of its terroir and

hl/ha (4.5 tons per acre). Producers of premium Chardonnay limit yields to less than half this amount.[4]
Sparkling wine producers tend not to focus as much on limiting yields, since concentrated flavors are not as important as the wine's finesse.

wine regions with short growing seasons, and in regions such as Burgundy, can be harvested before autumn rain sets in and brings the threat of rot.[7]

While Chardonnay can adapt to almost all

premier cru vineyards planted at Meursault-Charmes have topsoil almost 2 m (79 in) above limestone and the resulting wines are very rich and rounded. In the nearby Les Perrières vineyard, the topsoil is only around 30 cm (12 in) above the limestone and the wine from that region is much more powerful, minerally, and tight, needing longer in the bottle to develop fully. In other areas, soil type can compensate for lack of ideal climate conditions. In South Africa, for example, regions with stonier, shaley soils and high clay levels tend to produce lower-yielding and more Burgundian-style wine, despite having a discernibly warmer climate than France. In contrast, South African Chardonnay produced from more sandstone-based vineyards tend to be richer and more weighty.[8]

Confusion with Pinot blanc

Closeup of a Chardonnay leaf (from the image of Chardonnay grapes in Champagne above): The yellow box highlights the naked veins around the petiolar sinus of the grape vine leaf.

Due to some

veins of a Chardonnay leaf are "naked" near the petiolar sinus – the open area where the leaf connects to the stem is delineated by veins at the edge.[8] Cabernet Sauvignon is one of the few other Vitis vinifera grape vines to share this characteristic.[13] This confusion between Pinot blanc and Chardonnay was very pervasive throughout northern Italy, where the two vines grew interspersed in the vineyard and were blended in winemaking. The Italian government did not dispatch researchers to try to distinguish the two vines until 1978. A similar situation occurred in France, with the two vines being commonly confused until the mid-19th century, when ampelographers began combing through the vineyards of Chablis and Burgundy, identifying the true Chardonnay and weeding out the Pinot blanc.[8]

France

In France, Chardonnay is the second-most widely planted white grape variety just behind

Languedoc.[4]

Burgundy

See also: Burgundy wine
Harvesting Chardonnay in the Chablis Premier Cru of Fourchaume

Chardonnay is one of the dominant grapes in Burgundy, though Pinot noir vines outnumber it by nearly a three-to-one ratio. In addition to Chablis, Chardonnay is found in the

Le Musigny. In addition to being the most expensive, the Burgundy examples of Chardonnay were long considered the benchmark standard of expressing terroir through Chardonnay. The Montrachets are noted for their high alcohol levels, often above 13%, as well as deep concentration of flavors. The vineyards around Chassagne-Montrachet tend to have a characteristic hazelnut aroma to them, while those of Puligny-Montrachet have more steely flavors. Both grand cru and premier cru examples from Corton-Charlemagne have been known to demonstrate marzipan, while Meursault wines tend to be the most round and buttery examples.[4]

South of the Côte d'Or are the Côte Chalonnaise and Mâconnais wine regions. The villages of

licorice, and spice are some of the flavors that can develop as these wines age.[3]

Chablis

Main article:
Chablis (wine)
The Serein River runs through the town of Chablis, with many of the region's most prestigious vineyards planted on hillsides along the river.

Chardonnay is the only permitted AOC grape variety in the Chablis region, with the wines there developing such worldwide recognition that the name "Chablis" has taken on somewhat generic connotations to mean any dry white wine, even those not made from Chardonnay. The name is protected in the

fossilized oyster shells. The most expensive examples of Chardonnay from Chablis come from the seven Grand Cru vineyards that account for around 247 acres (100 ha) on the southwest side of one slope along the Serein River near the towns of Chablis—Blanchots, Bougros, Les Clos, Grenouilles, Preuses, Valmur, and Vaudésir. The wines from these crus most often capture the goût de pierre à fusil or "gunflint" quality that is characteristic of Chablis wine.[14]

Chardonnay was believed to be first planted in Chablis by the

oxygenation with the wine through the permeable oak barrels. This can have the effect of softening the wine and making the generally austere and acidic Chablis more approachable at a younger age.[14]

