History of the United States (1991–2008)
The United States of America — Post-Cold War Era | |||
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1991–2008 | |||
Third Industrial Revolution New Great Migration | |||
President(s) | George H. W. Bush Bill Clinton George W. Bush | ||
Key events | 1991-2001 | ||
Chronology
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This article is part of a series on the | |
History of the United States | |
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1981–1991 | |
1991–2008 | |
Post-Cold War Era | 1991–2008 |
2008–present | |
Modern Era | 2008–present |
The history of the United States from 1991 to 2008 began after the
In
Globalization and the new economy
During Bill Clinton's presidency American political discourse focused mostly on domestic issues. While the early 1990s saw the US economy mired in recession, a recovery began starting in 1994 and began accelerating thanks to a boom created by technology. The Internet and related technologies made their first broad penetrations into the economy, prompting a
After the
Immigration, mainly from Latin America and Asia, swelled during the 1990s, laying the groundwork for great changes in the demographic makeup of the U.S. population in coming decades, such as Hispanics replacing African-Americans as the largest minority. Despite tougher border scrutiny after the September 11 attacks, nearly 8 million immigrants came to the United States from 2000 to 2005—more than in any other five-year period in the nation's history[4]—with almost half entering illegally.[5]
Dot-com bubble
Early 2000 to 2001 saw the dramatic bursting of the
In 2002, the GDP growth rate rose to 2.8%. A major short-term problem in the first half of 2002 was a sharp decline in the
Conflicts
Persian Gulf War
The considerable dependence of the industrialized world on oil starting in the 1930s, with much of the proved oil reserves situated in Middle Eastern countries, became evident to the U.S., first in the aftermath of the
Conflict in the Middle East triggered yet another international crisis on August 2, 1990, when Iraq invaded and attempted to annex neighboring Kuwait.[9] U.S. officials feared that Hussein was then on the verge of armed conflict with oil-rich Saudi Arabia, a close ally of Washington's since the 1940s.[10] The United Nations condemned the invasion as an act of aggression;[11] President Bush compared Hussein to Adolf Hitler and declared that if the United States and international community did not act, aggression would be encouraged elsewhere in the world.[12][13] The Security Council gave Iraq a deadline to leave Kuwait, but Saddam Hussein ignored it, and the Security Council authorized a military response. The war began in January 1991, with U.S. troops forming the majority of the coalition which participated in Operation Desert Storm. By the time Iraqi troops withdrew from Kuwait in late February, Iraq had lost approximately 20,000 troops, with some sources citing as many as 100,000 casualties on the Iraqi side.[14][15][16]
Conflicts in Somalia, Bosnia, Kosovo, and the Middle East
In December 1992, President Bush sent troops to join the UN
In the mid-1990s, the United States was involved in the
President Clinton also ordered
Throughout the 1990s, the United States also played an active role in
Early Islamist terrorist attacks
The 1990s also featured a series of increasingly violent attacks associated with
On June 25, 1996, members of Hezbollah Al-Hejaz bombed the Khobar Towers, a complex in Khobar, Saudi Arabia, where members of the United States Air Force were being housed, killing 19 American airmen and injuring over 300 other people.[32]
On August 7, 1998, Al-Qaeda bombed the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing 224 people, including 12 Americans.[33] The U.S. launched cruise missile strikes on a terrorist training camp in Afghanistan,[34] yet this failed to destroy al-Qaeda's vast network.
On October 12, 2000, al-Qaeda militants bombed the USS Cole off the coast of Yemen, killing 17 U.S. sailors and severely damaging the ship.[35]
Attacks of September 11, 2001
On the morning of September 11, 2001, four airliners were hijacked by 19 members of the terrorist organization
War in Afghanistan
After the 9/11 attacks, Congress passed the
With a total of 22,000 U.S. troops deployed in Afghanistan by May 2006,
Iraq War
In his
Some important allies of the U.S., including India, Japan, Turkey, New Zealand, France, Germany, and Canada, did not believe that the evidence for the President's accusations was well-founded enough to justify a full-scale invasion, especially as military personnel were still needed in Afghanistan. The UN Security Council did not approve of the invasion, and the U.S. therefore provided most of the forces in the invasion of Iraq. With the support of a coalition whose major partners included the United Kingdom, Australia, Poland, Spain, and Italy, Iraq was invaded on March 20, 2003.
