Islam in Indonesia

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This is a data table of the percentage of Muslims in Indonesia, provided by the Ministry of Religious Affairs:^[1]

Denominations

Classical documentations divide Indonesian Muslims between "nominal" Muslims, or

In the contemporary era, distinction is often made between "traditionalism" and "modernism". Traditionalism, exemplified by the civil society organization

Various other forms and adaptations of Islam are influenced by local cultures that hold different norms and perceptions throughout the archipelago.

More recent currents of Islamic thoughts that have taken roots include

In Indonesia, civil society organizations have historically held distinct and significant weight within the Muslim society. These various institutions have contributed greatly to both the intellectual discourse and public sphere for the culmination of new thoughts and sources for communal movements.^{[31]: 18–19} 60% of 200 million Indonesian Muslims identify either as Nahdlatul Ulama or Muhammadiyah, making these organizations a 'steel frame' of Indonesian civil society.^[32]

Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), the largest traditionalist organization, focuses on many of the activities such as social, religious and education and indirectly operates a majority of the country's Islamic boarding schools. Claiming 40 to 60 million followers, NU is Indonesia's largest organization and perhaps the world's largest Islamic group.^[32][33][34] Founded in 1926, NU has a nationwide presence but remains strongest in rural Java. It follows the ideology of Ahle Sunnah wal Jamaah with Sufism of Imam Ghazali and Junaid Bagdadi. Many NU followers give great deference to the views, interpretations, and instructions of senior NU religious figures, alternatively called Kyais or Ulama. The organization has long advocated religious moderation and communal harmony.^{[citation needed]} On the political level, NU, the progressive Consultative Council of Indonesian Muslims (Masyumi), and two other parties were forcibly streamlined into a single Islamic political party in 1973—the United Development Party (PPP).^[19] Such cleavages may have weakened NU as an organized political entity, as demonstrated by the NU withdrawal from active political competition, but as a popular religious force, NU showed signs of good health and a capacity to frame national debates.^[19]

The leading national modernist social organization, Muhammadiyah, has branches throughout the country and approximately 29 million followers.^[35] Founded in 1912, Muhammadiyah runs mosques, prayer houses, clinics, orphanages, poorhouses, schools, public libraries, and universities. On February 9,^{[year missing]} Muhammadiyah's central board and provincial chiefs agreed to endorse a former Muhammadiyah chairman's presidential campaign. This marked the organization's first formal foray into partisan politics and generated controversy among members.

Some smaller Islamic organizations cover a broad range of Islamic doctrinal orientations. At one end of the ideological spectrum lies the controversial Islam Liberal Network (JIL), which aims to promote a pluralist and more liberal interpretation of Islamic thinking.

Equally controversial are groups at the other end of this spectrum such as

There is evidence of Arab Muslim traders entering Indonesia as early as the 8th century.^[12][21] However, it was not until the end of the 13th century that the spread of Islam began.^[12] At first, Islam was introduced through Arab Muslim traders, and then the missionary activity by scholars. It was further aided by the adoption by the local rulers and the conversion of the elites.^[21] The missionaries had originated from several countries and regions, initially from South Asia (i.e. Gujarat) and Southeast Asia (i.e. Champa),^[38] and later from the southern Arabian Peninsula (i.e. Hadhramaut).^[21]

In the 13th century, Islamic polities began to emerge on the northern coast of Sumatra. Marco Polo, on his way home from China in 1292, reported at least one Muslim town.^[39] The first evidence of a Muslim dynasty is the gravestone, dated AH 696 (1297 CE), of Sultan Malik al Saleh, the first Muslim ruler of Samudera Pasai Sultanate. By the end of the 13th century, Islam had been established in Northern Sumatra.