Champagne

See also: Champagne
A Blanc de Blancs Champagne made only from Chardonnay grapes

In the Champagne, Chardonnay is one of three major grape varieties planted in the region. It is most commonly found in the

Champagne producers seek depending on their house style. The village of Avize grows grapes that produce the lightest wines, Cramant makes the most aromatic, and Mesnil produces wines with the most acidity. The Côte des Blancs is the only district in the Champagne region predominately planted with Chardonnay. In the four other main districts – Aube, Côte de Sézanne, Montagne de Reims, and Vallée de la Marne – Chardonnay lags behind Pinot noir in planting. In the outlying region of Aisne, only Pinot Meunier has a significant presence. Despite being less planted, the Blanc de Blancs style of Champagne (made from only Chardonnay grapes) is far more commonly produced than Blanc de Noirs. This is partly because Pinot noir and Pinot Meunier produce very coarse and heavy wines that lack the finesse and balance that Chardonnay brings to the mix. Nonsparkling still wine Chardonnay is produced under the Coteaux Champenois AOC. The wine is much more acidic than that of Chablis and is normally made bone-dry.[7]

Despite receiving the same amount of sunshine as the Chablis region, Chardonnay grapes in Champagne rarely attain full ripeness due to the mean temperature of the region being around 10 °C (50 °F), barely above the minimum average temperature needed to ripen grapes. Therefore, the Chardonnay grapes do not fully develop their fruit flavors and the still version of Champagne can taste very "un-Chardonnay"-like because of this. However, it does lessen the premium on needing to keep yields low that other wine regions battle, since not much flavor is going to develop in the grapes, anyway. Rather, the element in Chardonnay that Champagne wine-makers look for is the finesse and balance of acidity that it brings to the blend. Some flavors that can emerge from, particularly with extended time on its lees, include creamy and nuttiness with some floral notes.[8]

Other French regions

A Chardonnay from the Pay d'Oc region of the Languedoc

Champagne, Chablis, and Burgundy account for more than three-fifths of all Chardonnay plantings in France. The next-largest concentration is found in the

Anjou blanc and more producers are using the grape to soften some of the edges of Chenin blanc.[7] It can also be used in the sparkling wines of Saumur and some Muscadet producers have begun experimenting with oak-aged Chardonnay.[3]

North America

In North America, particularly

Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Vermont wine. In Canada, Chardonnay is found in British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Quebec.,[16]
and in Mexico is found in Baja California(Valle de Guadalupe) and in Coahuila(Valle de Parras) states.

California

A California Chardonnay that has been barrel-fermented.

The first successful commercial production of California Chardonnay was from plantings in the

alcohol levels which can make a wine seem out of balance. In recent years, California winemakers have been using process such as reverse osmosis and spinning cones to bring the alcohol levels down to 12 to 14%.[8]

Chardonnay is often aged on its lees in barrels with the lees periodically stirred to give it a softer, creamy mouthfeel. The example on the right is a barrel of Chardonnay that has had its lees recently stirred.

The California wine regions that seem to favor producing premium quality Chardonnay are the ones that are most influenced, climatically, by coastal

Taittinger family, which have opened up wineries in last few decades.[8]

New York

Chardonnay harvest in the Hudson River Region AVA

Chardonnay was one of the first European grape varieties to have been grown commercially east of the Rocky Mountains. After three centuries of failure with V. vinifera, this achievement was realized in the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York. Frenchman Charles Fournier and Russian Konstantin Frank experimented with Chardonnay and other varietals in hopes of producing sparkling wines based on Old World grapes for the Gold Seal wine company. In the late 1950s, they succeeded in harvesting the first commercial quantities of European grapes in eastern North America.[18] Frank went on to found Konstantin Frank Vinifera Wine Cellars which helped demonstrate that a winery in the eastern US can produce European-style wines as a basis for a winery business. Chardonnay became an important part of that strategy.

New York, like Burgundy and Washington, is a cool-climate viticultural region. Being cold tolerant, the Chardonnay grape is well suited for New York. Not only can it endure its cold winters, but also buds late, reducing the risk of spring frosts. New York's comparatively cooler growing season causes slower ripening, requiring a longer time on the vine, which allows the grapes to develop greater complexity and character at more reasonable sugar levels than warmer Chardonnay-producing regions. New York has subsequently developed significant plantings of the variety[19] since Fournier and Frank's early experiments.