After six weeks of combat between the coalition and the Iraqi army, the invading forces had secured control of many key regions; Hussein had fled his palace, his regime clearly over; on May 1, President Bush declared, under a sign reading "
With
Domestic terrorism
The 1990s and 2000s (decade) became known for several incidents of domestic terrorism, usually perpetrated by those dissatisfied with actions of the federal government, big business, or other aspects of American society.[62][63]
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, a mysterious man known in the media as the "Unabomber" sent
On April 19, 1995, a
In July 1996, in the midst of the
In 2001, only days after the
Crime and violence
The crime epidemic that had begun during the late 1960s finally reached its climax in the early 1990s before starting a steady decline during the Clinton administration.
In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), a number of highly publicized assaults against lesbian, gay,
A spate of
The
During the 2000s, a series of high-profile child abduction cases occurred, including
In 1992,
Disasters
Natural disasters
On August 24, 1992, the category-five
In March 1993, a massive storm, known as the "Storm of the Century" or "Superstorm" struck the Eastern Seaboard of the United States. The storm set low pressure records; produced hurricane-force winds, storm surge, and killer tornadoes in Florida; and produced snowfall up to 2 feet (61 cm) across many portions of the Eastern United States. The storm was particularly crippling to the Southern United States, where places like Birmingham, Alabama received one-and-a-half feet of snow and record low temperatures, highly unusual for the region. In all, 300 deaths were attributed to the storm and $6 billion in damage was caused.
The Great Flood of 1993 affected the Midwestern United States in the spring and summer of that year, devastating large portions of the Mississippi and Missouri River Valleys and their tributaries. Many small towns were devastated and agricultural losses were significant. 10,000 homes were destroyed and 15 million acres (61,000 km2) of agricultural lands were inundated. 50 people perished in the floods and $15 billion in damage was done.
In the early morning hours of January 17, 1994, the San Fernando Valley region of Los Angeles was hit by a 6.7 magnitude earthquake, known as the "Northridge earthquake". The quake killed more than 70 people and injured 9,000. Most of the fatalities were attributed to collapsed buildings, parking structures, or freeways. Striking an urban area, it was very destructive, causing $20 billion in damage.
In July 1995, the city of Chicago was hit by a heat wave that had severe repercussions. During a five-day spell from July 12 to 16, the high temperature hovered from the mid 90s to the mid 100s. The heat index pushed 120 degrees on many days. The heat wave resulted in the deaths of over 700 people, many of whom were black, elderly, or poor. The event brought increased attention to these segments of the population and the importance of reaching out to them during heat waves, as well as the concept of the urban heat island effect, in which urban environments exacerbate heat and humidity levels. Additionally, power failures and lack of adequate warning and general preparedness aggravated the situation and may have contributed to such high fatalities.
In January 1996, the
On May 3, 1999, a violent tornado outbreak struck the Southern Great Plains, predominantly Oklahoma. The most destructive tornado was an F5 tornado that struck Oklahoma City and the suburb of Moore. The tornado is one of the most prominent examples of a tornado striking a major urban area and became the first tornado to incur over $1 billion in damages. In all, the outbreak resulted in 50 deaths and over 600 injuries.
In 2004, four hurricanes—Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne—struck the state of Florida in a one-month timespan, resulting in over 100 U.S. deaths and nearly $50 billion in damage combined. Out of the four hurricanes, Ivan was the deadliest in the U.S., while Charley was the most destructive.
