Muslim conquest of Persia
Muslim conquest of Persia | |
---|---|
Part of the Persia, and Greater Khorasan | |
Result | Muslim victory |
Territorial changes |
|
The Muslim conquest of Persia, also called the Muslim conquest of Iran, the Arab conquest of Persia, or the Arab conquest of Iran,[2] was a major military campaign undertaken by the Rashidun Caliphate between 632 and 654. As part of the early Muslim conquests, which had begun under Muhammad in 622, it led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the eventual decline of Zoroastrianism, which had been predominant throughout Persia as the nation's official religion. The persecution of Zoroastrians by the early Muslims during and after this conflict prompted many of them to flee eastward to India, where they were granted refuge by various kings.
While Arabia was experiencing the rise of Islam in the 7th century, Persia was struggling with unprecedented levels of political, social, economic, and military weakness; the Sasanian army had greatly exhausted itself in the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628. Following the execution of Sasanian shah Khosrow II in 628, Persia's internal political stability began deteriorating at a rapid pace. Subsequently, ten new royal claimants were enthroned within the next four years.[3] Shortly afterwards, Persia was further devastated by the Sasanian Interregnum, a large-scale civil war that began in 628 and resulted in the government's decentralization by 632.
Amidst Persia's turmoil, the first Rashidun invasion of Sasanian territory took place in 633, when the Rashidun army conquered parts of Asoristan, which was the Sasanians' political and economic centre in Mesopotamia.[4] Later, the regional Rashidun army commander Khalid ibn al-Walid was transferred to oversee the Muslim conquest of the Levant, and as the Rashidun army became increasingly focused on the Byzantine Empire, the newly conquered Mesopotamian territories were retaken by the Sasanian army. The second Rashidun invasion began in 636, under Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, when a key victory at the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah permanently ended all Sasanian control to the west of modern-day Iran. For the next six years, the Zagros Mountains, a natural barrier, marked the political boundary between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire. In 642, Umar ibn al-Khattab, eight years into his reign as Islam's second caliph, ordered a full-scale invasion of the rest of the Sasanian Empire. Directing the war from the city of Medina in Arabia, Umar's quick conquest of Persia in a series of coordinated and multi-pronged attacks became his greatest triumph, contributing to his reputation as a great military and political strategist.[3] In 644, however, he was assassinated by the Persian craftsman Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz, who had been captured by Rashidun troops and brought to Arabia as a slave.
Some Iranian historians have defended their forebears by using Arab sources to illustrate that "contrary to the claims of some historians, Iranians, in fact, fought long and hard against the invading Arabs."[5] By 651, most of the urban centres in Iranian lands, with the notable exception of the provinces along the Caspian Sea (i.e., in Tabaristan and Transoxiana), had come under Muslim domination. Many localities fought against the invaders; although the Rashidun army had established hegemony over most of the country, many cities rose in rebellion by killing their Arab governors or attacking their garrisons. Eventually, military reinforcements quashed the Iranian insurgencies and imposed complete control. The Islamization of Iran was gradual and incentivized in various ways over a period of centuries, though some Iranians never converted and there were widespread cases of Zoroastrian scriptures being burnt and Zoroastrian priests being executed, particularly in areas that experienced violent resistance.[6] Islam had become Iran's predominant religion by the Late Middle Ages;[7][8] the majority of Iranians were Sunni Muslims until the Safavids forcefully converted Iran to Shia Islam in the 18th century.
Historiography and recent scholarship
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2018) |
When Western academics first investigated the
Recent scholarship has begun to question the traditional narrative: Parvaneh Pourshariati, in her Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran, published in 2008, provides both a detailed overview of the problematic nature of trying to establish exactly what happened, and a great deal of original research that questions fundamental facts of the traditional narrative, including the timeline and specific dates.
Pourshariati's central thesis is that contrary to what was commonly assumed, the Sassanian Empire was highly decentralized, and was in fact a "confederation" with the
Another important theme of Pourshariati's study is a re-evaluation of the traditional timeline. Pourshariati argues that the
Sasanian Empire before the conquest
Since the 1st century BC, the border between the
The conflict with the Byzantines greatly contributed to its weakness, by draining Sassanid resources, leaving it a prime target for the Muslims.
Social problems
Sasanian society was divided into four classes: priests, warriors, secretaries, and commoners. The latter formed the bulk of the population, served as its sole tax base, and remained its poorest class.
