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Violence against men are violent acts that are disproportionately or exclusively committed against men or boys. Men are over-represented as both victims and perpetrators of violence.^[1]^[2]

Perceptions and aspects

Studies of social attitudes show violence is perceived as more or less serious depending on the gender of victim and perpetrator.^[3]^[4] People are less likely to report a man hitting another man to the police than a man hitting a woman.^[5] A study in 2023 found that people—especially women—are less likely to accept violence against women than violence against men.^[6]

Male law enforcement officers show a greater reluctance to file charges or reports when a man is the victim of domestic violence.^[7] The use of stereotypes by law enforcement is a recognised issue,^[8] and international law scholar Solange Mouthaan argues that, in conflict scenarios, sexual violence against men has been ignored in favor of a focus on sexual violence against women and children.^[9]

Stigmatization and socially constructed gender stereotypes are barriers to men seeking help following violent victimization. Stereotypes can make it difficult for victims to conceptualize and verbalize what happened, and contribute significantly to underreporting and poor responses toward survivors by relevant authorities. Men often fear that they will be dismissed, accused of being the perpetrator, or ridiculed if they seek help following intimate partner violence. These fears are often confirmed by men who nonetheless seek help.^[10]^[11]

Due to perceptions of rape as a women's issue, services designed to help victims are often not equipped to help men.^[12]^[13]

Men are less fearful of violent crime than women despite the fact that men are at much higher risk of being victims of violent crime than women.^[14]^[15] This phenomenon appears to be a paradox and is termed by researchers as the "fear of crime gender paradox".^[16]^[17]

Violence against LGBT+ men

Male homosexuality has been persecuted, often violently, throughout history. Termed "sodomy" during the Middle Ages and the early modern period, men found guilty of "sodomy" were often subjected to capital punishment for homosexuality.^[18]

In its December 2020 report, the

UN member states and one non-independent jurisdiction, the Cook Islands,^{[needs update]} while two UN member states, Iraq and Egypt, criminalize it de facto but not in legislation.^[19] Afghanistan, Brunei, Iran, Iraq, Mauritania, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, United Arab of Emirates and Yemen still allow for the prescription of the death penalty if one engages in homosexual sexual activity.^[20]

According to the Human Rights Campaign, 26 percent of gay men and 37 percent of bisexual men experience rape, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner, compared to 29 percent of straight men.^[21] Additionally, 40 percent of gay men and 47 percent of bisexual men have experienced sexual violence other than rape, compared to 21 percent of straight men.^[21]

Research by Rebecca L. Stotzer and Margaret Shih found that masculinity is seen as fragile, needing constant reinforcement through displays of heterosexuality and rejection of femininity and homosexuality. This insecurity can cause men to react aggressively to anything challenging traditional gender roles and can significantly influence reactions to LGBT+ individuals.^[22]

Domestic violence

Female and male perpetrators of domestic violence tend to commit different types of acts of violence. For example, women are more likely to throw or hit with objects, kick, bite, or punch, while men are more likely to choke or strangle.

murdered by an intimate partner than women. In the United States, in 2005, 329 men were killed by their intimate partners, compared to 1181 women.^[26]^[27]

Men who are victims of

Shamita Das Dasgupta and Erin Pizzey are among those who argue that, as with other forms of violence against men, intimate partner violence is generally less recognized in society when the victims are men.^[29]^[30] Domestic violence accusations by males against females are often trivialized or belittled by police.^[1]^[31]^[32] Research since the 1990s has identified issues of perceived and actual bias when police are involved, with the male victim being negated even while injured.^[33]^[34] Many people, both male and female, are hesitant to report domestic violence, for example, 1.9 million people aged 16–59 told the Crime Survey for England and Wales (year ending March 2017) that they were victims of domestic violence and 79% did not report their partner or ex-partner. Of the 1.9 million, approximately 713,000 were male, while 1.2 million were female.^[35]

Emmanuel Rowlands' research sheds light on domestic violence against men in intimate relationships. He found that cultural and masculine expectations often hide male victims' experiences. In Johannesburg, South Africa, male victims of domestic violence are often overlooked or dismissed in gender-based violence studies. He discusses how societal expectations and the lack of recognition or support for male victims contribute to a culture of silence around male domestic abuse.[36]

Mass killings

In situations of structural violence that include war and genocide, men and boys are frequently singled out and killed.^[37] The singling out of men and boys of military age occurs due the assumption that they are potential combatants and is a form of gender-based violence.^[38]^[39] These acts of violence come from the assumptions of the male role in combat situations.^[40] This practice goes back well into recorded history; Roman records point to the mass killing of a conquered settlement's men and the enslavement of its women.^[41]^[42] The murder of targets by sex during the Kosovo War, estimates of civilian male victims of mass killings suggest that they made up more than 90% of all civilian casualties.^[37]

Non-combatant men and boys have been targets of mass killings during war.

2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.^[44]^{[failed verification}

]

Sexual violence

Sexual violence against men is often under-reported and de-emphasized. The CDC's National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey during 2010-2012 found that the number of women who were raped in the 12 months preceding the survey was 1,270,000 while the number of men who were

made to penetrate was 1,267,000. The CDC exuded male victims from the fact sheet summary, noting only that "1.3 million women were raped during the year preceding the survey" without mentioning the similar finding for men.^[45]^[46]

According to the 2018 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia report, the Australian police recorded 4,100 male victims of sexual violence in 2016, as opposed to 18,900 female victims that year (thus, male victims constituted 17.8% of all victims). For male victims experiencing sexual violence since the age of 15, 55% reported a female perpetrator while 51% reported a male perpetrator (some who experienced sexual violence multiple times were victimised by men and women); by comparison, 98% of female victims since age 15 reported a male perpetrator, while 4.2% reported a female perpetrator (also some overlap here).[47]

In 2012, The UN refugee agency issued guidelines for UNHCR staff and aid workers on how to support and treat male victims of sexual violence and rape in war and human rights situations. The guidelines "include tips on the challenging task of identifying victims of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), given the stigma attached to rape".^[48]

Adult men have been forcefully

compulsory conversion of non-Muslims to Islam^[49]^[50] and more recently especially in Kenya.^[51]^[52] In South Africa, custom allows uncircumcised Xhosa-speaking men past the age of circumcision (i.e., 25 years or older) to be overpowered by other men and forcibly circumcised.^[53] While some scholars view forced adult male circumcision as (gendered) sexual violence,^[51]^[52] the International Criminal Court ruled in 2011 that such acts were not "sexual violence," but rather fell under the label of "other inhumane acts".^[49]

Male sexual victimization is often minimized or dismissed. Causes include the stereotype of men being "sexually insatiable", the masculine expectation of "male invincibility" or that a "real man" can protect himself, that a gay victim "asked for it", and that a victim's arousal signifies that the event was consenual.[46]

Sexual assault within military ranks is a significant yet under-discussed issue affecting male servicemembers. Despite longstanding "

U.S. military have revealed that sexual assault against men is characterized by distinct challenges, often exacerbated by the hierarchical and insular nature of military life. Men in the military face particular vulnerabilities to sexual violence, which is frequently perpetrated by fellow servicemembers and often involves multiple assailants. For example, a study published in the Journal of Peace Research in 2017 highlighted that nearly 1% of active-duty servicemen reported experiencing sexual assault over a one-year period, with perpetrators typically being military colleagues. The persistence of sexual assault against men in the military can be partially attributed to socialization processes within the ranks. Informal socialization practices, including sexualized hazing, often trivialize or even endorse sexual harassment and assault, establishing a culture where such acts are seen as permissible forms of punishment or means of enforcing conformity. Furthermore, official socialization of officers does not always effectively oppose these norms, since military training continues to promote a type of masculinity that undermines efforts to avoid sexual assault.^[54]

A comprehensive study by Gruber and Fineran compared the effects of sexual harassment and bullying on high school students' school engagement and academic outcomes. The findings suggest that while both sexual harassment and bullying adversely affect students, sexual harassment has a more significant impact on school attachment and academic performance for both male and female students. For men, the harassment is frequently linked with homophobic taunting, thereby not only targeting their gender but also questioning their sexuality, regardless of their actual sexual orientation.[55]

War

Conscription

Conscription, sometimes called "the draft", is the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often a military service. Historically, only men have been subjected to military drafts, and currently only three countries conscript women and men on the same formal conditions: Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands.

Male-only conscription, or compulsory military service, has been criticized as sexist.^[56]^[57] Critics regard it as discriminatory to compel men, but not women, into military service. They say the conscription of men normalizes male violence, conscripts are indoctrinated into sexism and violence against men, and military training socializes conscripts into patriarchal gender roles.^[58]^[59] Despite that, some feminist organizations have resisted inclusion of women in conscription, most notably the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights.^[60]

Wartime sexual violence

Wartime sexual violence committed by men against men is used as psychological warfare in order to demoralize the enemy.^[61] The practice is ancient, and was recorded as taking place during the Crusades.^[62] During periods of armed conflict men may be raped, sexually mutilated, sexually humiliated, forced incest, or even enslaved.^[63]^[64] Castration in particular is used as a means of physical torture with strong psychological effects, namely the loss of the ability to procreate and the loss of the status of a full man.^[62] In recent conflicts such as the Bosnian war and a number of smaller conflicts across East Africa the most commonly reported act of sexual violence was genital violence.^[64]^[65] While sexual violence in all its forms is criminalized in international law, the culture of silence around sexual violence against men often leaves male victims with no support.^[66]

In one study, less than 3% of organizations that address rape as a weapon of war mention men or provide services to male victims.^[67]^[68]^[69] Works of Dorota Glowacka illuminates the under-researched issue of sexual violence against men and boys during the holocaust. In her study Glowacka explores a multitude of cases where male victims experienced sexual assault, coercion, and humiliation within Nazi concentration camps, a subject that has historically been overshadowed by the predominant focus on female victims of sexual violence.^[70]

Homicide

Homicide statistics according to the US Bureau of Justice Statistics^[71]
Male offender/Male victim	65.3%
Male offender/Female victim	22.7%
Female offender/Male victim	9.6%
Female offender/Female victim	2.4%

In the U.S., crime statistics from 1976 onwards show that men are over-represented as victims in homicide involving both male and female offenders (74.9% of victims are male). Men also make up the majority (88%) of homicide perpetrators regardless if the victim is female or male.^[71] According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, women who kill men are most likely to kill acquaintances, spouses or boyfriends while men are more likely to kill strangers.^[72] One study looking at 97 women on death row showed that these people often experienced intimate partner violence by the people they murdered.^[73]^[74]

In Australia, men are also over-represented as victims,^[75] with the Australian Institute of Criminology finding that men are 11.5 times more likely than women to be killed by a stranger.^[76]

Data from the U.K. also shows a homicide rate for males to be twice that of females.^[77] While the proportion of homicide victims in the U.K. in the 1960s was fairly evenly split between men and women, the genders have since shown different trends: while female victim numbers remained static, male numbers increased.^[77]

Police killings

In the United States, police killings is one of the leading causes of death for young men. The likelihood of dying as a result of police use of force is 1 in 2,000 men and 1 in 33,000 women.^[78] Studies using recent data have found that Black, Hispanic, and Native American/Alaskan individuals are disproportionately stopped by police and killed in encounters.^[79]^[80]^[81] These inequalities in turn show higher rates of death by police for people of color, particularly black men having 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police use of force.^[78]^[82]

Data from Australia, the European Union, and the United Kingdom also demonstrates that death while in police custody is more frequent among men.^[83]^[84]^[85]

By country

India

A study of men in the rural area of Haryana, India found that 52.4% of men in this area experienced some form of gender-based violence.^[86]

Nigeria

In Nigeria, domestic violence against men is often overlooked and carries a cultural stigma. Adetutu Aragbuwa's research into online comments on Nigerian news articles shows mixed views: while some justify violence against men as self-defense by women, others outright condemn all forms of violence.^[87]

Sudan

In the context of the Darfur genocide, gender-based violence was not only prevalent against women but also systematically used against men and boys as a tool of war and genocide. This gender-based violence included acts that emasculated victims, such as sexual violence, humiliation, genital harm, and killings based on sex. These acts were deeply gendered, reflecting and reinforcing hegemonic gender norms within Sudanese society.^[88]

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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Violence_against_men&oldid=1222790011"

[TimeHopeSolo-1] Young, Cathy (June 25, 2014). "The surprising truth about women and violence". TIME. Retrieved February 24, 2015.