In general, local traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were the first to adopt the new religion. The spread of Islam among the ruling class was precipitated as Muslim traders married the local women, with some of the wealthier traders marrying into the elite ruling families.^[9] Indonesian people, as local rulers and the royals did, began to adopt Islam, and subsequently, their subjects mirrored their conversion. Although the spread was slow and gradual,^[40] the limited evidence suggests that it accelerated in the 15th century, as the military power of Malacca Sultanate in the Malay Peninsula and other Islamic Sultanates that dominated the region were aided by episodes of Muslim coup such as in 1446, wars and superior control of maritime trading and ultimate markets.^[40][41]

By the 14th century, Islam had been established in northeast Malaya, Brunei, the southwestern Philippines, and among some courts of coastal East and Central Java, and by the 15th century, in Malacca and other areas of the Malay Peninsula.

Indonesia's historical inhabitants were animists, Hindus, and Buddhists.[45] Through assimilation related to trade, royal conversion, and conquest,^{[citation needed]} however, Islam had supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion of Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. During this process, "cultural influences from the Hindu-Buddhist era were mostly tolerated or incorporated into Islamic rituals."^[12] Islam did not obliterate the preexisting culture; rather, it incorporated and embedded the local customs and non-Islamic elements among rules and arts, and reframed them as the Islamic traditions.^[21]

In part, the strong presence of Sufism has been considered a major enabler of this syncretism between Islam and other religions. Sufism retained strong influence especially among the Islamic scholars arrived during the early days of the spread of Islam in Indonesia, and many Sufi orders such as Naqshbandiyah and Qadiriyya have attracted new Indonesian converts. They have proceeded to branch into different local divisions. Sufi mysticism which had proliferated during this course had shaped the syncretic, eclectic and pluralist nature of Islam in Indonesian during the time.^[21] Prolific Sufis from the Indonesian archipelago were already known in Arabic sources as far back as the 13th Century.^[46] One of the most important Indonesian Sufis from this time is Hamzah Fansuri, a poet, and writer from the 16th century.^[31]: 4 The preeminence of Sufism among Islam in Indonesian continued until the shift of external influence from South Asia to the Arabian Peninsula, whose scholars brought more orthodox teachings and perceptions of Islam.^[21]

The gradual adoption of Islam by Indonesians was perceived as a threat by some ruling powers.^[

(or Nine Saints).

Despite Islam being one of the most significant developments in Indonesian history, historical evidence remains fragmentary and uninformative. The understanding of how Islam arrived in Indonesia is limited; there is considerable debate among scholars about what conclusions can be drawn about the conversion of Indonesian peoples.^[48] The primary evidence, at least of the earlier stages of the process, are gravestones and a few travelers' accounts, but these can only show that indigenous Muslims were in a certain place at a certain time. This evidence is insufficient to comprehensively explain more complicated matters, such as how lifestyles were affected by the new religion or how deeply it affected societies.

Early modern period (1700–1945)

See also: Modernism (Islam in Indonesia)

The Dutch entered the region in the 17th century, attracted by its wealth established through the region's natural resources and trade.^[49][b] The entering of the Dutch resulted in a monopoly of the central trading ports. However, this helped the spread of Islam, as local Muslim traders relocated to the smaller and remoter ports, establishing Islam into the rural provinces.^[49] Towards the beginning of the 20th century, "Islam became a rallying banner to resist colonialism".^[12]

During this time the introduction of steam-powered transportation and printing technology was facilitated by European expansion. As a result, the interaction between Indonesia and the rest of the Islamic world, particularly the Middle East, had significantly increased.^[31]: 2 In Mecca, the number of pilgrims grew exponentially to the point that Indonesians were markedly referred as "rice of the Hejaz". The exchange of scholars and students was also increased. Around two hundred Southeast Asian students, mostly Indonesian, were studying in Cairo during the mid-1920s, and around two thousand citizens of Saudi Arabia were of Indonesian descent. Those who returned from the Middle East had become the backbone of religious training in pesantrens.^[21]

Concurrently, a number of newly-founded religious thoughts and movements in the Islamic world had inspired the Islamic current in Indonesia. In particular,