At the climax of
Events
Revolt of the Arab client states (602)
The Byzantine clients, the Arab
Byzantine–Sassanid War (602–628)
The Persian ruler
(the conquest of the latter being assisted by a Jewish army), and more.The Byzantines regrouped and pushed back in 622 under Heraclius. Khosrau was defeated at the Battle of Nineveh in 627, and the Byzantines recaptured all of Syria and penetrated far into the Persian provinces of Mesopotamia. In 629, Khosrau's general Shahrbaraz agreed to peace, and the border between the two empires was once again the same as it had been in 602.
Plague of Sheroe
The Plague of Sheroe (627–628) was one of several epidemics that occurred in or close to Iran within two centuries after the first epidemic was brought by the Sasanian armies from its campaigns in Constantinople, Syria, and Armenia.[15] It contributed to the fall of the Sasanian Empire.
Execution of Khosrau II
Muhammad's Letter
After the
With regards to Persia, Muslim histories further recount that at the beginning of the seventh year of migration, Muhammad appointed one of his officers, Abdullah Huzafah Sahmi Qarashi, to carry his letter to
In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful. From Muhammad, the Messenger of God, to the great Kisra of Persia. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in God and in His Prophet and testifies that there are no gods but one God whom has no partners, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of God, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe. And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the Magi.[20]
There are differing accounts of the reaction of
Military
This section needs additional citations for verification. (December 2020) |
Years of warfare between the Sasanians and the Byzantines, as well as the strain of the
Pourshariati argues that the
When Arab squadrons made their first raids into Sasanian territory, Yazdegerd III did not consider them a threat, and he refused to send an army to encounter the invaders. When the main Arab army reached the Persian borders, Yazdegerd III procrastinated in dispatching an army against the Arabs. Even
When hostilities between the Sasanians and the Arabs finally began, the Persian army faced fundamental problems. While their heavy cavalry had proved effective against the Roman forces, it was too slow and regimented to act with full force against the agile and unpredictable lightly armed Arab cavalry and foot archers.
The Persian army had a few initial successes. War elephants temporarily stopped the Arab army, but when Arab veterans returned from the Syrian fronts where they had been fighting against Byzantine armies, they taught the Arab army how to deal with these beasts.
These factors contributed to the decisive Sassanid defeat at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. The Persians, who had only one generation before conquered Egypt and Asia Minor, lost decisive battles when nimble, lightly armed Arabs accustomed to skirmishes and desert warfare attacked them. The Arab squadrons defeated the Persian army in several more battles culminating in the
Rise of the Caliphate
Abu Bakr set in motion a historical trajectory (continued later by Umar and Uthman) that in a few decades led to one of the largest empires in history,[22] beginning with a confrontation with the Sassanid Empire under the general Khalid ibn al-Walid.
Conquest of Mesopotamia (633–638)
First invasion (633)
After the
To ensure victory, Abu Bakr used a volunteer army and put his best general,
Khalid went on to win decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the
Khalid received a call for aid from northern Arabia at Dawmat al-Jandal, where another Muslim Arab general,
Second invasion (634–636)
Battle of the Bridge
According to the will of Abu Bakr, Umar was to continue the conquest of Syria and Mesopotamia. On the northeastern borders of the Empire, in Mesopotamia, the situation was rapidly deteriorating. During
Battle of Qadisiyyah
Umar ordered his army to retreat to the Arabian border and began raising armies at
While Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd was unable to muster his armies in time to provide the Byzantines with Persian support. Umar, allegedly aware of this alliance and not wanting to risk a battle with two great powers simultaneously, quickly reinforced the Muslim army at
With the Byzantine threat ended, the Sasanian Empire was still a formidable power with vast manpower reserves, and the Arabs soon found themselves confronting a huge Persian army with troops drawn from every corner of the empire, including war elephants, and commanded by its foremost generals. Within three months, Saad defeated the Persian army in the
Final campaign and conquest (636–638)
In December 636, Umar ordered
After the conquest of Ctesiphon, several detachments were immediately sent west to capture
After withdrawal from Ctesiphon, the Persian armies gathered at Jalawla, a place of strategic importance due to routes leading from here to Mesopotamia,
Thereafter, a Muslim force under Qa'qa marched in pursuit of the escaping Persians at Khaniqeen, 25 kilometres (15 mi) from Jalawla on the road to Iran, still under the command of Mihran. Qa'qa defeated the Persian forces in the Battle of Khaniqeen and captured the city. The Persians then withdrew to Hulwan. Qa'qa followed and laid siege to the city, which was captured in January 638.[32] Qa'qa sought permission to operate deeper in Persia, but Umar rejected the proposal, writing in response:
I wish that between the Suwad and the Persian hills there were walls which would prevent them from getting to us, and prevent us from getting to them.[33] The fertile Suwad is sufficient for us; and I prefer the safety of the Muslims to the spoils of war.