[2] "MEN, WOMEN AND CRIME | Office of Justice Programs". www.ojp.gov. Retrieved 2023-07-25.

[3] Golden, Tom. "Male Bashing in Mental Health Research" (PDF). Men Are Good. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 March 2015.

[Feather1-4] S2CID 145420492
.

[Felson-5] PMID 19746441
.

[6] PMID 36930334
.

[7] S2CID 216483305
.

[GrantBrown1-8] S2CID 145657599
.

[Mouthaan-9] :10.1163/15718123-01303004
.

[10] S2CID 143833368
.

[11] PMID 34431376
.

[12] PMID 30554559
.

[13] S2CID 21879886
.

[:2-14] Tjaden, Patricia; Thoennes, Nancy (2000). Full Report of the Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women (PDF). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.

[15] S2CID 143054168
.

[independent.ie-16] "Most predators lurk in plain sight, not at dark streets corners". 21 March 2021.

[17] Noon, Michelle (2018). Exploring the fear of crime gender paradox using quasi-experimental methods (PDF) (PhD). Swinburne University of Technology.

[18] Reggio, Michael (1999-02-09). "History of the Death Penalty". PBS Frontline. Retrieved 2020-02-06.

[19] "ILGA World updates State-Sponsored Homophobia report: "There's progress in times of uncertainty"". ILGA. 2020-12-15. Retrieved 2022-04-21.

[20] Avenue, Human Rights Watch | 350 Fifth; York, 34th Floor | New; t 1.212.290.4700, NY 10118-3299 USA | (23 April 2021). "Country Profiles: Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 2022-04-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[hrc.org-21] "Sexual Assault and the LGBTQ Community". Human Rights Campaign. Retrieved 2022-04-21.

[22] ISSN 1939-151X
.

[23] PMID 10989615
.

[24] :10.1016/S1359-1789(01)00061-1
.

[25] "The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2024.

[26] "Intimate partner violence: consequences". cdc.gov/ncipc. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 29 January 2010. Retrieved 9 February 2010.

[27] "Wheel gallery". The Duluth Model. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2010.

[28] PMID 31186243
.

[Framework-29] S2CID 145186540
.

[30] ISBN 978-0-7206-1521-0
.

[BuzawaBuzawa2003-31] ISBN 978-0-7619-2448-7
.
Citing both:
Buzawa, Eve S.; Austin, Thomas (May 1993). "Determining police response to domestic violence victims: the role of victim preference". S2CID 145070582
.

and more recent contradictory research:
Buzawa, Eve S.; Hotaling, Gerald T. (2000). The police response to domestic violence calls for assistance in three Massachusetts towns: Final report. Washington, D.C.: National Institute for Justice.

[32] Buzawa, Eve S.; Hotaling, Gerald T. (2000). The police response to domestic violence calls for assistance in three Massachusetts towns: Final report. Washington, D.C.: National Institute for Justice.

[Dutton2011_xi-32] ISBN 978-0-7748-5987-5
.

[33] S2CID 145070582
.

[34] S2CID 150156978
.

[35] ONS (2017). "Domestic abuse in England and Wales: year ending March 2017". Crime Survey for England and Wales, Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 5 December 2017.

[36] ISSN 1027-4332
.

[Jones-37] 
S2CID 143867857. View online. Archived 2015-05-16 at the Wayback Machine

[38] Lindsey, Charlotte (2001). Women Facing War (PDF). Geneva, Switzerland: International Committee of the Red Cross.

[:3-39] 
S2CID 146269292
.

[40] S2CID 158955370
, retrieved 2022-08-31

[41] ISSN 0363-1923
.

[42] Colwill, David (2017). 'Genocide' and Rome, 343-146 BCE: state expansion and the social dynamics of annihilation (PhD thesis). Cardiff University.

[43] ISBN 978-0-19-530739-9. Citing Jones (2000), "Gendercide and genocide Archived 2015-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
" p. 186.

[44] "Russian troops in Mariupol to ban all movement in the city in preparation for "filtration" and mobilisation operation". Ukrayinska Pravda. Retrieved 16 April 2022.

[45] Blum, Steven (2016-11-29). "The Hidden Epidemic of Men Who Are Raped by Women". Vice. Retrieved 2024-02-29.

[:4-46] 
PMID 24825225
.

[47] "Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018". Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 2018. Retrieved 11 June 2020.

[UNHCRChangeOct2012-48] "UNHCR issues guidelines on protection of male rape victims" (Press release). UNHCR. Oct 8, 2012. Archived from the original on November 14, 2012.{{cite press release}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)

[glass-49] 
S2CID 40529183
.

[50] Lerner, Natan (2006). Religion, Secular Beliefs, and Human Rights: 25 Years after the 1981 Declaration. Brill. p. 142.

[ahlberg-51] Ahlberg, Beth Maina; Njoroge, Kezia Muthoni (2013). "'Not men enough to rule!': politicization of ethnicities and forcible circumcision of Luo men during the postelection violence in Kenya". Ethnicity & Health. 18 (5). Taylor & Francis.

[auchter-52] 
doi:10.1093/ia/iix183
.

[53] Funani, Lumpka Sheila (1990). Circumcision among the Ama-Xhosa: A Medical Investigation. p. v.

[54] ISSN 0022-3433
.

[55] PMID 26270385
.

[56] Feminists oppose conscription and war:
Stephen, Lynn (1981). "Making the Draft a Women's Issue". Women: A Journal of Liberation. 8 (1). Retrieved 28 March 2016.

Lindsey, Karen (1982). "Women and the Draft". In McAllister, Pam (ed.). Reweaving the Web of Life: Feminism and Nonviolence. New Society Publishers.
ISBN 0-86571-016-3
.

Sun, Rivera. "Women's Draft? Sign Me Up To Abolish War". Codepink.org. Retrieved 24 November 2019.

[58] Stephen, Lynn (1981). "Making the Draft a Women's Issue". Women: A Journal of Liberation. 8 (1). Retrieved 28 March 2016.