Muhammad 'Abduh, aimed to return to the original scripture of the religion. The Modernist movement in Indonesia had criticized the syncretic nature of Islam in Indonesia. It advocated for the reform of Islam and the elimination of perceived un-Islamic elements within the traditions. The movement also aspired to incorporate elements of modernity into Islam and, for instance, built schools that combined an Islamic and secular curricula, and was unique in that it trained women as preachers for women.^[12] Through the activities of the reformers and the reactions of their opponents, Indonesian society became more firmly structured along communal (aliran) rather than class lines.^[50]

Reformist movements had especially taken roots in the

Jogjakarta, Ahmad Dahlan, also a disciple of al-Minangkabawi, established Muhammadiyah in 1911, spearheading the creation of Islamic mass organization. Muhammadiyah rapidly expanded its influence across the archipelago, with Abdul Karim Amrullah establishing the West Sumatra chapter in 1925 for instance. Other modernist organizations include Al-Irshad Al-Islamiya (1914) and PERSIS (1923). Soon after, traditionalist Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) was founded in 1926 by Hasyim Asy'ari, another disciple of al-Minangkabawi, in response to the perceived growing threat of reformist waves.^[51]: 356 Other traditionalist organizations included the Islamic Education Association (Perti) (1930)^[54] and Lombok-based Nahdlatul Wathan

(1953).

A combination of reformist thoughts and the growing sense of sovereignty had led to the brief development of Islam as a vehicle for the political struggle against the Dutch colonialism. The earliest example is

Union of Indonesian Muslims (PERMI) faced severe crackdown by the Dutch colonial government, leading to the arrest of its members including Rasuna Said.^[58]

However, Islam as a vehicle of Indonesian nationalism had gradually waned in the face of the emergence of secular nationalism and more radical political thoughts such as

Western imperialism and a potential foe against their vision of Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.^[21]

Post-independence (since 1945)

See also: Islam Nusantara

Indonesia became the world's second-largest Muslim-majority country after its independence in 1945. The separation of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971 made it the world's most populous Muslim-majority country. Post-independence had seen the most significant upheaval of the Muslim society on various aspects of society. This owes to the independence, increased literacy and educational attainment among Muslims, funding from the Middle East, and all the more accelerated exchange between other Muslim countries.^[21]

The subsequent development of the Muslim society had brought Indonesia even closer to the center of Islamic intellectual activity. A number of scholars and writers have contributed to the development of Islamic interpretations within the Indonesian context, often through the intellectual exchange between the foreign contemporaries.

Upon independence, there was significant controversy surrounding Islam's role in politics, which had caused enormous tensions. The contentions were mainly surrounding the position of Islam in the

anti-communist genocide perpetuated actively by Ansor Youth Movement, the youth wing of NU (which was initially supportive of the Sukarno regime) and other Islamic groups.^[69] Muslims adhering to the syncretic form of Islam known as Abangan had also become the target of this mass killing.^[70] Communism was considered hostile by Muslims due to perceived atheistic nature and the tendency of landowners being local Islamic chiefs.^[21]

During the New Order, there was an intensification of religious belief among Muslims.^[71] Initially hoped as the ally of Islamic groups, the New Order quickly became the antagonist following its attempt to reform educational and marital legislation to more secular-oriented code. This met strong opposition, with marriage law left as Islamic code as a result. Suharto had also attempted at consolidating Pancasila as the only state ideology, which was also turned down by the fierce resistance of Islamic groups.^[21] Under the Suharto regime, containment of Islam as a political ideology had led to all the Islamic parties forcibly unite under one government-supervised Islamic party, the United Development Party (PPP).^[12] Certain Islamic organizations were incorporated by the Suharto regime, most notably MUI, DDII, and Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals (ICMI) to absorb the political Islam for the regime's gain.^[72] With Suharto's resignation in 1998, "the structure that repressed religion and society collapsed."^[12]