Other states

A Chardonnay from the Columbia Valley AVA of Washington

Washington Chardonnays can be very similar to Californian Chardonnays, but tend to have more emphasis on fruit than creaminess. In 2000, it was the most widely planted premium wine grape in the state. Rather than using Dijon clones, Washington vineyards are planted with clones developed at the University of California-Davis that are designed to take longer to ripen in the warmer weather of the state's wine regions. This allows winemakers to maintain the acidity levels that balance the fruity and flint earthiness that have characterized Washington Chardonnay. Apple notes are common, and depending on producer and appellation, can range from flavors of 'Golden Delicious' and 'Fuji' to 'Gala' and 'Jonathan'.[20] In Oregon, the introduction of Dijon clones from Burgundy has helped to adapt the grape to the Oregon climate and soils.[4]

Canada

A 50-plus-year-old vine planting of Chardonnay in Ontario

In

Ontario and lighter styles produced in Quebec and British Columbia.[8] In 2009, Le Clos Jordanne winery, of Jordan Village on the Niagara Peninsula, Ontario, received critical acclaim for its 2005 Claystone Terrace Chardonnay, which won the top spot for Chardonnay in the "Judgement of Montreal" experts’ tasting. This recognition, which caught the attention of the wine community, resulted from a blind tasting held in Quebec for Cellier magazine. Thirty-three years after the "Judgment of Paris", Cellier organized a blind tasting in Montreal based on the Judgment of Paris. In the "Judgement of Montreal", 10 judges at the Cellier tasting assessed 16 red and 14 white wines, primarily from France and California. The Chardonay from Le Clos Jordanne placed first out of the 14 white wines, some of which were notable international wines, including: Chateau Montelena, Mer Soleil, Kumeu River, an aged reserve wine from Rosemount Estates, and a number of Burgundian entrants from producers such as Drouhin, Lamy, Boisset, Maison Louis Jadot
, and others. Other great examples of Ontario chardonnay include Closson Chase and Norman Hardie from the Prince Edward County region, and Tawse Winery, Hidden Bench Vineyards, and Southbrook Vineyards from the Niagara region.

The Chardonnay vintages of the early 1990s from British Columbia helped generate international attention to the quality of Canadian wines apart from

Okanagan are characterized by delicate citrus fruits. They are typically light-bodied, but producers who use barrel fermentation and oak aging can produce fuller-bodied wines.[21]

Australia and New Zealand

An Australian Chardonnay, from the Margaret River wine region of Australia

Like many grape varieties, Chardonnay first came to

Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon. Early in the 21st century, demand outpaced supply and there was a shortage of Chardonnay grapes which prompted Australian winemakers to introduce new blending partners like Sémillon (known as "SemChard") and Colombard.[4]

Freshly harvested Chardonnay grapes being sorted in Tasmania to remove bad clusters and MOG (material other than grapes) such as leaves

Being a rather neutral grape, Australian winemakers first approached Chardonnay in the same manner they were making wine from the similarly neutral

nectarines. Sparkling wines from Chardonnay are produced in the cool regions of Geelong, Adelaide Hills, Macedon Ranges and Tasmania.[8]

Sémillon (cluster pictured) is sometimes blended with Australian Chardonnay in the "SemChard" style.

Despite being more famous for its Sauvignon blanc production, Chardonnay was New Zealand's most widely planted grape variety from 1990 till 2002 when Sauvignon blanc finally surpassed it. The east coast of the

Marlborough and Nelson.[8] Some producers in the Gisborne region have recently developed a cult following for their Chardonnay among New Zealand wine drinkers.[3] While many New Zealand winemakers are still developing a characteristic style, the Chardonnay produced so far have emphasized the grape's affinity for oak.[7]