Persian raids in Mesopotamia (638–641)
By February 638 there was a lull in the fighting on the Persian front. The Suwad, the
After the victory at
Battle of Nahavand (642)
After the conquest of
After the defeat of the Persian forces at the
The Governor of
Conquest of Persia (642–651)
After several years, Caliph Umar adopted a new offensive policy,[38] preparing to launch a full-scale invasion of what remained of the Sasanian Empire. The Battle of Nahavand was one of the most decisive battles in Islamic history[39] and proved to be the key to Persia. After the devastating defeat at Nahavand, the last Sassanid emperor, Yazdegerd III, fled to different parts of Persia to raise a new army, with limited success, while Umar attempted to capture him.
Strategic planning for the conquest of Persia
Umar decided to strike the Persians immediately after their defeat at Nahavand, while he still possessed a psychological advantage. Umar had to decide which of three provinces to conquer first:
Preparations were complete by January 642. The success of the plan depended upon how effectively Umar could coordinate these attacks from Medina, about 1500 kilometers from Persia, and upon the skill of his field commanders. Umar adopted a different approach to the command structure. Instead of appointing a single field commander to press the campaign, Umar appointed several commanders, each assigned a different mission. Once a commander's mission ended, he would become an ordinary soldier under the new field commander for the latter's mission. The purpose of this strategy was to allow commanders to mix with their soldiers and to remind them that they are like everyone else: command is only given to the most competent, and, once the battle is over, the commander returns to his previous position.
On the eve of the campaign, Umar, in order to boost morale, decided to reinstall Khalid as field commander, four years after his dismissal.[39] Khalid's reputation as the conqueror of the Eastern Roman provinces demoralized the Persian commanders, most of whom had already been defeated by him during his conquest of Mesopotamia in 633. Before Umar could issue the reappointment order, Khalid died in Emesa.
Throughout the Persian campaign, Umar even appointed the commanders of the wings, the center and the
Conquest of Central Iran
In the wake of Khalid's demise, Umar appointed Abdullah ibn Uthman as commander of the Muslim forces for the invasion of
In 651, Nu'aym ibn Muqaarin, Nu'man's brother, marched northeast to
Conquest of Fars
First Muslim invasion and the successful Sasanian counter-attack
The Muslim invasion of
When the first group entered Fars, it was quickly defeated and al-Jarud was killed. The same thing soon happened to the second group. Khulayd and the third group kept the defenders at bay, but were blocked from withdrawing to Bahrain by the Sasanians. Umar, having found out about al-'Ala's invasion of Fars, had him replaced with
Second and last Muslim invasion
In c. 643,
In 648, 'Abd-Allah ibn al-'Ash'ari forced the governor of Estakhr, Mahak, to surrender the city. Its citizens rebelled in 649/650 while its newly appointed governor,
Conquest of Southeastern Persia (Kerman and Makran)
The expedition to
Conquest of Sakastan
The Arabs were raiding Sakastan as early as Umar's caliphate. The first real invasion took place in 650, when
One year later, Abd-Allah ibn Amir sent an army under
Eighteen months later, Rabi was summoned to
Conquest of Iranian Azerbaijan
The conquest of
Conquest of Armenia
The Muslims had conquered
Conquest of Khorasan
Khorasan was the second-largest province of the Sasanian Empire. It stretched from what is now northeastern Iran, northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan. In 651 the conquest of Khurasan was assigned to
Persian rebellion and reconquest
Umar was assassinated in November 644 by a Persian slave named
Persia under Muslim rule
According to Bernard Lewis:
Arab Muslims conquests have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Both perceptions are of course valid, depending on one's angle of vision. Iran was Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna.[59]
Administration
Under Umar and his immediate successors, the Arab conquerors attempted to maintain their political and cultural cohesion despite the attractions of the civilizations they had conquered. The Arabs initially settled in the garrison towns rather than on scattered estates.