[59] Lindsey, Karen (1982). "Women and the Draft". In McAllister, Pam (ed.). Reweaving the Web of Life: Feminism and Nonviolence. New Society Publishers.
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 {{Masculism sidebar |expanded=topics}}
+'''Violence against men''' are [[violence|violent acts]] that are disproportionately or exclusively committed against [[Man|men]] or [[boy]]s. Men are over-represented as both victims and perpetrators of violence.<ref name=TimeHopeSolo>{{cite magazine | last = Young | first = Cathy | author-link = Cathy Young | title = The surprising truth about women and violence | url = http://time.com/2921491/hope-solo-women-violence | magazine = [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] |date=June 25, 2014 | access-date = February 24, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MEN, WOMEN AND CRIME {{!}} Office of Justice Programs |url=https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/men-women-and-crime |access-date=2023-07-25 |website=www.ojp.gov}}</ref>
-'''Violence against men''' is a term for [[violence|violent acts]] that are disproportionately or exclusively committed against [[Man|men]] or [[boy]]s. Men are overrepresented as both victims<ref>{{cite book | last = Felson | first = Richard | title = Violence & gender reexamined | publisher = American Psychological Association | location = Washington, DC | year = 2002 | url = https://archive.org/details/violenc_fel_2002_00_9713 | chapter = Abstract | isbn = 9781557988959 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=What is gendercide?|url=http://www.gendercide.org/what_is_gendercide.html|website=gendercide.org|publisher=Gendercide Watch|ref=GendercideWatch1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150304223343/http://www.gendercide.org/what_is_gendercide.html|archive-date=4 March 2015|access-date=2 March 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and perpetrators of violence.<ref name=TimeHopeSolo>{{cite magazine | last = Young | first = Cathy | author-link = Cathy Young | title = The surprising truth about women and violence | url = http://time.com/2921491/hope-solo-women-violence | magazine = [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] |date=June 25, 2014 | access-date = February 24, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| last = Woolf | first = N. Quentin | title = Our attitude to violence against men is out of date | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/10752232/Our-attitude-to-violence-against-men-is-out-of-date.html | work = [[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] | date = 9 April 2014 | access-date = 9 April 2014 }}</ref> [[Sexual violence]] against men is treated differently than that [[Violence against women|committed against women]] in most [[societies]] and is largely unrecognized by [[international law]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Lewis | first = Dustin | title = Unrecognized victims: sexual violence against men in conflict settings under international law | journal = [[University of Wisconsin Law School#Journals and publications|Wisconsin International Law Journal]] | volume = 27 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–49 | publisher = [[University of Wisconsin Law School]] | ssrn = 1404574 | year = 2009 | url = http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/wisint27&div=3 }} [https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/9823975/Lewis_2009_UnrecognizedVictims.pdf Pdf.]</ref><ref name=DelZottoJones001>{{cite conference|last1=DelZotto|first1=Augusta|last2=Jones|first2=Adam|title=Male-on-male sexual violence in wartime: human rights' last taboo?|conference=Paper presented to the Annual Convention of the International Studies Association (ISA)|location=New Orleans, LA|pages=23–27|date=March 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601145852/http://adamjones.freeservers.com/malerape.htm|archive-date=1 June 2013|url=http://adamjones.freeservers.com/malerape.htm|access-date=2 March 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=80percentmalerape>{{cite book |author=United Nations Population Fund |year=2002 |title=Impact of armed conflict on women and girls |url=http://www.unfpa.org/publications/impact-armed-conflict-women-and-girls |page=64 |author-link=United Nations Population Fund }}</ref><ref name=Stemple1HR>{{cite journal |last=Stemple|first=Lara | title = Male rape and human rights | journal = [[Hastings Law Journal]] | volume = 60 | issue = 3 | pages = 605–647 | publisher = [[University of California, Hastings College of the Law|Hastings College of the Law]] | date = February 2009 | url = https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/hastlj60&id=623&collection=journals&index=journals/hastlj }} [http://scienceblogs.de/geograffitico/wp-content/blogs.dir/70/files/2012/07/i-e76e350f9e3d50b6ce07403e0a3d35fe-Stemple_60-HLJ-605.pdf Pdf.]</ref>
 == Perceptions and aspects==
-Studies of social attitudes show violence is perceived as more or less serious depending on the gender of victim and perpetrator.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Golden|first1=Tom|title=Male Bashing in Mental Health Research|url=http://menaregood.com/bias.pdf|website=Men Are Good|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304062831/http://menaregood.com/bias.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2016|access-date=2 March 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=Feather1>{{cite journal | last = Feather | first = Norm T. | title = Domestic violence, gender, and perceptions of justice | journal = [[Sex Roles (journal)|Sex Roles]] | volume = 35 | issue = 7–8 | pages = 507–519 | publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] | doi = 10.1007/BF01544134 | date = October 1996 | s2cid = 145420492 }}</ref> According to a study in the publication ''Aggressive Behavior'', [[violence against women]] was about a third more likely to be reported by third parties to the police regardless of the gender of the attacker,<ref name="Felson">{{cite journal | last1 = Felson | first1 = Richard B. | last2 = Feld | first2 = Scott L. | author-link1 = Richard Felson | title = When a man hits a woman: moral evaluations and reporting violence to the police | journal = [[Aggressive Behavior (journal)|Aggressive Behavior]] | volume = 35 | issue = 6 | pages = 477–488 | publisher = [[Wiley-Blackwell|Wiley]] | doi = 10.1002/ab.20323 | pmid = 19746441 | date = November–December 2009 }}</ref> although the most likely to be reported gender combination was a male perpetrator and female victim.<ref name="Felson" /> The use of stereotypes by law enforcement is a recognised issue,<ref name=GrantBrown1>{{cite journal | last = Brown | first = Grant A. | title = Gender as a factor in the response of the law-enforcement system to violence against partners | journal = Sexuality and Culture | volume = 8 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 3–139 | publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] | doi = 10.1007/s12119-004-1000-7 | date = June 2004 | s2cid = 145657599 }}</ref> and international law scholar Solange Mouthaan argues that, in conflict scenarios, [[sexual violence]] against men has been ignored in favor of a focus on sexual violence against women and children.<ref name="Mouthaan">{{cite journal | last = Mouthaan | first = Solange | title = Sexual violence against men and international law – criminalising the unmentionable | journal = International Criminal Law Review | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 665–695 | publisher = [[Brill Publishers|Brill]] | doi = 10.1163/15718123-01303004 | date = 2013 }}</ref> One explanation for this difference in focus is the physical power that men hold over women, making people more likely to condemn violence with this gender configuration.<ref name="Hamby">{{cite journal | last1 = Hamby | first1 = Sherry | last2 = Jackson | first2 = Amy | title = Size does matter: the effects of gender on perceptions of dating violence | journal = [[Sex Roles (journal)|Sex Roles]] | volume = 63 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 324–331 | publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] | doi = 10.1007/s11199-010-9816-0 | date = September 2010 | s2cid = 144426740 }}</ref> The concept of male survivors of violence goes against social perceptions of the male [[gender role]], leading to low recognition and few legal provisions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Onyango |first1=Monica Adhiambo |last2=Hampanda |first2=Karen | title = Social constructions of masculinity and male survivors of wartime sexual violence: an analytical review | journal = [[International Journal of Sexual Health]] | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 237–247 | publisher = [[Taylor and Francis]] | doi = 10.1080/19317611.2011.608415 | date = 2011 |s2cid=143833368 }}</ref> Often there is no legal framework for a woman to be prosecuted when committing violent offenses against a man.<ref>{{cite news|last=S.|first=Sowmya|title=Sexual assault on men: crime that is a reality|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/analysis/sexual-assault-on-men-crime-that-is-a-reality/article1-1371605.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722040920/http://www.hindustantimes.com/analysis/sexual-assault-on-men-crime-that-is-a-reality/article1-1371605.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 22, 2015|work = [[Hindustan Times]]|date=July 22, 2015|access-date= August 14, 2015}}</ref>
+Studies of social attitudes show violence is perceived as more or less serious depending on the gender of victim and perpetrator.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Golden|first1=Tom|title=Male Bashing in Mental Health Research|url=http://menaregood.com/bias.pdf|website=Men Are Good|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304062831/http://menaregood.com/bias.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2016|access-date=2 March 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=Feather1>{{cite journal | last = Feather | first = Norm T. | title = Domestic violence, gender, and perceptions of justice | journal = [[Sex Roles (journal)|Sex Roles]] | volume = 35 | issue = 7–8 | pages = 507–519 | publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] | doi = 10.1007/BF01544134 | date = October 1996 | s2cid = 145420492 }}</ref> People are less likely to report a man hitting another man to the police than a man hitting a woman.<ref name="Felson">{{cite journal | last1 = Felson | first1 = Richard B. | last2 = Feld | first2 = Scott L. | author-link1 = Richard Felson | title = When a man hits a woman: moral evaluations and reporting violence to the police | journal = [[Aggressive Behavior (journal)|Aggressive Behavior]] | volume = 35 | issue = 6 | pages = 477–488 | publisher = [[Wiley-Blackwell|Wiley]] | doi = 10.1002/ab.20323 | pmid = 19746441 | date = November–December 2009 }}</ref> A study in 2023 found that people—especially women—are less likely to accept violence against women than violence against men.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Graso |first1=Maja |last2=Reynolds |first2=Tania |last3=Aquino |first3=Karl |date=2023-03-17 |title=Worth the Risk? Greater Acceptance of Instrumental Harm Befalling Men than Women |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=2433–2445 |doi=10.1007/s10508-023-02571-0 |pmid=36930334 |pmc=10022566 |issn=0004-0002|doi-access=free }}</ref>
+Male law enforcement officers show a greater reluctance to file charges or reports when a man is the victim of domestic violence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fagerlund |first=Monica |date=2021-01-15 |title=Gender and police response to domestic violence |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15614263.2020.1749622 |journal=Police Practice and Research |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=90–108 |doi=10.1080/15614263.2020.1749622 |hdl=10138/334923 |s2cid=216483305 |issn=1561-4263|hdl-access=free }}</ref> The use of stereotypes by law enforcement is a recognised issue,<ref name=GrantBrown1>{{cite journal | last = Brown | first = Grant A. | title = Gender as a factor in the response of the law-enforcement system to violence against partners | journal = Sexuality and Culture | volume = 8 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 3–139 | publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] | doi = 10.1007/s12119-004-1000-7 | date = June 2004 | s2cid = 145657599 }}</ref> and international law scholar Solange Mouthaan argues that, in conflict scenarios, [[sexual violence]] against men has been ignored in favor of a focus on sexual violence against women and children.<ref name="Mouthaan">{{cite journal | last = Mouthaan | first = Solange | title = Sexual violence against men and international law – criminalising the unmentionable | journal = International Criminal Law Review | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 665–695 | publisher = [[Brill Publishers|Brill]] | doi = 10.1163/15718123-01303004 | date = 2013 }}</ref>
-[[Richard Felson]] challenges the assumption that violence against women is different from violence against men. The same motives play a role in almost all violence, regardless of gender: to gain control or retribution and to promote or defend self-image.<ref name=APA>{{cite journal |last=Robinson |first=Gail Erlick | title = Violence and gender reexamined | journal = [[American Journal of Psychiatry]] | volume = 160 | issue = 9 | pages = 1711–1712 | publisher = [[American Psychiatric Association]] | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.9.1711 | date = September 2003 }}</ref>
+Stigmatization and socially constructed gender stereotypes are barriers to men seeking help following violent victimization. Stereotypes can make it difficult for victims to conceptualize and verbalize what happened, and contribute significantly to underreporting and poor responses toward survivors by relevant authorities. Men often fear that they will be dismissed, accused of being the perpetrator, or ridiculed if they seek help following intimate partner violence. These fears are often confirmed by men who nonetheless seek help.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Onyango |first1=Monica Adhiambo |last2=Hampanda |first2=Karen | title = Social constructions of masculinity and male survivors of wartime sexual violence: an analytical review | journal = [[International Journal of Sexual Health]] | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 237–247 | publisher = [[Taylor and Francis]] | doi = 10.1080/19317611.2011.608415 | date = 2011 |s2cid=143833368 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Julie C. |last2=Bates |first2=Elizabeth A. |last3=Colosi |first3=Attilio |last4=Creer |first4=Andrew J. |date=October 2022 |title=Barriers to Men's Help Seeking for Intimate Partner Violence |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |volume=37 |issue=19–20 |pages=NP18417–NP18444 |doi=10.1177/08862605211035870 |issn=0886-2605 |pmc=9554285 |pmid=34431376}}</ref>