Italy

Pinot blanc grapes

Chardonnay has a long history in

Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region this confusion appeared in the synonyms for each grape, with Pinot blanc being known as "Weissburgunder" (White Burgundy) and Chardonnay was known as "Gelber Weissburgunder" (Golden White Burgundy). By the late 20th century, more concentrated efforts were put into identifying Chardonnay and making pure varietal versions of the wine. In 1984, it was granted its first Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) in the province of South Tyrol. By 2000, it was Italy's fourth most widely planted white wine grape.[4]

A bottle of Chardonnay from Croatia

Though many varietal forms of Chardonnay are produced, and the numbers are increasing, for most of its history in Italian winemaking Chardonnay was a blending grape. Besides Pinot bianco, Chardonnay can be found in blends with

Veneto it is often blended with Garganega to give more weight and structure to the wine. Chardonnay is also found in the Valle d'Aosta DOC and Friuli-Venezia Giulia wine region.[4]

South Africa

An unoaked Chardonnay from the South African wine region of Stellenbosch

Due to quarantine restrictions, plant

smuggled into South Africa in the 1970s and 1980s and many times were misidentified as to what grape variety it really was. A large portion of the Chardonnay plantings from this period turned out to be Auxerrois blanc. A similar event happened in the German wine region of Baden during the 1980s.[8] By the late 1990s, efforts to promote "authentic" Chardonnay helped to increase plantings and by 2004 it was the third-most widely planted white wine grape behind Chenin blanc and Colombard.[4] Winemakers in the Western Cape have experimented blending Chardonnay with Riesling and Sauvignon blanc.[3]

Other wine regions

Chardonnay growing in Moldova

Outside of the regions discussed above, Chardonnay can be found in cooler climate sites in

former Soviet Union, Chardonnay has lagged behind in white wine grapes plantings in favor Rkatsiteli, Aligote and Riesling.[4] The Portuguese experimentation with Chardonnay has been mostly influenced by flying winemakers from Australia and the examples produced so far are very New World in style.[8]

New World wine regions

A Viognier-Riesling-Chardonnay blend from Argentina

In the cool-climate wine regions of

India and Uruguay
have been steadily increasing their plantings.

Winemaking

Chardonnay lends itself to almost any style of wine making from dry still wines, to sparkling wines to sweet late harvest and even

cloves and vanilla.[25]

Oak chips
in fermenting Chardonnay

Other winemaking decisions that can have a significant effect include the temperature of fermentation and what time, if any, that the wine allowed to spend aging on the lees. Burgundian winemaking tends to favor extended contact on the lees and even "stirring up" the lees within the wine while it is aging in the barrel in a process known as bâtonnage. Colder fermentation temperatures produce more "tropical" fruit flavors like mango and pineapple.[8] The "Old World" style of winemaking favors the use of wild, or ambient yeast, though some will also use specially cultivated yeast that can impart aromatic qualities to the wine. A particular style of yeast used in Champagne is the Prise de Mousse that is cultivated for use worldwide in sparkling Chardonnay wines. A potential drawback of using wild yeast is that the fermentation process can go very slowly with the results of the yeasts being very unpredictable and producing potentially a very different wine each year. One Burgundian winemaker that favors the use of only wild yeast is Domaine des Comtes Lafon which had the fermentation of its 1963 Chardonnay batch take five years to complete when the fermentation process normally only takes a matter of weeks.[8]

Winemaker conducting fining bench trails on Chardonnay samples

The time of harvesting is a crucial decision because the grape quickly begins to lose acidity as it ripens. For sparkling wine production, the grapes will be harvested early and slightly unripe to maintain the acid levels. Sparkling Chardonnay-based wines tend to exhibit more floral and steely flavors in their youth. As the wine ages, particularly if it spends significant time on lees, the wines will develop "toasty" notes.[3] Chardonnay grapes usually have little trouble developing sugar content, even in cooler climates, which translates into high potential alcohol levels and limits the need for chaptalization. On the flip side, low acid levels can be a concern which make the wine taste "flabby" and dull. Winemakers can counteract this by adding tartaric acid in a process known as "acidification". In cooler climates, the extract and acidity of Chardonnay is magnified which has the potential of producing very concentrated wines that can develop through bottle aging.[7] Chardonnay can blend well with other grapes and still maintain some of its unique character. The grapes most often blended with Chardonnay include Chenin blanc, Colombard and Sémillon.[4]