During the beginning of the

fourth president of Indonesia, and the appointment of Amien Rais, the leader of Muhammadiyah, as the chairman of the People's Consultative Assembly. This era was briefly marked by the collapse of social order, erosion of central administrative control, and law enforcement breakdown. They resulted in violent conflicts in which Islamic groups were involved, including separatism of Aceh where the more conservative form of Islam is favored, and sectarian clashes between Muslims and Christians in Maluku and Poso. With the collapse of the establishment, MUI began distancing themselves from the government and attempted to exercise wider influence toward Indonesia's Islamic civil society. This led to the issuance of controversial 2005 fatwa condemning the notion of liberalism, secularism and pluralism,^[72] and subsequent criticism by progressive intellectuals.^[73] However, the political transition from authoritarianism to democracy went relatively smoothly due considerably to the commitment of tolerance by mass organizations such as NU and Muhammadiyah. This made Muslim civil society a key part of Indonesia's democratic transition.^[74][75]

Currently, Muslims are considered fully represented in the democratically elected parliament.

Abu Bakar Bashir, who was in exile during the Suharto era as a spiritual leader of Jihadism in Indonesia, resulted in the series of bombing attacks,^[c] which have been largely contained recently.^[79] Contemporary Islam in Indonesia is analyzed in various ways, with certain analysis consider it as becoming more conservative.^[25][d] At the same time, others deem it as "too big to fail" for the radicalization.^[80][81]

Conservative development has seen the emergence of vigilante group

Islamist political parties.^[85]

2019 presidential election

.

Current President

Hizbut Tahrir for rejecting and undermining the state ideology Pancasila.^[87] FPI was dissolved in 2020, with its members being involved in criminal cases and allegedly linked to terrorist groups.^[88][89] Since 2019, MUI chairman and former NU leader Ma'ruf Amin

has been the Vice President of Indonesia.

Culture

Arts

Several artistic traditions in Indonesia, many of which existed since the pre-Islamic era, have absorbed Islamic influence and evolved in artistic expression and attachment of religious implications.

Batik

The Indonesian dyeing art known as

Isra and Mi'raj

.

Wayang

The Indonesian performing art of

Wayang Kulit

is known as Wayang Sasak, which incorporates puppets similar to the Javanese Wayang Menak and based on the adventures of Amir Hamzah as well.

When Islam began spreading in Indonesia, the display of God or gods in human form was prohibited. Thus this style of painting and shadow play was suppressed. King Raden Patah of Demak, Java, wanted to see the wayang in its traditional form but failed to obtain permission from Muslim religious leaders. Religious leaders attempted to skirt the Muslim prohibition by converting the wayang golek into wayang purwa made from leather and displayed only the shadow instead of the puppets themselves.^{[citation needed]}

Dance

Saman dance, originated in Gayo

, adopted Arab and Persian dance and musical styles. It was historically performed during the Islamic prophet Muhammad's birthday.

The history of

gendang

drums that has become the main instrument in Islamic dances, as well as the chant that often quotes Islamic chants.

Architecture

Main article:

Indonesian Islamic architecture

See also: List of mosques in Indonesia

Indonesian Islamic Architecture

Demak Mosque, vernacular Javanese style

Jami Mosque of Taluak, vernacular Minangkabau style main building with later addition Indo-Persian style minaret

Great Mosque of Palembang

, fusion of Chinese, Malay and European styles

The

Kudus, built in 1549,^[96] whose minaret is thought to be the watchtower of an earlier Hindu temple. Vernacular style mosques in Minangkabau area is distinguished by its multi-layer roof made of fiber resembling Rumah Gadang, the Minangkabau residential building. Prominent examples of mosques with vernacular Minangkabau designs are Bingkudu Mosque,^[97] founded in 1823 by the Padris, and Jami Mosque of Taluak, built in 1860. In West Sumatra, there is also a tradition of multi-purpose religious architecture known as surau which is often built in vernacular Minangkabau style as well, with three- or five-tiered roofs and woodcarvings engraved in the facade. Vernacular style mosques in Kalimantan is influenced by the Javanese counterparts, exemplified by the Banjar architecture which employs three- or five-tiered roof with the steep top roof, compared to the relatively low-angled roof of Javanese mosque. The employment of stilts in some mosques, a separate roof on the mihrab. Prominent examples including Heritage Mosque of Banua Lawas and Jami Mosque of Datu Abulung

, both in South Kalimantan.