-Writing for ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', [[Cathy Young]] criticised the feminist movement for not doing enough to challenge double standards in the treatment of male victims of physical abuse and sexual assault.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Young|first=Cathy|author-link=Cathy Young|title=Sorry, Emma Watson, but HeForShe is rotten for men|url=http://time.com/3432838/emma-watson-feminism-men-women/|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]|date=September 26, 2014|access-date= August 14, 2015}}</ref>
+Due to perceptions of rape as a women's issue, services designed to help victims are often not equipped to help men.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Depraetere |first1=Joke |last2=Vandeviver |first2=Christophe |last3=Beken |first3=Tom Vander |last4=Keygnaert |first4=Ines |date=2020 |title=Big Boys Don't Cry: A Critical Interpretive Synthesis of Male Sexual Victimization |journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=991–1010 |doi=10.1177/1524838018816979 |issn=1524-8380 |pmc=7444022 |pmid=30554559}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sable |first1=Marjorie R. |last2=Danis |first2=Fran |last3=Mauzy |first3=Denise L. |last4=Gallagher |first4=Sarah K. |date=2006 |title=Barriers to Reporting Sexual Assault for Women and Men: Perspectives of College Students |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3200/JACH.55.3.157-162 |journal=Journal of American College Health |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=157–162 |doi=10.3200/JACH.55.3.157-162 |pmid=17175901 |s2cid=21879886 |issn=0744-8481}}</ref>
-While women are more fearful of violent crime, men are at much higher risk of being victims of violent crime.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274988740 |doi=10.1177/1043986209334986|title=Unpacking the Relationship Between Gender and Fear of Crime |year=2009 |last1=Lane |first1=Jodi |last2=Fisher |first2=Bonnie S. |journal=Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=260–263 |s2cid=143054168 }}</ref><ref name="independent.ie">{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.ie/world-news/europe/britain/most-predators-lurk-in-plain-sight-not-at-dark-streets-corners-40221010.html|title=Most predators lurk in plain sight, not at dark streets corners}}</ref><ref name="sbs.com.au">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-feed/myth-busting-the-true-picture-of-gendered-violence|title=Myth Busting: The true picture of gendered violence}}</ref> This phenomenon is termed by researchers as the "fear of crime gender paradox".<ref name="sbs.com.au"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.spectroom.com/1023635421-fear-of-crime|title = Fear of crime}}</ref><ref name="independent.ie"/><ref>https://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/file/76e8f54a-7ee2-4a73-85af-3e5e9d1ee6c5/1/michelle_noon_thesis.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>
+Men are less fearful of violent crime than women despite the fact that men are at much higher risk of being victims of violent crime than women.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Tjaden |first1=Patricia |url=https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/21948 |title=Full Report of the Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women |last2=Thoennes |first2=Nancy |publisher=[[National Institute of Justice]] |year=2000 |location=Washington, DC |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274988740 |doi=10.1177/1043986209334986|title=Unpacking the Relationship Between Gender and Fear of Crime |year=2009 |last1=Lane |first1=Jodi |last2=Fisher |first2=Bonnie S. |journal=Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=260–263 |s2cid=143054168 }}</ref> This phenomenon appears to be a [[paradox]] and is termed by researchers as the "fear of crime gender paradox".<ref name="independent.ie">{{Cite web |title=Most predators lurk in plain sight, not at dark streets corners |date=21 March 2021 |url=https://www.independent.ie/world-news/europe/britain/most-predators-lurk-in-plain-sight-not-at-dark-streets-corners-40221010.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Noon|first=Michelle |date=2018 |title=Exploring the fear of crime gender paradox using quasi-experimental methods |url=https://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/file/76e8f54a-7ee2-4a73-85af-3e5e9d1ee6c5/1/michelle_noon_thesis.pdf |publisher=Swinburne University of Technology}}</ref>
-==Domestic violence ==
-{{Main|Domestic violence against men}}
+== Violence against LGBT+ men ==
-In 2013, editor-in-chief of the journal ''Partner Abuse'', John Hamel,<ref name=PartnerAbuse1>{{cite journal|editor1-last=John|editor1-first=Hamel|title=Partner abuse new directions in research, intervention, and policy|journal=Partner Abuse|url=http://www.springerpub.com/journals/partner-abuse.html|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|issn=1946-6560}}</ref> set up the Domestic Violence Research Group to create the "Partner Abuse State of Knowledge Project (PASK)".<ref name=PASK1>{{cite web|title=About PASK, the Partner Abuse State of Knowledge Project |url=http://www.domesticviolenceresearch.org/ |website=domesticviolenceresearch.org |publisher=DV Research}}</ref> PASK found parity in rates of both perpetration and victimisation for men and women.<ref name=PASK_PR1>{{cite press release|last = Salem | first = Dara |title=Unprecedented domestic violence study affirms need to recognize male victims |url= http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/5/prweb10741752.htm|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |agency=PRWEB |date=May 21, 2013}}</ref>
+{{Main|Violence against LGBT people}}
+[[Male homosexuality]] has been persecuted, often violently, throughout history. Termed "[[sodomy]]" during the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[early modern period]], men found guilty of "sodomy" were often subjected to [[capital punishment for homosexuality]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/history-of-the-death-penalty/|title=History of the Death Penalty|last=Reggio|first=Michael|date=1999-02-09|website=PBS Frontline|access-date=2020-02-06}}</ref>
+In its December 2020 report, the [[International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association]] (ILGA) found that [[criminalization of homosexuality|homosexuality is criminalized]] in 67 of 193 [[UN member states]] and one non-independent jurisdiction, the [[Cook Islands]],{{update inline | date=June 2023}} while two UN member states, Iraq and Egypt, criminalize it ''[[de facto]]'' but not in legislation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-15 |title=ILGA World updates State-Sponsored Homophobia report: "There's progress in times of uncertainty" |url=https://ilga.org/ilga-world-releases-state-sponsored-homophobia-december-2020-update |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=ILGA }}</ref> Afghanistan, Brunei, Iran, Iraq, Mauritania, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, United Arab of Emirates and Yemen still allow for the prescription of the death penalty if one engages in homosexual sexual activity.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Avenue |first1=Human Rights Watch {{!}} 350 Fifth |last2=York |first2=34th Floor {{!}} New |last3=t 1.212.290.4700 |first3=NY 10118-3299 USA {{!}} |title=Country Profiles: Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity |url=https://www.hrw.org/video-photos/interactive/2021/04/23/country-profiles-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Human Rights Watch|date=23 April 2021 }}</ref>
-Men who are victims of [[domestic violence]] are at times reluctant to report it or to seek help. According to some commentators, there is also a paradigm that only males perpetrate domestic violence and are never victims.<ref name=Woods1>{{cite web|last1=Woods|first1=Michael|title=The rhetoric and reality of men and violence|url=http://mhaweb.squarespace.com/storage/files/woods_nmhc_07.pdf|publisher=Men's Health Australia|ref=Woods1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221034738/http://mhaweb.squarespace.com/storage/files/woods_nmhc_07.pdf|archive-date=February 21, 2015|date=October 19, 2007|access-date=December 31, 2016|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref> [[Shamita Das Dasgupta]] and [[Erin Pizzey]] are among those who argue that, as with other forms of violence against men, [[intimate partner violence]] is generally less recognized in society when the victims are men.<ref name="Framework">{{cite journal | last = Das Dasgupta | first = Shamita | author-link = Shamita Das Dasgupta | title = A framework for understanding women's use of nonlethal violence in intimate heterosexual relationships | journal = [[Violence Against Women (journal)|Violence Against Women]] | volume = 8 | issue = 11 | pages = 1364–1389 | publisher = [[Sage Publications|Sage]] | doi = 10.1177/107780102237408 | date = November 2002 | s2cid = 145186540 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Pizzey | first = Erin | author-link = Erin Pizzey | title = This way to the revolution: a memoir |page=114 | publisher = Peter Owen | location = London Chicago|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-hACBAAAQBAJ | year = 2011 | isbn = 9780720615210 }}</ref> Violence of women against men in relationships is often trivialized<ref name=TimeHopeSolo /><ref name="BuzawaBuzawa2003">Schlesinger Buzawa, Eva; Buzawa, Carl G. (2003), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9jCJXOxKXoUC&pg=PA150 Factors affecting police response]", in {{cite book | editor1-last = Schlesinger Buzawa | editor1-first = Eva | editor2-last = Buzawa | editor2-first = Carl G. |title=Domestic violence: the criminal justice response | publisher= [[SAGE Publications|Sage]] | location = Thousand Oaks, California |isbn=978-0-7619-2448-7 |edition =3rd|page=150| year = 2003 }}
+According to the [[Human Rights Campaign]], 26 percent of gay men and 37 percent of bisexual men experience rape, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner, compared to 29 percent of straight men.<ref name="hrc.org">{{Cite web |title=Sexual Assault and the LGBTQ Community |url=https://www.hrc.org/resources/sexual-assault-and-the-lgbt-community |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Human Rights Campaign }}</ref> Additionally, 40 percent of gay men and 47 percent of bisexual men have experienced sexual violence other than rape, compared to 21 percent of straight men.<ref name="hrc.org"/>
+Research by Rebecca L. Stotzer and Margaret Shih found that masculinity is seen as fragile, needing constant reinforcement through displays of heterosexuality and rejection of femininity and homosexuality. This insecurity can cause men to react aggressively to anything challenging traditional gender roles and can significantly influence reactions to LGBT+ individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stotzer |first1=Rebecca L. |last2=Shih |first2=Margaret |date=April 2012 |title=The relationship between masculinity and sexual prejudice in factors associated with violence against gay men. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0023991 |journal=Psychology of Men & Masculinity |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=136–142 |doi=10.1037/a0023991 |issn=1939-151X}}</ref>
+==Domestic violence==
+{{Main|Domestic violence against men}}
+Female and male perpetrators of domestic violence tend to commit different types of acts of violence. For example, women are more likely to throw or hit with objects, kick, bite, or punch, while men are more likely to choke or strangle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Archer |first=John |date=2000 |title=Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.651 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=126 |issue=5 |pages=651–680 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.651 |pmid=10989615 |issn=1939-1455}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Archer |first=John |date=2002 |title=Sex differences in physically aggressive acts between heterosexual partners |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1359178901000611 |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=313–351 |doi=10.1016/S1359-1789(01)00061-1}}</ref> The CDC's National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey during 2016-2017 found that in the United States, 42.3% of men and 42.0% of women reported having experienced physical violence by an intimate partner in their lifetime. For severe violence, 24.6% of men and 32.5% of women reported lifetime exposure.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey |url=https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/nisvs/NISVSReportonIPV_2022.pdf |access-date=11 March 2024 |website=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]}}</ref> Men are less likely to be [[murdered]] by an intimate partner than women. In the United States, in 2005, 329 men were killed by their intimate partners, compared to 1181 women.<ref>{{cite web | title = Intimate partner violence: consequences | url = https://www.cdc.gov/violencePrevention/intimatepartnerviolence/consequences.html | website = cdc.gov/ncipc | publisher = National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] | access-date = 9 February 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100129161946/http://www.cdc.gov/violencePrevention/intimatepartnerviolence/consequences.html | archive-date = 29 January 2010 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Wheel gallery | url = http://www.theduluthmodel.org/wheelgallery.php | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110728093413/http://www.theduluthmodel.org/wheelgallery.php | archive-date = 28 July 2011 | publisher=The Duluth Model | access-date = 9 February 2010}}</ref>
+Men who are victims of [[domestic violence]] are often reluctant to report it or to seek help.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huntley |first1=Alyson L |last2=Potter |first2=Lucy |last3=Williamson |first3=Emma |last4=Malpass |first4=Alice |last5=Szilassy |first5=Eszter |last6=Feder |first6=Gene |date=2019 |title=Help-seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA): a systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis |journal=BMJ Open |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=e021960 |doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2018-021960 |issn=2044-6055 |pmc=6585830 |pmid=31186243}}</ref> [[Shamita Das Dasgupta]] and [[Erin Pizzey]] are among those who argue that, as with other forms of violence against men, [[intimate partner violence]] is generally less recognized in society when the victims are men.<ref name="Framework">{{cite journal | last = Das Dasgupta | first = Shamita | author-link = Shamita Das Dasgupta | title = A framework for understanding women's use of nonlethal violence in intimate heterosexual relationships | journal = [[Violence Against Women (journal)|Violence Against Women]] | volume = 8 | issue = 11 | pages = 1364–1389 | publisher = [[SAGE Publications|SAGE]] | doi = 10.1177/107780102237408 | date = November 2002 | s2cid = 145186540 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Pizzey | first = Erin | author-link = Erin Pizzey | title = This way to the revolution: a memoir |page=114 | publisher = Peter Owen | location = London Chicago|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-hACBAAAQBAJ | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-7206-1521-0 }}</ref> Domestic violence accusations by males against females are often trivialized or belittled by police.<ref name="TimeHopeSolo" /><ref name="BuzawaBuzawa2003">Schlesinger Buzawa, Eva; Buzawa, Carl G. (2003), "[https://books.google.com/books?id=9jCJXOxKXoUC&pg=PA150 Factors affecting police response]", in {{cite book | editor1-last = Schlesinger Buzawa | editor1-first = Eva | editor2-last = Buzawa | editor2-first = Carl G. |title=Domestic violence: the criminal justice response | publisher= [[SAGE Publishing|Sage]] | location = Thousand Oaks, California |isbn=978-0-7619-2448-7 |edition =3rd|page=150| year = 2003 }}