Wine style

An unoaked Chardonnay from the Russian River

Due to the "malleability" of Chardonnay in winemaking and its ability to reflect its terroir, there is not one distinct universal "style" or set of constants that could be applied to Chardonnay made across the globe. According to

blind tasting of Chardonnay but there are many styles that do not have any "smokey" notes. Compared to other white wine grapes like Sauvignon blanc, Gewürztraminer and Viognier-Chardonnay has a more subtle and muted nose with no overwhelming aromatics that jump out of the wine glass. The identifying styles of Chardonnay are regionally based. For example, pineapple notes are more commonly associated with Chardonnay from Napa Valley while Chablis will have more notes of green apples.[7] While many examples of Chardonnay can benefit from a few years of bottle aging, especially if they have high acidity, most Chardonnays are meant to be consumed in their youth. A notable exception to this is the most premium examples of Chablis and white Burgundies.[3]

With food

See also:
Wine and food matching
Chardonnay based Champagnes, such as blanc de blancs, can be very versatile in food pairings.

Due to the wide range of styles, Chardonnay has the potential to be paired with a diverse spectrum of food types. It is most commonly paired with roast

fish and seafood dish. Instead, those wines tend to go better with smoked fish, spicy southeast Asian cuisine, garlic and guacamole dips.[8] The regional influences of Chardonnay can help it pair with different food styles. Chardonnays from Washington, which is characterized by maintaining more acidity, tend to pair well with tomato-based dishes and items featuring sweet onions. Older, more mellow Chardonnays are often paired with more "earthy" dishes like mushroom soup and aged cheese.[20]

Popularity and backlash

Chardonnay has become a popular component in the wine-based cocktail Kir

Chardonnay long had a reputation as one of France's great white wines, but due to the dominance of geographical labeling, the fact that Chardonnay was the grape behind white Burgundy was not widely known by the wine-drinking public. The success of California and new world Chardonnays, partly encouraged by the Californian showing at the Judgment of Paris wine tasting, brought varietal wine labeling to more prominence and the easy to pronounce Chardonnay grape was one of the largest beneficiaries. In the late 1980s, a sort of "Chardonnay-mania" developed as wine regions (particularly new and developing ones) dramatically increased their planting of the grape to meet the worldwide demand.[4]

As more vineyards responded with massive new plantings of the variety, they found that fashions were changing again. The market was drinking more red wine, and there was a backlash against heavy, oaky, New World Chardonnays in favor of lighter wines such as

Mataro vineyards were ripped up in favor of new Chardonnay plantings.[8]

Chardonnay became very fashionable in the 1990s, as the stereotypical drink of young urban women of the Bridget Jones generation.

By 2002, the association of chardonnay with suburban, unsophisticated tastes was being explored in Australian TV show Kath & Kim, where lower middle class characters mispronounce the varietal as 'kardonnay'.

Despite the backlash, Chardonnay remains very popular. In 2004 Chardonnay was estimated to be the world's 6th most widely grown grape variety, covering 179,300 hectares (443,000 acres).[28]

Genetic modification

Currently trials are being run on

genetically modified Chardonnay. Trials are underway in the US and South Africa.[29][30]

Synonyms

Chardonnay vines in Chassagne-Montrachet, Burgundy

Due to the worldwide recognition of the name of "Chardonnay", many of these synonyms have fallen out of favor as winemakers use the more marketable Chardonnay:[7]