2005 brought
On
In September 2008, after two straight years of not being affected by a serious hurricane,
Other disasters
Notable aviation disasters in the 1990s included
On February 1, 2003, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated upon re-entry to the Earth over parts of Texas and Louisiana during STS-107, resulting in the deaths of all seven astronauts.[102] The incident resulted from a piece of foam insulation that fell off during launch, which struck the shuttle, creating a hole that allowed hot gases to penetrate the shuttle during re-entry.[103] In the aftermath of the disaster, the Space Shuttle program was suspended for 29 months as NASA investigated the incident and made plans to prevent future tragedies.
On February 17, 2003, a stampede occurred at the E2 nightclub in Chicago, after an incident involving pepper spray, resulting in the deaths of 21 people.[104] Three days later, on February 20, 100 people perished and over 200 were injured in The Station nightclub fire in West Warwick, Rhode Island, when pyrotechnics ignited flammable sound-proofing during a performance by the band Great White.[105] Both incidents brought attention to the need to crack down on building, fire, and safety code violations to prevent future tragedies. A porch collapse that killed 13 and seriously injured 57 in June 2003 in Chicago further emphasized the problems with building code violations in the United States.
On August 1, 2007, the I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minneapolis collapsed into the Mississippi River, killing 13 people and injuring over 50. The bridge was under construction at the time. The incident brought to attention the need to inspect and rehabilitate the aging infrastructure system in the United States.
Energy issues
After 1970 the U.S. began importing oil, as consumption kept rising and the nation's oil fields became less productive. Throughout the 1990s the world price of crude oil ranged between $10 and $40, and the average price at the pump did not exceed $1.40. Oil prices tripled after 2002, peaking at $147 in July 2008, about $4 a gallon; the price has continued to fluctuate widely.[107] The theme of "energy independence" led to legislation mandating more fuel efficient autos—even electric vehicles—and more efficient use of energy, ranging from insulation to new light bulbs. Even worse than the high price, was the fear of shortages. Many proposals and pilot projects for replacement energy sources, from ethanol to wind power and solar power were discussed and, indeed, funded by Congress after 2000.[108] In the economic stimulus package signed by President Obama in early 2009, billions of dollars were allocated for research and development of new energy sources.
While public attention focused on supplies from the Middle East, the main source was Canada. After 2007, new methods of extraction opened up vast new deposits of oil in the
Politics
Clinton administration
Following the success of the
Aged 46 when he took office in January 1993, Clinton was one of the youngest presidents in US history and the first born after WWII. Historians and political analysts immediately referred to him as marking a "generational shift" in American politics similar to when John F. Kennedy had become the first president born in the 20th century. His promising to focus on and resolve some of the United States' many domestic issues, he entered office with high expectations. Immediately, however, he was hurt when he had to withdraw major nominees (over nonpayment of taxes). Clinton's
One early domestic victory of the
Republican Congress
The
Along with strong backing from traditional Democrats and liberals, Clinton was able to garner the support of moderates[
The
Many voters in 1992 and 1996 had been willing to overlook long-standing rumors of extramarital affairs by Clinton, deeming them irrelevant. These matters came to a head, however, in February 1998 when reports surfaced of ongoing sexual relations between Clinton and a White House intern,
George W. Bush administration
Though his
On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial airliners and attacked the World Trade Center and
In mid-2002, President Bush announced that Iraq possessed chemical and nuclear weapons and posed a "clear and present danger" to stability in the Middle East. Plans for a full-scale military invasion of the country began amid widespread controversy. Antiwar protests occurred around the US and numerous other countries, mostly carried out by left-wing organizations, but some on the right and various military and diplomatic figures also doubted the wisdom of this venture. Regardless, the invasion of Iraq commenced on March 20, 2003. The Iraqi Army disintegrated without much resistance and within three weeks, US troops entered Baghdad to an overjoyed mob of Iraqi civilians who proceeded to tear down the giant statue of Saddam Hussein in the middle of the city. Bush announced on May 1, 2003, from an aircraft carrier that major combat operations in Iraq were completed, with a "
Meanwhile, the economy recovered from the early 2000s economic recession, with GDP growth rising to 7% in the middle of 2003, with continued growth through the mid-2000s. The unemployment rate peaked at 6% in 2003, before falling in 2004 and 2005, and dropping below 5% in 2006 and 2007.[8]
President George W. Bush was re-elected in November 2004, defeating Democratic contender Senator John Kerry in the electoral vote, and receiving 50.7% of the popular vote against John Kerry's 48.3%. Republicans also made gains in both houses of Congress. President Bush's reelection was assured by public support for the War On Terror, the dour Senator Kerry's lack of appeal to his voter base, and the excessive attacks made on the president by the left, which helped turn public opinion against them. In addition, it came out that Kerry, a Vietnam War veteran, had participated in antiwar protests after returning home in 1970, including throwing away his medals.