 :''Citing both'':
-:* {{cite journal | last1 = Buzawa | first1 = Eve S. | last2 = Austin | first2 = Thomas | title = Determining police response to domestic violence victims: the role of victim preference | journal = [[American Behavioral Scientist]] | volume = 36 | issue = 5 | pages = 610–623 | publisher = [[Sage Publications|Sage]] | doi = 10.1177/0002764293036005006 | date = May 1993 | s2cid = 145070582 }}
+:*{{cite journal | last1 = Buzawa | first1 = Eve S. | last2 = Austin | first2 = Thomas | title = Determining police response to domestic violence victims: the role of victim preference | journal = [[American Behavioral Scientist]] | volume = 36 | issue = 5 | pages = 610–623 | publisher = [[SAGE Publications|SAGE]] | doi = 10.1177/0002764293036005006 | date = May 1993 | s2cid = 145070582 }}
 :''and more recent contradictory research'':
-:* {{cite book | last1 = Buzawa | first1 = Eve S. | last2 = Hotaling | first2 = Gerald T. | title = The police response to domestic violence calls for assistance in three Massachusetts towns: Final report | publisher = National Institute for Justice | location = Washington, D.C. | year = 2000 }}</ref><ref name="Dutton2011_xi">Dutton, Donald G. (2011), "[https://books.google.com/books?id=SSJC_usBJ5kC&pg=PA148 The domestic assault of men]", in {{cite book | editor-last = Dutton | editor-first = Donald G. | title = Rethinking domestic violence |page=148 | publisher = UBC Press | location = Vancouver | isbn = 9780774859875 | date = 2011-01-01 }}</ref> due to women, on average, being physically weaker than men; in such cases, the use of dangerous objects and weapons is omitted.<ref name=TimeHopeSolo /> Research since the 1990s has identified issues of perceived and actual bias when police are involved, with the male victim being negated even while injured.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Buzawa | first1 = Eve S. | last2 = Austin | first2 = Thomas | title = Determining police response to domestic violence victims: the role of victim preference | journal = [[American Behavioral Scientist]] | volume = 36 | issue = 5 | pages = 610–623 | publisher = [[Sage Publications|Sage]] | doi = 10.1177/0002764293036005006 | date = May 1993 | s2cid = 145070582 }}</ref>
+:*{{cite book | last1 = Buzawa | first1 = Eve S. | last2 = Hotaling | first2 = Gerald T. | title = The police response to domestic violence calls for assistance in three Massachusetts towns: Final report | publisher = National Institute for Justice | location = Washington, D.C. | year = 2000 }}
+</ref><ref name="Dutton2011_xi">{{Cite book |last=Dutton |first=Donald G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SSJC_usBJ5kC&pg=PA148 |title=Rethinking Domestic Violence |date=2011-01-01 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-5987-5 }}</ref> Research since the 1990s has identified issues of perceived and actual bias when police are involved, with the male victim being negated even while injured.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Buzawa | first1 = Eve S. | last2 = Austin | first2 = Thomas | title = Determining police response to domestic violence victims: the role of victim preference | journal = [[American Behavioral Scientist]] | volume = 36 | issue = 5 | pages = 610–623 | publisher = [[SAGE Publications|SAGE]] | doi = 10.1177/0002764293036005006 | date = May 1993 | s2cid = 145070582 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bates |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Kaye |first2=Linda K. |last3=Pennington |first3=Charlotte R. |last4=Hamlin |first4=Iain |date=2019-07-18 |title=What about the Male Victims? Exploring the Impact of Gender Stereotyping on Implicit Attitudes and Behavioural Intentions Associated with Intimate Partner Violence |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11199-018-0949-x |journal=Sex Roles |volume=81 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1007/s11199-018-0949-x |s2cid=150156978 |issn=0360-0025}}</ref> Many people, both male and female, are hesitant to report domestic violence, for example, 1.9 million people aged 16–59 told the [[Crime Survey for England and Wales]] (year ending March 2017) that they were victims of domestic violence and 79% did not report their partner or ex-partner. Of the 1.9 million, approximately 713,000 were male, while 1.2 million were female.<ref>{{cite web | last = ONS | author-link = Office for National Statistics | title = Domestic abuse in England and Wales: year ending March 2017 | url = https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/domesticabuseinenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2017 | publisher = [[Crime Survey for England and Wales|Crime Survey for England and Wales, Office for National Statistics]] | year = 2017 | access-date = 5 December 2017 }}</ref>
+Emmanuel Rowlands' research sheds light on domestic violence against men in intimate relationships. He found that cultural and masculine expectations often hide male victims' experiences. In Johannesburg, South Africa, male victims of domestic violence are often overlooked or dismissed in gender-based violence studies. He discusses how societal expectations and the lack of recognition or support for male victims contribute to a culture of silence around male domestic abuse.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Emmanuel Rowlands |date=2022-03-11 |title=Autoethnography, Reflexivity, and Insider Researcher Dynamics: Reflections on Investigating Violence against Men in Intimate Relationships |url=https://journals.codesria.org/index.php/asr/article/view/3976 |journal=African Sociological Review |volume=26 |issue=1 |doi=10.57054/asr.v6i2.3976 |issn=1027-4332|doi-access=free }}</ref>
-==Female violence against men==
-According to the journalist [[Martin Daubney]] "...there remains a theory that men under report their experiences [of violence by women against men] due to a culture of masculine expectations."<ref>{{cite news| last = Daubney | first = Martin | author-link = Martin Daubney | title = Why female violence against men is society's last great taboo | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/why-female-violence-against-men-is-societys-last-great-taboo/ | work = [[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] | date = 15 March 2016 | access-date = 2 December 2016 }}</ref> The official figure in the [[United Kingdom]], for example, is about 50% of the number of acts of violence by men against women, but there are indications that only about 10% of male victims of female violence report the incidents to the authorities, mainly due to taboos, fears of misunderstanding, and fears of not being believed or even ridiculed by authorities, created by a culture of masculine expectations.<ref name=telegraph>{{cite news| last = Daubney | first = Martin | author-link = Martin Daubney | title = Why female violence against men is society's last great taboo | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/why-female-violence-against-men-is-societys-last-great-taboo/ | work = [[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] | date = 15 March 2016 | access-date = 2 December 2016 }}
-:* 1) "''...more women than men suffer domestic abuse in Britain (4.5m women versus 2.2m men over the age of 16, according to the ONS [Office for National Statistics]).''"
-:* 2) "''...men are more likely to suffer spousal violence, with 342,000 women and 418,000 men suffering abuse in the preceding five years to 2014.''"</ref> For example, 1.9 million people aged 16–59 told the [[Crime Survey for England and Wales]] (year ending March 2017), that they were victims of domestic violence and 79% did not report their partner or ex-partner. Of the 1.9 million, approximately 1.2 million were female and 713,000 were male.<ref>{{cite web | last = ONS | author-link = Office for National Statistics | title = Domestic abuse in England and Wales: year ending March 2017 | url = https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/domesticabuseinenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2017 | publisher = [[Crime Survey for England and Wales|Crime Survey for England and Wales, Office for National Statistics]] | year = 2017 | access-date = 5 December 2017 }}</ref> However, in a Canadian report, 22% more men than women reported being victims of violence in their current relationship.<ref name=telegraph /><ref>{{cite web|title=Table 1.2 Victims of self-reported spousal violence within the past 5 years, by sex, 2004, 2009 and 2014|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2016001/article/14303/tbl/tbl1.2-eng.htm|access-date=23 March 2017|website=Statistics Canada|date=21 January 2016}}</ref> Additionally, researchers Stemple and Meyer report that sexual violence by women against men is often understudied or unrecognized.<ref>{{cite news | last = Friedersdorf | first = Conor | title = The understudied female sexual predator | url = https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/11/the-understudied-female-sexual-predator/503492/ | work = [[The Atlantic]] | date = November 28, 2016 | access-date = 2 December 2016 }}
-:''Citing'':
-:* {{cite journal | last1 = Stemple | first1 = Lara | last2 = Meyer | first2 = Ilan H. | title = The sexual victimization of men in America: new data challenge old assumptions | journal = [[American Journal of Public Health]] | volume = 104 | issue = 6 | pages = e19–e26 | publisher = [[American Public Health Association]] | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2014.301946 | pmid = 24825225 | date = 1 June 2014 | pmc=4062022}}</ref>
+==Mass killings==
-Family violence scholar [[Richard Gelles]] published an article entitled "Domestic Violence: Not An Even Playing Field" and accused men's rights groups of distorting research findings on men's and women's violence to promote a misogynistic agenda.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://fathersmanifesto.net/gelles.htm|title=Richard Gelles: oh so magnanimous, and dead wrong|website=fathersmanifesto.net|access-date=2018-05-25}}</ref> Some domestic violence scholars and advocates have rejected the research cited by [[men's rights activists]] and dispute their claims that such violence is gender symmetrical,<ref name="Flood2012">{{cite journal |last= Flood | first = Michael | title = Separated fathers and the 'fathers' rights' movement | journal = Journal of Family Studies | volume = 18 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 235–345 | doi = 10.5172/jfs.2012.18.2-3.235 |date = December 2012 | s2cid = 55469150 | url = http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2985&context=artspapers }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20151204153709/http://xyonline.net/sites/default/files/Flood,%20Separated%20fathers%20and%20the%20'fathers'%20rights'%20movement%202012_0.pdf Pdf.]</ref><ref name="Dobash">{{cite journal | last1=Dobash | first1=Russell P. | last2=Dobash | first2=R. Emerson | last3=Wilson | first3=Margo | last4=Daly | first4=Martin | title=The myth of sexual symmetry in marital violence | journal=[[Social Problems]] | volume=39 | issue=1 | pages=71&ndash;91 | doi = 10.2307/3096914 | jstor = 3096914 | date=February 1992 }}</ref><ref name="Kimmel2002">{{Cite journal | last = Kimmel | first = Michael S. | author-link = Michael Kimmel| title = 'Gender symmetry' in domestic violence: a substantive and methodological research review | journal = [[Violence Against Women (journal)|Violence Against Women]] | volume = 8 | issue = 11 | pages = 1332&ndash;1363 | doi = 10.1177/107780102237407 | date = November 2002 | s2cid = 74249845 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20141016110040/http://www.vawnet.org/assoc_files_vawnet/gendersymmetry.pdf Pdf.]</ref> arguing that their focus on violence against men stems from a political agenda to minimize the severity of the problem of men's violence against women and children<ref name="Flood2012" /> and to undermine services to abused women.<ref name="Kimmel2002" />
+{{main|Androcide}}
+In situations of [[structural violence]] that include war and genocide, men and boys are frequently singled out and killed.<ref name=Jones>{{cite journal | last = Jones | first = Adam | title = Gendercide and genocide | journal = [[Journal of Genocide Research]] | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–211 | publisher = [[Taylor and Francis]] | doi = 10.1080/713677599 | date = June 2000 | s2cid = 143867857 }} [http://www.gendercide.org/gendercide_and_genocide_2.html View online.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150516161611/http://www.gendercide.org/gendercide_and_genocide_2.html |date=2015-05-16 }}</ref> The singling out of men and boys of military age occurs due the assumption that they are potential combatants and is a form of gender-based violence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lindsey |first=Charlotte |url=https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0798_women_facing_war.pdf |title=Women Facing War |publisher=International Committee of the Red Cross |year=2001 |location=Geneva, Switzerland}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Carpenter |first=R. Charli |date=2006 |title=Recognizing Gender-Based Violence Against Civilian Men and Boys in Conflict Situations |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0967010606064139 |journal=Security Dialogue |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=83–103 |doi=10.1177/0967010606064139 |s2cid=146269292 |issn=0967-0106}}</ref> These acts of violence come from the assumptions of the male role in combat situations.<ref>{{Citation |last=Boomen |first=Marcus |title=Guilty by Association: The Issue of Gender Violence and the Targeted Killing of Men of Fighting Age in Times of Conflict |date=2019 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-13-2008-8_18 |work=Guns & Roses: Comparative Civil-Military Relations in the Changing Security Environment |pages=343–364 |editor-last=Ratuva |editor-first=Steven |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer Singapore |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-2008-8_18 |isbn=978-981-13-2007-1 |s2cid=158955370 |access-date=2022-08-31 |editor2-last=Compel |editor2-first=Radomir |editor3-last=Aguilar |editor3-first=Sergio}}</ref> This practice goes back well into recorded history; Roman records point to the mass killing of a conquered settlement's men and the enslavement of its women.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gaca |first=Kathy L. |date=2011-12-01 |title=Telling the Girls from the Boys and Children: Interpreting Παȋδεϛ in the Sexual Violence of Populace-Ravaging Ancient Warfare |url=https://scholarlypublishingcollective.org/ics/article/doi/10.5406/illiclasstud.35-36.0085/234242/Telling-the-Girls-from-the-Boys-and-Children |journal=Illinois Classical Studies |volume=35-36 |pages=85–109 |doi=10.5406/illiclasstud.35-36.0085 |issn=0363-1923}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |title='Genocide' and Rome, 343-146 BCE: state expansion and the social dynamics of annihilation |url=https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/109080/ |publisher=Cardiff University |date=2017 |degree=PhD |first=David |last=Colwill}}</ref> The murder of targets by sex during the [[Kosovo War]], estimates of civilian male victims of mass killings suggest that they made up more than 90% of all civilian casualties.<ref name=Jones/>