Only after the 19th century, the mosques began incorporating more orthodox styles imported during the Dutch colonial era. Architectural style during this era is characterized by

Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, and Great Mosque of Palembang in Palembang, initially completed in 1798, and later expanded with integrating Chinese

, Malay and European architectural styles harmonized together.

Clothing

The

Idul Fitr and Idul Adha, as well as congregational prayers when visiting mosques.^[99]

The

Friday prayers

. It is often worn with the sarong and peci.

The kerudung is an Indonesian Muslim women's

jilbab

is a more conservative Muslim women's hijab, adopted from Middle Eastern style, and usually worn by more conservative Muslim women. Unlike kerudung, hair and neck are completely covered. Jilbab in Indonesian context means headscarf. It does not designate the long overgarment as implied in the Muslim society in other countries.

Festival

Idul Fitri, families get together to enjoy a lebaran feast where ketupat and various special dishes are served. Muslim holy days celebrated in Indonesia include the Idul Adha, the Islamic New Year, and the Prophet's Birthday . Hajj The government has a monopoly on organising the Saudi Government , an assertion that proved incorrect. Members of the House of Representatives have sponsored a bill to set up an independent institution, thus ending the department's monopoly. Tabuik Main article: Tabuik Day of Ashura in 1831, when the practice was introduced to the region by the Shia sepoy troops from India who were stationed—and later settled—there during the British Raj.[100] The festival enacts the Battle of Karbala and plays the tassa and dhol drums. Society This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2018) Gender To a significant degree, the way in which Islam manifests in Indonesia's lifestyle is unique and reflective of Southeast Asian culture.[101] However, there have been several instances of discrimination for women in the work field, such as Hijabophobia, resulting in demonstrations.[102] Gender segregation Many Muslims in Indonesia have a relaxed view on social relations between sexes. Strict sex segregation is usually limited to religious settings, such as in mosques during prayer. It is common for boys and girls to study together in their classroom in both public and Islamic schools. Nevertheless, there is a growing influence of a more traditional, orthodox view of sex segregation in public places. This is done to avoid contact between opposite sexes; for example, some women wearing hijab might refuse to shake hands or converse with men. However, the number of sexual harassment cases in Indonesia have increased, with the majority of victims being women who wear hijab.[103] Politics Although it has an overwhelming Muslim majority, the country is neither an Islamic state nor an Islamic republic, similar to that of Turkey and Kazakhstan. From a Pew Research Center (PEW) opinion poll in 2010, Indonesia is the only country, among the five countries surveyed with a Muslim majority population, whose citizens tend to identify more with their nationality than their religion.[104] According Article 29 of Indonesia's Constitution however affirms that “the state is based on the belief in the one supreme God.”[e] Over the past 50 years, many Islamic groups have opposed this secular and pluralist direction, and sporadically have sought to establish an Islamic state. However, the country's mainstream Muslim community, including influential social organisations such as Muhammadiyah and NU, reject the idea. Proponents of an Islamic state argued unsuccessfully in 1945 and throughout the parliamentary democracy period of the 1950s for the inclusion of language (the "Jakarta Charter") in the Constitution's preamble making it obligatory for Muslims to follow shari'a. An Republic throughout the 1950s. The outbreak of the Islamic state in multiple provinces, started in West Java led by Kartosoewirjo, the rebellion also spread to Central Java, South Sulawesi and Aceh. The Islamist armed rebellion was successfully cracked down in 1962. The movement has alarmed the Sukarno administration to the potential threat of political Islam against the Indonesian Republic.[105] During the Suharto regime (1966–1998), the government prohibited all advocacy of an Islamic state. This timeframe also coincided with an increase in the number of Liberal Muslims in Indonesia from 1970 until 2005.