Arboisier, Arnaison blanc, Arnoison, Aubain, Aubaine, Auvergnat blanc, Auvernas, Auvernas blanc, Auvernat blanc, Auxeras, Auxerras blanc, Auxerrois blanc, Auxois, Auxois blanc, Bargeois blanc, Beaunois, Biela Klevanjika, Blanc de Champagne, Blanc de Cramant, Breisgauer Suessling, Breisgauer Sussling, Burgundi Feher, Chablis, Chardenai, Chardenay, Chardenet, Chardennet, Chardonay, Chardonnet, Chatenait, Chatey Petit, Chatte, Chaudenay, Chaudenet, Chaudent, Clävner, Clevner Weiss, Cravner, Epinette, Epinette blanc, Epinette blanche, Epinette de Champagne, Ericey blanc, Feher Chardonnay, Feherburgundi, Feinburgunder, Gamay blanc, Gelber Weissburgunder, Gentil blanc, Grosse Bourgogne, Klawner, Klevanjka Biela, Klevner, Lisant, Luisant, Luizannais, Luizant, Luzannois, Maconnais, Maurillon blanc, Melon blanc, Melon D'Arbois, Meroué,[7] Moreau blanc, Morillon blanc, Moulon, Noirien blanc, Obaideh, Petit Chatey, Petit Sainte-Marie, Petite Sainte Marie, Pineau blanc, Pino Sardone, Pino Shardone, Pinot Blanc à Cramant, Pinot Blanc Chardonnay, Pinot Chardonnay, Pinot de Bourgogne, Pinot Giallo, Pinot Planc, Plant de Tonnerre, Romere, Romeret, Rouci Bile, Rousseau, Roussot, Ruländer Weiß, Sainte Marie Petite, Sardone, Shardone, Shardonne, Später Weiß Burgunder, Weiß Burgunder (normally refers to Pinot blanc), Weiß Clevner, Weiß Edler, Weiß Elder, Weiß Klewner, Weiß Silber, Weißedler, Weißer Clevner, Weißer Rulander.[11]

See also

References

  1. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0
    .
  2. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6
    .
  3. ^
    ISBN 0-7892-0883-0
    .
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Robinson, 2006, pp. 154–56.
  5. ISBN 9781905819157.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  6. ^ "Distribution of the World's Grapevine Varieties" (PDF). oiv.int. International Organisation of Vine and Wine. 2018-02-28. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-03-01. Retrieved 2018-03-01.
  7. ^
    ISBN 1-85732-999-6
    .
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Clarke, 2001, pp. 63-73.
  9. ^ "Chardonnay – Wine International Association WIA". Retrieved 2024-03-17.
  10. ^ Clarke, 2001, pg 112
  11. ^ a b Maul, Erika; Töpfer, Reinhard; Eibach, Rudolf (2007). "Vitis International Variety Catalogue". Institute for Grapevine Breeding Geilweilerhof (IRZ), Siebeldingen, Germany. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
  12. ISBN 978-1-846-14446-2
    .
  13. ^ J. Cox & G. Gigli "Vine Identification – A Botanist's View Archived 2007-11-24 at the Wayback Machine", The Wine News Magazine, accessed January 11, 2008.
  14. ^ a b Robinson, 2006, pp. 148–149.
  15. ISBN 0-671-68702-6
    .
  16. ^ Appellation America Chardonnay Accessed: January 10, 2008.
  17. ^ Robinson, 2006, p. 128.
  18. ISBN 0-306-47272-4
    .
  19. ^ WinesNY New York Chardonnay Accessed: May 31, 2009.
  20. ^
    ISBN 1-55868-503-0
    .
  21. ISBN 1-55143-061-4
    .
  22. ^ Radden, Rosemary. "Grapes and Wines of the World". State Library of South Australia. Archived from the original on 2007-08-07. Retrieved 2007-06-16.
  23. ^ Tyrell's Wines Murray Tyrell-Biography Archived 2007-12-23 at the Wayback Machine, accessed: January 12, 2007.
  24. ^ "Diacetyl". E.coli Metabolome Database. ECMDB. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
  25. ^ D. Sogg "White Wines, New Barrels: The taste of new oak gains favor worldwide Archived 2008-11-22 at the Wayback Machine" Wine Spectator. July 31, 2001.
  26. ^ Prial, Frank J. (1995-08-30). "Wine Talk". The New York Times.
  27. ^ Clarke, 2001, Websters, p. 191.
  28. ^ Robinson, 2006, p. 746, entry Vine varieties.
  29. ^ Uhlig, Robert (2001-05-31). "GM grapes could cut the price of Chardonnay". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 2010-06-01. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
  30. ^ Independent Newspapers Online (2009-08-12). "Government OKs genetically modified vines". IOL.co.za. Retrieved 2011-05-22.

Sources

External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chardonnay&oldid=1219973608"