-== Violence against LGBT+ men ==
-Violence towards men can also be attributed to homosexuality. Due to cultural norms, religious beliefs, and toxic masculinity, men have been targeted for their sexual orientation.
+Non-combatant men and boys have been targets of mass killings during war.<ref>HSR (2005), "[https://books.google.com/books?id=rSIrNeFWIfcC&pg=PA111 Assault on the vulnerable]", in {{cite book | editor-last = HSR | title = Human security report 2005: war and peace in the 21st century | year = 2005 | page = 111 | publisher = Published for the Human Security Center, University if British Columbia, Canada by Oxford University Press | location = New York Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-530739-9 }} ''Citing'' Jones (2000), "''[http://www.gendercide.org/gendercide_and_genocide_2.html Gendercide and genocide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150516161611/http://www.gendercide.org/gendercide_and_genocide_2.html |date=2015-05-16 }}''" p. 186.</ref> Forced conscription can also be considered gender-based violence against men.<ref name=":3" /> Furthermore, examples may include the [[Russian filtration camps of Ukrainians|filtration camps]] set up by [[Russia]] in occupied areas during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Russian troops in Mariupol to ban all movement in the city in preparation for "filtration" and mobilisation operation |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2022/04/16/7339988/ |website=Ukrayinska Pravda |access-date=16 April 2022 }}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=December 2023}}
-In its December 2020 report, the [[International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association]] (ILGA) found that homosexuality is criminalized in 67 of 193 [[UN member states]] and one non-independent jurisdiction, the [[Cook Islands]], while two UN member states, Iraq and Egypt, criminalize it ''[[de facto]]'' but not in legislation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-15 |title=ILGA World updates State-Sponsored Homophobia report: "There's progress in times of uncertainty" |url=https://ilga.org/ilga-world-releases-state-sponsored-homophobia-december-2020-update |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=ILGA |language=en}}</ref> Afghanistan, Brunei, Iran, Iraq, Mauritania, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, United Arab of Emirates and Yemen still allow for the prescription of the death penalty if one engages in homosexual sexual activity.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Avenue |first1=Human Rights Watch {{!}} 350 Fifth |last2=York |first2=34th Floor {{!}} New |last3=t 1.212.290.4700 |first3=NY 10118-3299 USA {{!}} |title=Country Profiles: Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity |url=https://www.hrw.org/video-photos/interactive/2021/04/23/country-profiles-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> In 2021, Téa Braun of the [[Human Dignity Trust]] estimated that more than 71 million LGBT people live in countries where homosexuality is criminalized.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Map of Countries that Criminalise LGBT People {{!}} Human Dignity Trust |url=https://www.humandignitytrust.org./lgbt-the-law/map-of-criminalisation/ |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.humandignitytrust.org. |language=en}}</ref>
+==Sexual violence==
-[[Anti-gay purges in Chechnya|Anti-gay purges in the Chechen Republic]], a predominantly [[Islam in Russia|Muslim region]] of Russia, have included [[forced disappearance]]s—secret abductions, imprisonment, and [[torture]]—by local Chechen authorities targeting persons based on their perceived [[sexual orientation]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Anti-gay purges in Chechnya |date=2022-03-19 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anti-gay_purges_in_Chechnya&oldid=1078004831 |work=Wikipedia |language=en |access-date=2022-04-21}}</ref> There have been reports of concentration camps being created to house those who have disappeared.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-05-08 |title=Russia: New Anti-Gay Crackdown in Chechnya |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/05/08/russia-new-anti-gay-crackdown-chechnya |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Human Rights Watch |language=en}}</ref> In February 2016 [[Hamas]], which controls the [[Palestinian National Authority]] and rules [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]], executed by firing squad Mahmoud Ishtiwi—one of the group's leading commanders—for homosexual activity. Report of vigilante executions, beatings, and torture have been reported in heavily Christian and Muslim regions of Africa, in countries such as Uganda, South Africa, Kenya, Liberia, Ghana, Cameroon, and Senegal.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-03-02 |title=Hamas executed a prominent commander after accusations of gay sex |url=https://www.newsweek.com/prominent-hamas-commander-was-executed-after-accusations-gay-sex-432343 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Capital punishment for homosexuality |date=2022-03-14 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality&oldid=1077170708 |work=Wikipedia |language=en |access-date=2022-04-21}}</ref>
+Sexual violence against men is often under-reported and de-emphasized. The CDC's National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey during 2010-2012 found that the number of women who were raped in the 12 months preceding the survey was 1,270,000 while the number of men who were [[made to penetrate]] was 1,267,000. The CDC exuded male victims from the fact sheet summary, noting only that "1.3 million women were raped during the year preceding the survey" without mentioning the similar finding for men.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blum |first=Steven |date=2016-11-29 |title=The Hidden Epidemic of Men Who Are Raped by Women |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/kze8qn/the-hidden-epidemic-of-men-who-are-raped-by-women |access-date=2024-02-29 |website=Vice }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Stemple |first1=Lara |last2=Meyer |first2=Ilan H. |date=2014 |title=The Sexual Victimization of Men in America: New Data Challenge Old Assumptions |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=e19–e26 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2014.301946 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=4062022 |pmid=24825225}}</ref>
+According to the 2018 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia report, the Australian police recorded 4,100 male victims of sexual violence in 2016, as opposed to 18,900 female victims that year (thus, male victims constituted 17.8% of all victims). For male victims experiencing sexual violence since the age of 15, 55% reported a female perpetrator while 51% reported a male perpetrator (some who experienced sexual violence multiple times were victimised by men and women); by comparison, 98% of female victims since age 15 reported a male perpetrator, while 4.2% reported a female perpetrator (also some overlap here).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/d1a8d479-a39a-48c1-bbe2-4b27c7a321e0/aihw-fdv-02.pdf.aspx?inline=true |title=Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 |publisher=Australian Institute of Health and Welfare |date=2018 |access-date=11 June 2020}}</ref>
-Violence towards gay men have also been present in sex-culture. In 2012, [[Murder of Jun Lin|Jun Lin]], a Chinese college student studying in Canada, was murdered by Luka Rocco Magnotta. The two had met on an anonymous [[Craigslist]] personals forum, with Magnotta seeking an individual to film a sex-tape with. In 2018, [[Murder of Blaze Bernstein|Blaze Bernstein]] was murdered after he went on a hookup from the gay hookup app, [[Grindr]]. Authorities determined that Bernstein was the victim of a hatecrime. According to the [[Human Rights Campaign]], 26 percent of gay men and 37 percent of bisexual men experience rape, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner, compared to 29 percent of straight men.<ref name="hrc.org">{{Cite web |title=Sexual Assault and the LGBTQ Community |url=https://www.hrc.org/resources/sexual-assault-and-the-lgbt-community |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Human Rights Campaign |language=en-US}}</ref> Additionally, 40 percent of gay men and 47 percent of bisexual men have experienced sexual violence other than rape, compared to 21 percent of straight men.<ref name="hrc.org"/>
+In 2012, The UN refugee agency issued guidelines for UNHCR staff and aid workers on how to support and treat male victims of sexual violence and rape in war and human rights situations.
-==Forced circumcision==
+The guidelines "include tips on the challenging task of identifying victims of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), given the stigma attached to rape".<ref name=UNHCRChangeOct2012>{{cite press release|date=Oct 8, 2012 |title=UNHCR issues guidelines on protection of male rape victims |url=http://www.unhcr.org/5072bfa69.html |type=Press release |publisher=UNHCR |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114004503/http://www.unhcr.org/5072bfa69.html |archive-date=November 14, 2012 |url-status=unfit }}</ref>
-{{Main|Forced circumcision|Ethics of circumcision}}
-Non-therapeutic male circumcision is considered, by several groups, to be a form of violence against young men and boys.<ref name="irinnews.org">{{cite news | last = Staff writer |title=Plea to ICC over forced male circumcision |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/92564/kenya-plea-icc-over-forced-male-circumcision|work=[[The New Humanitarian|Irin Analysis]]|date=24 April 2011 | access-date = 3 July 2016}}</ref><ref>''Other groups'':
-* {{cite news | last=Stoffers | first=Carl | title=The Bloodstained Men chop away at infant circumcision | url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/bloodstained-men-chop-circumcision-article-1.2373410 | work=[[New York Daily News]] | date=September 24, 2015 | access-date=September 1, 2016}}
-* {{cite journal | last1 = Ahlberg | first1 = Beth Maina | last2 = Njoroge | first2 = Kezia Muthoni | title = 'Not men enough to rule!': politicization of ethnicities and forcible circumcision of Luo men during the postelection violence in Kenya | journal = [[Ethnicity & Health]] | volume = 18 | issue = 5 | pages = 454–468 | publisher = [[Taylor and Francis]] | doi = 10.1080/13557858.2013.772326 | pmid = 23758644 | date = 2013 | s2cid = 6196941 }}
-* {{cite journal | last = Vojdik | first = Valorie K. | title = Sexual violence against men and women in war: a masculinities approach | journal = Nevada Law Journal| volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages=923 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | doi = 10.2139/ssrn.2271222 | ssrn = 2271222 | date = 2014 | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol14/iss3/15/ }}
-* {{cite book | url=http://restlessdevelopment.org/file/res-sa-men-and-boys-gbv-oct2014-pdf | title=Men and Boys and Sexual and Gender Based Violence (SGBV) | publisher=[[Restless Development]] | location = South Africa | date = October 2014}} Discussions with youth peer educators and staff at Restless Development South Africa: challenges and recommendations.
-* Poole, Glen (2013), "[https://web.archive.org/web/20170828230144/https://equality4men.com/2013/11/03/10-reasons-we-need-a-campaign-to-end-violence-against-men-and-boys/ 10 reasons we need a campaign to end violence against men and boys…]", in {{cite book | editor-last = Poole | editor-first = Glen | title = Equality for men | year = 2013 | publisher = Lightworks Publications | location = Blackpool, England | isbn = 9780992790509 }}</ref> The International Criminal Court considers forced circumcision to be an "inhumane act".<ref name="irinnews.org"/> Some court decisions have found it to be a violation of a child's rights.<ref>{{cite news | last=Hebblethwaite | first=Cordelia | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-19072761 | title=Circumcision, the ultimate parenting dilemma | work=[[BBC News]] | date=21 August 2012 | access-date=September 1, 2016 | location=Washington DC}}</ref> In certain countries, such as [[Bangladesh]], [[Indonesia]], [[Pakistan]], the [[Philippines]], [[South Korea]], [[Turkey]] and the [[United States]], newborn baby males are routinely circumcised without the child's consent.<ref name="who.int">{{cite book | last1 = UNAIDS | last2 = WHO | author-link1 = Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS | author-link2 = World Health Organization |title=Neonatal and child male circumcision: a global review | publisher = [[Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS|UNAIDS]] and [[World Health Organization|WHO]] | location = Geneva |url=https://www.who.int/entity/hiv/pub/malecircumcision/neonatal_child_MC_UNAIDS.pdf |year=2010 |isbn=9789291738557}}</ref><ref name=WHO_2007_GTDPSA>{{cite book | last1 = UNAIDS | last2 = WHO | author-link1 = Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS | author-link2 = World Health Organization |title=Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability | publisher = [[Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS|UNAIDS]] and [[World Health Organization|WHO]] | location = Geneva |year=2007 |url=http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/jc1360_male_circumcision_en_0.pdf | isbn = 9789241596169}}</ref> Around the world, [[Jewish]] boys are circumcised at eight days old<ref name=glass_1999>{{cite journal | last = Glass | first = J.M. | title = Religious circumcision: a Jewish view | journal = [[BJUI|BJU International]] | volume = 83 | issue = S1 | pages = 17–21 | publisher = [[Wiley-Blackwell|Wiley]] | doi = 10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1017.x | pmid = 10349410 | date = January 1999 | s2cid = 2888024 }}</ref> and [[Muslim]] boys at a young age, typically 7.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml|title=BBC - Religions - Islam: Circumcision of boys}}</ref> Circumcision is also practiced in [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Christianity]] and the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]].<ref name=WHO_2007_GTDPSA/><ref name=Columbia_encyc_2011_circ>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Circumcision |encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York Detroit |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaencyclop00laga |isbn=9780787650155 |url-access=registration }}</ref>