[106] However, with the loosening of restrictions on freedom of speech and religion that followed Suharto's fall in 1998, proponents of the "Jakarta Charter" resumed advocacy efforts. This proved the case before the 2002 Annual Session of the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), a body that has the power to change the Constitution. The nationalist political parties, regional representatives elected by provincial legislatures, and appointed police, military, and functional representatives, who together held a majority of seats in the MPR, rejected proposals to amend the Constitution to include shari'a, and the measure never came to a formal vote. The MPR approved changes to the Constitution that mandated that the Government increase "faith and piety" in education. This decision, seen as a compromise to satisfy Islamist parties, set the scene for a controversial education bill signed into law in July 2003. [citation needed ] On 9 May 2017, Indonesian politician Basuki Tjahaja Purnama was sentenced to two years in prison by the North Jakarta District Court after being found guilty of committing blasphemy.[107] The case later led to a growth in the movement against electing non-Islamic leaders, with 59 percent of Indonesian people not wanting to elect non-Muslim leaders as of 2018.[108] It also contributed in increasing number of identity politics in Indonesia as carried out by Anies Baswedan in 2017, which he referred as inevitable because identity is always related as a nature of the candidate.[109][110] Shari'a in Aceh Further information: Islamic criminal law in Aceh and Islam in Aceh Shari'a generated debate and concern during 2004, and many of the issues raised touched on religious freedom. Aceh remained the only part of the country where the central Government specifically authorised shari'a. Law 18/2001 granted Aceh special autonomy and included authority for Aceh to establish a system of shari'a as an adjunct to, not a replacement for, national civil and criminal law. Before it could take effect, the law required the provincial legislature to approve local regulations ("qanun") incorporating shari'a precepts into the legal code. Law 18/2001 states that the shari'a courts would be "free from outside influence by any side." Article 25(3) states that the authority of the court will only apply to Muslims. Article 26(2) names the national Supreme Court as the court of appeal for Aceh's shari'a courts.[citation needed] Aceh is the only province that has shari'a courts. Religious leaders responsible for drafting and implementing the shari'a regulations stated that they had no plans to apply criminal sanctions for violations of shari'a. Islamic law in Aceh, they said, would not provide for strict enforcement of fiqh or hudud, but rather would codify traditional Acehnese Islamic practice and values such as discipline, honesty, and proper behaviour. They claimed enforcement would not depend on the police but rather on public education and societal consensus. Because Muslims make up the overwhelming majority of Aceh's population, the public largely accepted shari'a, which in most cases merely regularised common social practices. For example, a majority of women in Aceh already covered their heads in public. Provincial and district governments established shari'a bureaus to handle public education about the new system, and local Islamic leaders, especially in North Aceh and Pidie, called for greater government promotion of shari'a as a way to address mounting social ills. The imposition of martial law in Aceh in May 2003 had little impact on the implementation of shari'a. The Martial Law Administration actively promoted shari'a as a positive step toward social reconstruction and reconciliation. Some human rights and women's rights activists complained that implementation of shari'a focused on superficial issues, such as proper Islamic dress, while ignoring deep-seated moral and social problems, such as corruption. Ahmadiyya Main article: Ahmadiyya in Indonesia In 1980 the MUI) issued a "fatwa" (a legal opinion or decree issued by an Islamic religious leader) declaring that the Ahmadis are not a legitimate form of Islam.