The new non-Muslim subjects were protected by the state and known as dhimmi (protected), and were to pay a special tax, the jizya (tribute), which was calculated at varying individual rates, usually two dirhams for able-bodied men of military age, in return for exemption from military service. Women and children were exempted from the jizya.[60] Mass conversions were neither desired nor allowed, at least in the first few centuries of Arab rule.[61][62][63]
Umar is reported to have issued the following instructions about the protected people: "Make it easy for him, who can not pay tribute; help him who is weak, let them keep their titles, but do not give them our
At least under the Rashiduns and early Ummayads, the administrative system of the late Sasanian period was largely retained: a pyramidal system where each quarter of the state was divided into provinces, the provinces into districts, and the districts into sub-districts. Provinces were called ustan (Middle Persian ostan), and the districts shahrs, centered upon a district capital known as a shahristan. The subdistricts were called tasok in Middle Persian, which was adopted into Arabic as tassuj (plural tasasij).[citation needed]
Religion
Zoroastrians were made to pay an extra tax called jizya, or be killed, enslaved or imprisoned. Those paying jizya were subjected to insults and humiliation by the tax collectors.[67][68][69] Zoroastrians who were captured as slaves in wars were given their freedom if they converted to Islam.[67][70] While giving freedom of choice, the Arab conquerors designated privileges for those who converted to Islam.[71] The conversion process was slow and uncompleted, stretching over many centuries, with a majority of Persians still following Zoroastrianism at the turn of the millennium.[72]
There were also large and thriving
Until the 15th century, most Persian Muslims were
Language of Persia
During the
Urbanisation
The Arab conquest of Persia led to a period of extreme
See also
- Arab-Persians
- Arab-Byzantine Wars
- Arab rule in Georgia
- Emirate of Tbilisi
- History of Arabs in Afghanistan
- History of Iran
- Xwedodah, Consanguine marriage
- Islam in Iran
- Islamic conquest of Afghanistan
- Islamization of Iran
- Military history of Iran
- Muslim conquests
- Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
- Muslim conquest of Transoxiana
- Spread of Islam
- History of Iran after Islam
- Iran during the Caliphate
References
- ^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 469.
- ^ "ʿARAB ii. Arab conquest of Iran". iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 26 September 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4
- ISBN 9780520214118 – via Internet Archive.
- ISBN 978-0-934211-90-1p.15
- ^ (Balāḏori, Fotuḥ, p. 421; Biruni, Āṯār, p. 35)
- ^ Mohammad Mohammadi Malayeri, Tarikh-i Farhang-i Iran (Iran's Cultural History). 4 volumes. Tehran. 1982.
- OCLC 46632917.
- ^ Arthur Christensen, L’Iran sous les Sassanides, Copenhagen, 1944 (Christensen 1944).
- ^ a b Parvaneh Pourshariati, Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire, (I.B.Tauris, 2009), 3.
- ^ a b Parvaneh Pourshariati, Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran, I.B. Tauris, 2008.
- ^ a b c d Parvaneh Pourshariati, Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran, I.B. Tauris, 2008. (p. 4)
- ^ Khodadad Rezakhani, "Arab Conquests and Sasanian Iran" page 34 "History Today" April 2017
- ^ Iraq After the Muslim Conquest By Michael G. Morony, pg. 233
- ^ Christensen 1993, p. 81.
- ^ Shapur Shahbazi 2005
- ^ "The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration". Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project. Archived from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2007.
- ^ Leone Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, vol. 4, p. 74
- ^ Leone Caetani, Annali dell'Islam, vol. 2, chapter 1, paragraph 45–46
- ^ Tabaqat-i Kubra, vol. I, page 360; Tarikh-i Tabari, vol. II, pp. 295, 296; Tarikh-i Kamil, vol. II, page 81 and Biharul Anwar, vol. XX, page 389
- ^ "Kisra", M. Morony, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. V, ed.C.E. Bosworth, E.van Donzel, B. Lewis and C. Pellat, (E.J.Brill, 1980), 185.[1] Archived 11 August 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Akbar Shah Najeebabadi, The history of Islam. B0006RTNB4.
- ^ a b Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 554.
- ^ Khalid. Men Around the Messenger. Al Manar. p. 234.
- ^ Akram, chapters 19–26.
- ISBN 9796500011615.
- ^ "Taqawa Leads to Success: Saad Bin Abi Waqqas RaziAllah Unho". Archived from the original on 11 August 2016. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
- ^ Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:67
- ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4.
- ^ Al-Tabari. History of the Prophets and Kings. pp. 590–595.
- ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4.
- Haykal, Muhammad Husayn. "5". Al Farooq, Umar. p. 130.
- ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4, 9780195977134
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4.
- ^ Petersen, Anderew. Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. p. 120.
- ^ Wilcox, Peter. Rome's Enemies 3: Parthians and Sassanids. Osprey Publishing. p. 4.
- Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter 18-page 130
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4.
- ISBN 978-0-7914-0852-0,
- ^ Muhammad Husayn Haykal. "19". Al Farooq, Umar. p. 130.
- ^ Pourshariati (2008), p. 247
- ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4,
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7914-0852-0
- ^ Marshak & Negmatov 1996, p. 449.
- ^ a b c Zarrinkub 1975, p. 24.
- ^ Morony 1986, pp. 203–210.
- ^ a b Marshak & Negmatov 1996, p. 450.
- ^ Pourshariati (2008), p. 468
- ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4.
- ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4,
- ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4,
- ^ Pellat, Charles (2011). "Abū Loʾloʾa". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopaedia Iranica.
- ISBN 0-521-56181-7. Archivedfrom the original on 11 August 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2021. p. 69.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 69 (cf. p. 404, where Madelung refers to him as "Jufayna al-Naṣrānī").
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 75.
- ISBN 978-0-19-597713-4.
- ^ "Iran". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 13 August 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2007.
- ^ Lewis, Bernard. "Iran in history". Tel Aviv University. Archived from the original on 29 April 2007. Retrieved 3 April 2007.
- ^ Kennedy, Hugh (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Longman. p. 68.
- ISBN 978-1-84212-011-8.
- Tabari. Series I. pp. 2778–9.
- ISBN 978-0-415-23903-5pg.150
- ^ a b The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects. By A. S. Tritton, pg.138.
- ^ The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects. By A. S. Tritton, pg.139.
- ^ Boyce 2001, p. 146.
- ^ a b Boyce 2001, p. 148
- ^ Lambton 1981, p. 205
- ^ Meri & Bacharach 2006, p. 878
- ^ "History of Zoroastrians in Islamic Iran". FEZANA Religious Education. Archived from the original on 5 May 2008. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
- ^ The Cambridge History of Iran Volume4 The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs, p. 483
- ^ "FĀRS iii. History in the Islamic Period – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 18 November 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
- ^ a b c d The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg.170–180
- ^ "What is Persian?". The center for Persian studies. Archived from the original on 10 December 2005.
- ^ YouTube
- ISBN 0391041746. Archivedfrom the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2015 – via google.nl.
- YouTube
Sources
- ISBN 978-0-87850-126-7.
- Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1997). "Sīstān". The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume IX: San–Sze. Leiden, and New York: BRILL. pp. 681–685. ISBN 9789004082656.
- Bosworth, C. E. (2011). "SISTĀN ii. In the Islamic period". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
- ISBN 978-0-415-23902-8.
- Christensen, Peter (1993). The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 1–351. ISBN 9788772892597.
- ISBN 978-0-313-30731-7.
- ISBN 978-0857716668.
- Daryaee, Touraj. "Collapse of Sasanian Power in Fars". Collapse of Sasanian Power in Fars. Fullerton, California: California State University. pp. 3–18.
- ISBN 978-0-691-05327-1.
- Gazerani, Saghi (2015). The Sistani Cycle of Epics and Iran's National History: On the Margins of Historiography. BRILL. pp. 1–250. ISBN 9789004282964.
- Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD). New York, New York and London, United Kingdom: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). ISBN 0-415-14687-9.
- A. K. S., Lambton (1999). "FĀRS iii. History in the Islamic Period". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IX, Fasc. 4. pp. 337–341.
- Marshak, B.I.; Negmatov, N.N. (1996). "Sogdiana". In B.A. Litvinsky, Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi (ed.). History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III: The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. UNESCO. ISBN 92-3-103211-9.
- Meri, Josef W.; Bacharach, Jere L. (2006), Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index, Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, vol. II (illustrated ed.), Taylor & Francis, p. 878, ISBN 9780415966924
- Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. 2, ANĀMAKA – ĀṮĀR AL-WOZARĀʾ.
- Morony, M. (1986). "ʿARAB ii. Arab conquest of Iran". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 2. pp. 203–210.
- Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-645-3.
- Shapur Shahbazi, A. (2005). "SASANIAN DYNASTY". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-275-96892-2.
- ISBN 978-9971-77-488-2.
- ISBN 978-964-6961-11-1.
- Zarrinkub, Abd al-Husain (1975). "The Arab conquest of Iran and its aftermath". The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–57. ISBN 978-0-521-20093-6.
External links
- History of Iran: Islamic Conquest from the Iran Chamber Society.
- The Arab conquests at History World.
- Muslim Conquest of Persia at Mecca Books.