Some major acts in President Bush's second term included the
Democratic Congress
Democrats swept to victory in the
The 110th Congress did little to influence the war in Iraq besides passing a non-binding resolution against the Bush administration's troop surge. In addition, the House of Representatives passed a $124 billion emergency spending measure for war funding with the stipulation of a phased troop withdrawal. President Bush vetoed the bill because of the proposal of scaling down forces, making this the second veto of his term.
During the months of May–June 2007, Senator Ted Kennedy and other senators co-sponsored the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007. The purpose of this bill called for immigration reform under the intent of bringing amnesty and citizenship.[127] On June 28 the Senate voted 53–45 for cloture, with 60 votes needed, spelling the end to the 2007 Immigration Bill.[128]
See also
- Presidency of George H. W. Bush
- Timeline of United States history
- Timeline of modern American conservatism
- Timeline of United States history (1990–2009)
Notes
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Further reading
- Abramson, Paul R., John H. Aldrich, and David W. Rohde. Change and Continuity in the 2004 and 2006 Elections (2007), 324pp
- Barone, Michael. The Almanac of American Politics (1992 and every 2 years to 2012), highly detailed coverage of electoral politics and Congress.
- Berman, William C. From the Center to the Edge: The Politics and Policies of the Clinton Presidency (2001) 160pp
- Edwards III, George C. and Desmond King, eds. The Polarized Presidency of George W. Bush (2007), 478pp; essays by scholars
- Hyland, William G. Clinton's World: Remaking American Foreign Policy (1999)
- Levy, Peter. Encyclopedia of the Clinton Presidency (2002), 400pp; 230 articles, focus on politics
- Congressional Quarterly. Congress and the Nation 1993–1997: A Review of Government and Politics: 103rd and 104th Congresses (1998); Congress and the Nation 1997–2001: A Review of Government and Politics: 105th and 106th Congresses (2002). Congress and the Nation 2001–2005: A Review of Government and Politics: 107th and 108th Congresses (2007); Congress and the National XII 2005–2008 (2010). Highly detailed nonpartisan coverage (1200 pp each) of all national political issues, including domestic & foreign affairs
- Gillon, Steve. The pact: Bill Clinton, Newt Gingrich, and the rivalry that defined a generation (2008) 342 pages
- Johnson, Haynes. The best of times: America in the Clinton years (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) Detailed survey by prominent liberal journalist
- Patterson, James T. Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush vs. Gore (2005), Oxford History of the United States
- Skocpol, Theda, and Lawrence R. Jacobs. "Accomplished and Embattled: Understanding Obama's Presidency," Political Science Quarterly (Spring 2012) 127#1 pp. 1–24 online
- Stiglitz, Joseph E. The Roaring Nineties: A New History of the World's Most Prosperous Decade (2004) economic history
- Warshaw, Shirley Anne. The Clinton Years (Infobase Publishing, 2009) 524pp; detailed political encyclopedia by prominent scholar
- Zelizer, Julian E., ed. The Presidency of George W. Bush: A First Historical Assessment (Princeton University Press; 2010) 386 pages
Primary sources
- Bush, George W. Decision Points (2010)
- Clinton, Bill. My Life(2004).
- Greenspan, Alan. The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World(2007), memoir by head of Federal Reserve