[citation needed] In the past, mosques and other facilities belonging to Ahmadis had been damaged by offended Muslims in Indonesia; more recently, rallies have been held demanding that the sect be banned and some religious clerics have demanded Ahmadis be killed.[111][112] Youth radicalization Since the mid-2010s there has been a trend of radicalization among the youth, and a nationally representative survey done in 2019 by Alvara found out that around 60% of the generation Z (aged 14–21) and millennials (aged 22–29) identified as "puritan & ultraconservative". Observers link it to the influence of the Wahhabist Hijrah movement, something that the Indonesian government wants to curb as it feels it threatens the country's secular values and unity.[113] See also Glossary of Islam Index of Islam-related articles Islam in East Java Islam in West Sumatra Islam Nusantara Outline of Islam Religion in Indonesia Notes indigenous religions.[15] ^ The Maluku Islands in the Indonesian archipelago were known as the "spice islands". The country's natural spices, including nutmeg, pepper, clove, were highly prized. Other popular trade items of the area include sandalwood, rubber and teak. ^ See 2002 Bali bombings, 2003 Marriott Hotel bombing ^ “Conservatism” in this sense connotes the adherence toward the perceived orthodoxy of Islamic principles, rather than the commitment to the Indonesian cultural and societal traditions. 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Hurst & Co. ^ Moch Nur Ichwan, Towards a Puritanical Moderate Islam: The Majelis Ulama Indonesia and the Politics of Religious Orthodoxy. ISEAS Publishing. Retrieved 9 September 2017. ^ Hefner, Robert. Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia. (2000) Princeton University Press, p.218. ^ Menchik, Jeremy. Islam and Democracy in Indonesia Tolerance without Liberalism. (2017) Cambridge University Press, p.15. ^ Relasi PAN-Muhammadiyah. Republika. Retrieved 6 October 2017. ^ Nahdlatul Ulama. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs. Retrieved 6 October 2017. ^ van Bruinessen, Martin. New Leadership, New Policies? The Nahdlatul Ulama Congress in Makassar. Inside Indonesia 101, July–September 2010. Online at <www.insideindonesia.org/>. ^ McDonald, Hamish (30 June 2008). "Fighting terror with smart weaponry". Sydney Morning Herald. p. 17. ^ Islam Indonesia Kelak Akan Kaku dan Keras? NU.or.id. 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Retrieved 13 April 2016. ^ Yasmin Ahmad Kamil (30 June 2015). "They know what you need for Raya". The Star. Retrieved 13 April 2016. ^ Bachyul Jb, Syofiardi (1 March 2006). "'Tabuik' festival: From a religious event to tourism". The Jakarta Post. Retrieved 27 January 2007. ISBN 9789814260091 . ^ Maulana, Irvan. ""Hijabophobia" dan Diskriminasi Tenaga Kerja". detiknews (in Indonesian). Retrieved 14 November 2023. ^ "Pelecehan seksual di ruang publik: 'Saya membawa trauma itu setiap hari'". BBC News Indonesia (in Indonesian). Retrieved 14 November 2023. ^ "What Do You Consider Yourself First?". Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project. 31 March 2010. Retrieved 11 October 2022. ISBN 9024761727 . ^ Ibnu Hamzah (2022). DINAMIKA PEMIKIRAN ISLAM LIBERAL DARI MASA ORDE BARU SAMPAI REFORMASI (1970-2005) (diploma thesis). IAIN Syekh Nurjati Cirebon S1 SKI. ^ "Jakarta governor Ahok found guilty of blasphemy, jailed for two years". The Guardian. 9 May 2017. ^ Tim. "Anti-Pemimpin Nonmuslim Meningkat Usai Kasus Ahok". nasional (in Indonesian). Retrieved 14 November 2023. ^ Hannan, Abd. "Kembalinya Politik Identitas". detiknews (in Indonesian). Retrieved 14 November 2023. ^ Indonesia, C. N. N. "Anies Baswedan Beber Alasan Politik Identitas Tak Terhindarkan". nasional (in Indonesian). Retrieved 14 November 2023. ^ Ahmadiyya (Nearly) banned. Indonesia Matters[when?] ^ "Indonesian Muslims rally for ban on Ahmadiyya sect". Reuters. 20 April 2008. ^ Wee, Sui-Lee (12 April 2023). "The Young Muslims Challenging Islam's Status Quo". The New York Times. Further reading Wikimedia Commons has media related to Islam in Indonesia. Wikiquote has quotations related to Islam in Indonesia. Ricklefs, M. C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition. MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-57689-6 . Gade, Anna M. Perfection Makes Practice: Learning, Emotion, and the Recited Qur’ân in Indonesia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press , 2004. 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