+Adult men have been forcefully [[Circumcision|circumcised]], most notably in the [[Forced conversion to Islam|compulsory conversion of non-Muslims to Islam]]<ref name="glass">{{cite journal |last=Glass |first=Michael |date=September 2013 |title=Forced circumcision of men (abridged) |url=https://zenodo.org/record/895709 |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics |volume=40 |issue=8 |pages=567–571 |doi=10.1136/medethics-2013-101626 |pmid=24014634 |s2cid=40529183}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lerner |first=Natan |title=Religion, Secular Beliefs, and Human Rights: 25 Years after the 1981 Declaration |publisher=Brill |year=2006 |page=142}}</ref> and more recently especially in Kenya.<ref name="ahlberg">{{cite journal |year=2013 |title='Not men enough to rule!': politicization of ethnicities and forcible circumcision of Luo men during the postelection violence in Kenya |journal=Ethnicity & Health |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=18 |issue=5 |author1-first=Beth Maina |author1-last=Ahlberg |author2-first=Kezia Muthoni |author2-last=Njoroge}}</ref><ref name="auchter">{{cite journal |last=Auchter |first=Jessica |year=2017 |title=Forced male circumcision: gender-based violence in Kenya |journal=International Affairs |volume=93 |issue=3 |pages=1339–1356 |doi=10.1093/ia/iix183}}</ref> In South Africa, custom allows uncircumcised [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]]-speaking men past the age of circumcision (i.e., 25 years or older) to be overpowered by other men and forcibly circumcised.<ref>{{cite book |last=Funani |first=Lumpka Sheila |title=Circumcision among the Ama-Xhosa: A Medical Investigation |year=1990 |page=v}}</ref> While some scholars view forced adult male circumcision as (gendered) sexual violence,<ref name="ahlberg" /><ref name="auchter" /> the [[International Criminal Court]] ruled in 2011 that such acts were not "sexual violence," but rather fell under the label of "other inhumane acts".<ref name="glass" />
-Although a 2012 court ruling in Germany put the practice of male cutting under question, calling circumcision "grievous bodily harm," the German parliament passed a law to keep circumcision of boys legal.<ref>{{cite news | last = Staff writer| title=Circumcision remains legal in Germany | url=http://www.dw.com/en/circumcision-remains-legal-in-germany/a-16399336 | work=DW.COM| publisher = [[Deutsche Welle]] | date = December 12, 2012 | access-date=September 1, 2016}}</ref> As of 2016, cutting of boys' foreskins is still legal worldwide.<ref name="who.int"/>
+Male sexual victimization is often minimized or dismissed. Causes include the stereotype of men being "sexually insatiable", the masculine expectation of "male invincibility" or that a "real man" can protect himself, that a gay victim "asked for it", and that a victim's arousal signifies that the event was consenual.<ref name=":4" />
-==Mass killings==
-{{main|Androcide}}
-[[File:Kosovo-metohija-koreni-duse002.jpg|thumb|left|Serbian victims during [[Insurgency in Kosovo (1995–98)|insurgency]] in the Kosovo War]]
-[[File:Dourmouche, a boy wounded and hand cut off..png|thumb|A 9-year-old Muslim boy whose hand was cut off by Greek soldiers during the [[Yalova Peninsula massacres|Yalova Massacre]].]]
-In situations of [[structural violence]] that include war and genocide, men and boys are frequently singled out and killed.<ref name=Jones>{{cite journal | last = Jones | first = Adam | title = Gendercide and genocide | journal = [[Journal of Genocide Research]] | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–211 | publisher = [[Taylor and Francis]] | doi = 10.1080/713677599 | date = June 2000 | s2cid = 143867857 }} [http://www.gendercide.org/gendercide_and_genocide_2.html View online.]</ref> The murder of targets by sex during the [[Kosovo War]], estimates of civilian male victims of mass killings suggest that they made up more than 90% of all civilian casualties.<ref name=Jones/>
+Sexual assault within military ranks is a significant yet under-discussed issue affecting male servicemembers. Despite longstanding "[[Zero tolerance|zero-tolerance]]" policies, sexual violence persists, with men both as perpetrators and victims. Studies and surveys within the [[U.S. military]] have revealed that sexual assault against men is characterized by distinct challenges, often exacerbated by the hierarchical and insular nature of military life. Men in the military face particular vulnerabilities to sexual violence, which is frequently perpetrated by fellow servicemembers and often involves multiple assailants. For example, a study published in the ''Journal of Peace Research'' in 2017 highlighted that nearly 1% of active-duty servicemen reported experiencing sexual assault over a one-year period, with perpetrators typically being military colleagues. The persistence of sexual assault against men in the military can be partially attributed to socialization processes within the ranks. Informal socialization practices, including sexualized hazing, often trivialize or even endorse sexual harassment and assault, establishing a culture where such acts are seen as permissible forms of punishment or means of enforcing conformity. Furthermore, official socialization of officers does not always effectively oppose these norms, since military training continues to promote a type of masculinity that undermines efforts to avoid sexual assault.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Elisabeth Jean |last2=Toppelberg |first2=Nathaniel |date=September 2017 |title=The persistence of sexual assault within the US military |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022343317720487 |journal=Journal of Peace Research |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=620–633 |doi=10.1177/0022343317720487 |issn=0022-3433}}</ref>
-Non-combatant men and boys have been and continue to be the most frequent targets of mass killing and genocidal slaughter, as well as a host of lesser atrocities and abuses.<ref>HSR (2005), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rSIrNeFWIfcC&pg=PA111 Assault on the vulnerable]", in {{cite book | editor-last = HSR | title = Human security report 2005: war and peace in the 21st century | page = 111 | publisher = Published for the Human Security Center, University if British Columbia, Canada by Oxford University Press | location = New York Oxford | isbn = 9780195307399 }} ''Citing'' Jones (2000), "''[http://www.gendercide.org/gendercide_and_genocide_2.html Gendercide and genocide]''" p. 186.</ref> Gendercide Watch, an independent human rights group, documents multiple [[gendercide]]s which were committed against males (both adults and children): the [[Armenian genocide]], 1915–17<ref name=Gendercide2>{{cite web|title=Case Study: The Armenian Genocide, 1915–17|url=http://www.gendercide.org/case_armenia.html|website=gendercide.org|publisher=Gendercide Watch|access-date=2020-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629105502/http://www.gendercide.org/case_armenia.html|archive-date=2015-06-29|url-status=dead}}</ref>—[[The Holocaust]], 1933–45<ref>{{cite web |title=The Jewish Holocaust, 1933-1945 |url=http://www.gendercide.org/case_jews.html |website=Gendercide |access-date=16 April 2022}}</ref>—the [[Anfal campaign]] ([[Iraqi Kurdistan]]), 1988<ref name=Gendercide1>{{cite web|title=Case Study: The Anfal Campaign (Iraqi Kurdistan), 1988|url=http://www.gendercide.org/case_anfal.html|website=gendercide.org|publisher=Gendercide Watch|access-date=2020-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513085239/http://www.gendercide.org/case_anfal.html|archive-date=2015-05-13|url-status=dead}}</ref>—[[Rwandan genocide|Rwanda]], 1994.<ref name=Gendercide3>{{cite web|title=Case Study: Genocide in Rwanda, 1994|url=http://www.gendercide.org/case_rwanda.html|website=gendercide.org|publisher=Gendercide Watch|access-date=2020-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629142121/http://www.gendercide.org/case_rwanda.html|archive-date=2015-06-29|url-status=dead}}</ref> Forced conscription can also be considered gender-based violence against men. Furthermore, examples may include the [[Russian filtration camps of Ukrainians|filtration camps]] set up by [[Russia]] in occupied areas during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref name="Carpenter">{{cite journal | last = Carpenter | first = R. Charli | title = Recognizing gender-based violence against civilian men and boys in conflict situations | journal = [[Security Dialogue]] | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 83–103 | publisher = [[Sage Publications|Sage]] | doi = 10.1177/0967010606064139 | date = March 2006 | s2cid = 146269292 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Russian troops in Mariupol to ban all movement in the city in preparation for "filtration" and mobilisation operation |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2022/04/16/7339988/ |website=Ukrayinska Pravda |access-date=16 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
+A comprehensive study by Gruber and Fineran compared the effects of sexual harassment and bullying on high school students' school engagement and academic outcomes. The findings suggest that while both sexual harassment and bullying adversely affect students, sexual harassment has a more significant impact on school attachment and academic performance for both male and female students. For men, the harassment is frequently linked with homophobic taunting, thereby not only targeting their gender but also questioning their sexuality, regardless of their actual sexual orientation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gruber |first1=James |last2=Fineran |first2=Susan |date=January 2016 |title=Sexual Harassment, Bullying, and School Outcomes for High School Girls and Boys |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1077801215599079 |journal=Violence Against Women |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=112–133 |doi=10.1177/1077801215599079 |pmid=26270385 |issn=1077-8012}}</ref>
-==Sexual violence==
-=== General ===
-It was noted in 1990 that the English language is "bereft of terms and phrases which accurately describe male rape".<ref name="McMullen1990">McMullen, Richie (1990), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?redir_esc=y&id=KYbaAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=which+accurately+describe The consequences of male rape]", in {{cite book | editor-last = McMullen | editor-first = Richie | title = Male rape: breaking the silence on the last taboo |page=83 | publisher = Gay Men's Press (GMP) | location = London | isbn = 9780854491261 | date = September 1990 }}</ref> In 2012, a UNHCR report stated that "SGBV (sexual and gender based violence) against men and boys has generally been mentioned as a footnote in reports".<ref name=UNHCRChangeOct2012>{{cite press release|date=Oct 8, 2012 |title=UNHCR issues guidelines on protection of male rape victims |url=http://www.unhcr.org/5072bfa69.html |type=Press release |publisher=UNHCR |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114004503/http://www.unhcr.org/5072bfa69.html |archive-date=November 14, 2012 |url-status=unfit }}</ref>
+== War ==
-According to the 2002 SAVI (Sexual Abuse and Violence in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]) Report, 9.7% of Irish men reported experiencing contact sexual assault as adults (when they were aged 17 or older); 0.9% of those involved penetrative sex. A further 2.7% reported unwanted non-contact sexual experiences. By comparison, 20.4% Irish women reported experiencing contact sexual assault as adults, 6.1% of which involved penetrative sex; a further 5.1% reported unwanted non-contact sexual experiences.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.drcc.ie/about/savi.pdf |title=The SAVI (Sexual Abuse and Violence in Ireland) Report |author=Hannah McGee, Rebecca Garavan, Mairéad de Barra, Joanne Byrne and Ronán Conroy |publisher=The Liffey Press & Dublin Rape Crisis Centre |date=2002 |access-date=11 June 2020}}</ref>
+=== Conscription ===
+{{Main|Conscription and sexism}}
+[[File:World Peace Day March near the Hotel Australia, King William Street, North Adelaide, 1969.jpg|thumb|Women protest conscription and war on World Peace Day March near the Hotel Australia, King William Street, North Adelaide, 1969.]]
+[[Conscription]], sometimes called "the draft", is the compulsory enlistment of people in a [[national service]], most often a [[military service]]. Historically, only men have been subjected to military drafts, and currently only three countries conscript women and men on the same formal conditions: Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands.
+Male-only conscription, or compulsory military service, has been criticized as [[Sexism|sexist]].<ref>Feminists oppose conscription and war:
-According to the 2018 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia report, the Australian police recorded 4,100 male victims of sexual violence in 2016, as opposed to 18,900 female victims that year (thus, male victims constituted 17.8% of all victims). For male victims experiencing sexual violence since the age of 15, 55% reported a female perpetrator while 51% reported a male perpetrator (some who experienced sexual violence multiple times were victimised by men and women); by comparison, 98% of female victims since age 15 reported a male perpetrator, while 4.2% reported a female perpetrator (also some overlap here).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/d1a8d479-a39a-48c1-bbe2-4b27c7a321e0/aihw-fdv-02.pdf.aspx?inline=true |title=Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia 2018 |publisher=Australian Institute of Health and Welfare |date=2018 |access-date=11 June 2020}}</ref>
+*{{cite journal|last1=Stephen|first1=Lynn|title=Making the Draft a Women's Issue|journal=Women: A Journal of Liberation|date=1981|volume=8|issue=1|url=http://voices.revealdigital.com/cgi-bin/independentvoices?a=d&d=BGJGDDE19761001.1.59&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN---------------1|access-date=28 March 2016}}
+*{{cite book|last1=Lindsey|first1=Karen|editor1-last=McAllister|editor1-first=Pam|title=Reweaving the Web of Life: Feminism and Nonviolence|date=1982|publisher=New Society Publishers|isbn=0-86571-016-3|chapter=Women and the Draft|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/reweavingwebofli00mcal|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/reweavingwebofli00mcal}}
+*{{cite web |last1=Sun |first1=Rivera |title=Women's Draft? Sign Me Up To Abolish War |url=https://www.codepink.org/women_s_draft_sign_me_up_to_abolish_war |website=Codepink.org |access-date=24 November 2019}}</ref><ref>Academics oppose conscription and war:
+*{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/05/when-men-experience-sexism/276355/|title=When Men Experience Sexism|date=May 29, 2013|access-date=April 26, 2015|website=[[The Atlantic]]|last=Berlatsky|first=Noah|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150105151244/http://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/05/when-men-experience-sexism/276355/|url-status=live|archive-date=January 5, 2015}}
+*{{Cite journal |last1=Touquet |first1=Heleen |last2=Chynoweth |first2=Sarah |last3=Martin |first3=Sarah |last4=Reis |first4=Chen |last5=Myrttinen |first5=Henri |last6=Schulz |first6=Philipp |last7=Turner |first7=Lewis |last8=Duriesmith |first8=David |date=2020-09-01 |title=From 'It Rarely Happens' to 'It's Worse for Men': Dispelling Misconceptions about Sexual Violence against Men and Boys in Conflict and Displacement |url=https://www.manchesteropenhive.com/view/journals/jha/2/3/article-p25.xml |journal=Journal of Humanitarian Affairs |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=25–34 |doi=10.7227/JHA.049 |s2cid=234673946 |issn=2515-6411|doi-access=free }}</ref> Critics regard it as discriminatory to compel men, but not women, into military service. They say the conscription of men normalizes male violence, conscripts are indoctrinated into sexism and violence against men, and military training socializes conscripts into patriarchal gender roles.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Michalowski|first1=Helen|title=Five feminist principles and the draft|journal=Resistance News|date=May 1982|issue=8|page=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Neudel|first1=Marian Henriquez|title=Feminism and the Draft|journal=Resistance News|date=July 1983|issue=13|page=7}}</ref> Despite that, some feminist organizations have resisted inclusion of women in conscription, most notably the [[Norwegian Association for Women's Rights]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=No to female conscription – International Alliance of Women|date=24 May 2015|url=https://womenalliance.org/no-to-female-conscription|access-date=2020-05-17}}</ref>
 === Wartime sexual violence ===
-[[Wartime sexual violence]] committed by men against men is used as [[psychological warfare]] in order to [[Demoralization (warfare)|demoralize]] the enemy.<ref>{{cite news| last = Storr | first = Will |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2011/jul/17/the-rape-of-men?intcmp=239|title=The rape of men: the darkest secret of war|work=[[The Guardian]]|date = 17 July 2011 | access-date = 28 February 2015}}</ref> The practice is ancient, and was recorded as taking place during the [[Crusades]].<ref name="Sivakumaran 2007">{{cite journal | last = Sivakumaran | first = Sandesh | title = Sexual violence against men in armed conflict | journal = [[European Journal of International Law]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 253–276 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press|Oxford Journals]] | doi = 10.1093/ejil/chm013 | date = April 2007 | doi-access = free }}</ref> During periods of armed conflict men may be raped, sexually mutilated, sexually humiliated, or even enslaved.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Eichert |first1= David|date= 2019|title= 'Homosexualization' Revisited: An Audience-Focused Theorization of Wartime Male Sexual Violence|journal= International Feminist Journal of Politics|volume= 21|issue= 3|pages= 409–433|doi= 10.1080/14616742.2018.1522264|s2cid= 150313647}}</ref> Castration in particular is used as a means of physical torture with strong psychological effects, namely the loss of the ability to procreate and the loss of the status of a full man.<ref name="Sivakumaran 2007"/> While sexual violence in all its forms is criminalized in international law, the [[Conspiracy of silence (expression)|culture of silence]] around sexual violence against men often leaves male victims with no support.<ref>{{cite news | last = Staff writer | title = HEALTH: Rape as a "weapon of war" against men | work = [[The New Humanitarian|Irin News]] | location = Cape Town | url = http://www.irinnews.org/report/93960/health-rape-as-a-weapon-of-war-against-men | date = 13 October 2011 | access-date = 24 February 2015}}</ref>
+[[Wartime sexual violence]] committed by men against men is used as [[psychological warfare]] in order to [[Demoralization (warfare)|demoralize]] the enemy.<ref>{{cite news| last = Storr | first = Will |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2011/jul/17/the-rape-of-men?intcmp=239|title=The rape of men: the darkest secret of war|work=[[The Guardian]]|date = 17 July 2011 | access-date = 28 February 2015}}</ref> The practice is ancient, and was recorded as taking place during the [[Crusades]].<ref name="Sivakumaran 2007">{{cite journal | last = Sivakumaran | first = Sandesh | title = Sexual violence against men in armed conflict | journal = [[European Journal of International Law]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 253–276 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press|Oxford Journals]] | doi = 10.1093/ejil/chm013 | date = April 2007 | doi-access = free }}</ref> During periods of armed conflict men may be raped, sexually mutilated, sexually humiliated, forced incest, or even enslaved.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Eichert |first1= David|date= 2019|title= 'Homosexualization' Revisited: An Audience-Focused Theorization of Wartime Male Sexual Violence|journal= International Feminist Journal of Politics|volume= 21|issue= 3|pages= 409–433|doi= 10.1080/14616742.2018.1522264|s2cid= 150313647}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Touquet |first1=Heleen |last2=Chynoweth |first2=Sarah |last3=Martin |first3=Sarah |last4=Reis |first4=Chen |last5=Myrttinen |first5=Henri |last6=Schulz |first6=Philipp |last7=Turner |first7=Lewis |last8=Duriesmith |first8=David |date=2020-09-01 |title=From 'It Rarely Happens' to 'It's Worse for Men': Dispelling Misconceptions about Sexual Violence against Men and Boys in Conflict and Displacement |url=https://www.manchesteropenhive.com/view/journals/jha/2/3/article-p25.xml |journal=Journal of Humanitarian Affairs |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=25–34 |doi=10.7227/JHA.049 |s2cid=234673946 |issn=2515-6411|doi-access=free }}</ref> Castration in particular is used as a means of physical torture with strong psychological effects, namely the loss of the ability to procreate and the loss of the status of a full man.<ref name="Sivakumaran 2007"/> In recent conflicts such as the [[Bosnian War|Bosnian war]] and a number of smaller conflicts across [[East Africa]] the most commonly reported act of sexual violence was genital violence.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title="We Have a Broken Heart": Sexual Violence against Refugees in Nairobi and Mombasa, Kenya |url=https://www.womensrefugeecommission.org/research-resources/we-have-a-broken-heart-sexual-violence-against-refugees-in-nairobi-and-mombasa-kenya/ |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=Women's Refugee Commission |date=23 October 2019 }}</ref> While sexual violence in all its forms is criminalized in international law, the [[Conspiracy of silence (expression)|culture of silence]] around sexual violence against men often leaves male victims with no support.<ref>{{cite news | last = Staff writer | title = HEALTH: Rape as a "weapon of war" against men | work = [[The New Humanitarian|Irin News]] | location = Cape Town | url = http://www.irinnews.org/report/93960/health-rape-as-a-weapon-of-war-against-men | date = 13 October 2011 | access-date = 24 February 2015}}</ref>
+In one study, less than 3% of organizations that address rape as a weapon of war mention men or provide services to male victims.<ref name=DelZottoJones001>{{cite conference|last1=DelZotto|first1=Augusta|last2=Jones|first2=Adam|title=Male-on-male sexual violence in wartime: human rights' last taboo?|conference=Paper presented to the Annual Convention of the International Studies Association (ISA)|location=New Orleans, LA|pages=23–27|date=March 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601145852/http://adamjones.freeservers.com/malerape.htm|archive-date=1 June 2013|url=http://adamjones.freeservers.com/malerape.htm|access-date=2 March 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=Stemple1HR>{{cite journal |last=Stemple|first=Lara | title = Male rape and human rights | journal = [[Hastings Law Journal]] | volume = 60 | issue = 3 | pages = 605–647 | publisher = [[University of California, Hastings College of the Law|Hastings College of the Law]] | date = February 2009 | url = https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/hastlj60&id=623&collection=journals&index=journals/hastlj }} [http://scienceblogs.de/geograffitico/wp-content/blogs.dir/70/files/2012/07/i-e76e350f9e3d50b6ce07403e0a3d35fe-Stemple_60-HLJ-605.pdf Pdf.]</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=Rape as a weapon of war: men suffer, too|url=http://world.time.com/2011/08/03/rape-as-a-weapon-of-war-men-suffer-too/|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]|access-date=August 3, 2011|date=August 3, 2011|last1=Rauhala|first1=Emily}}</ref> Works of Dorota Glowacka illuminates the under-researched issue of sexual violence against men and boys during the [[The Holocaust|holocaust]]. In her study Glowacka explores a multitude of cases where male victims experienced sexual assault, coercion, and humiliation within [[Nazi concentration camps]], a subject that has historically been overshadowed by the predominant focus on female victims of sexual violence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Glowacka |first=Dorota |date=2021-06-23 |title=Sexual Violence against Men and Boys during the Holocaust: A Genealogy of (Not-So-Silent) Silence |url=https://academic.oup.com/gh/article/39/1/78/5843417 |journal=German History |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=78–99 |doi=10.1093/gerhis/ghaa032 |issn=0266-3554}}</ref>
-In one study, less than 3% of organizations that address rape as a weapon of war, mention men or provide services to male victims.<ref name=DelZottoJones001 /><ref name=Stemple1HR /><ref>{{cite magazine|title=Rape as a weapon of war: men suffer, too|url=http://world.time.com/2011/08/03/rape-as-a-weapon-of-war-men-suffer-too/|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]|access-date=August 3, 2011|date=August 3, 2011|last1=Rauhala|first1=Emily}}</ref>
-== Military conscription and war ==
-{{Main|Conscription and sexism}}
 ==Homicide==
@@ Line 91: / Line 93: @@
 | Female offender/Female victim|| 2.4%
 |}
-In the U.S., crime statistics from the 1976 onwards show that men make up the majority (88%) of [[homicide]] perpetrators regardless if the victim is female or male. Men are also over-represented as victims in homicide involving both male and female offenders (74.9% of victims are male).<ref name="BJS">{{cite web |url=http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/htius.pdf#page=48 |title=Homicide trends in the United States|publisher=[[Bureau of Justice Statistics]]}}</ref> According to the [[Bureau of Justice Statistics]], women who kill men are most likely to kill acquaintances, spouses or boyfriends while men are more likely to kill strangers.<ref name="BJS-WO">{{cite web | url=http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/wo.pdf | title=Bureau of Justice Statistics – Special Report – Women Offenders | work=[[Bureau of Justice Statistics]] | date=December 1999 | access-date=6 March 2015 | pages=14 | last1=Greenfeld | first1=Lawrence A. | last2=Snell | first2=Tracy L.}}</ref> In many cases, women kill men due to being victims of [[intimate partner violence]],<ref name="Farr">{{cite journal | last = Farr | first = Kathryn Ann | title = Aggravating and differentiating factors in the cases of white and minority women on death row | journal = [[Crime & Delinquency]] | volume = 43 | issue = 3 | pages = 260–278 | publisher = [[Sage Publications|Sage]] | doi = 10.1177/0011128797043003002 | date = July 1997 | s2cid = 57147487 | quote=''They [women on death row] typically kill people they know, primarily men - most often husbands or lovers in domestic encounters (Mann 1996; Campbell 1993; Silverman et al. 1993; Weisheit 1993; Browne 1987; Goetting 1987; Wilbanks 1983). ... Many female murderers have killed husbands or boyfriends who battered them repeatedly (Gillespie 1989; Browne 1987). | postscript = .''}}</ref> however this research was conducted on women on death row, a sample size of approximately 97 during the last 100 years.<ref>{{cite web | title = Women and the death penalty: facts and figures | url = http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/women-and-death-penalty#facts | website = deathpenaltyinfo.org | publisher = [[Death Penalty Information Center]]}}</ref>
+In the U.S., crime statistics from 1976 onwards show that men are over-represented as victims in homicide involving both male and female offenders (74.9% of victims are male). Men also make up the majority (88%) of [[homicide]] perpetrators regardless if the victim is female or male.<ref name="BJS">{{cite web |url=http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/htius.pdf#page=48 |title=Homicide trends in the United States|publisher=[[Bureau of Justice Statistics]]}}</ref> According to the [[Bureau of Justice Statistics]], women who kill men are most likely to kill acquaintances, spouses or boyfriends while men are more likely to kill strangers.<ref name="BJS-WO">{{cite web | url=http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/wo.pdf | title=Bureau of Justice Statistics – Special Report – Women Offenders | work=[[Bureau of Justice Statistics]] | date=December 1999 | access-date=6 March 2015 | pages=14 | last1=Greenfeld | first1=Lawrence A. | last2=Snell | first2=Tracy L.}}</ref> One study looking at 97 women on death row showed that these people often experienced [[intimate partner violence]] by the people they murdered.<ref name="Farr">{{cite journal | last = Farr | first = Kathryn Ann | title = Aggravating and differentiating factors in the cases of white and minority women on death row | journal = [[Crime & Delinquency]] | volume = 43 | issue = 3 | pages = 260–278 | publisher = [[SAGE Publications|SAGE]] | doi = 10.1177/0011128797043003002 | date = July 1997 | s2cid = 57147487 | quote=''They [women on death row] typically kill people they know, primarily men - most often husbands or lovers in domestic encounters (Mann 1996; Campbell 1993; Silverman et al. 1993; Weisheit 1993; Browne 1987; Goetting 1987; Wilbanks 1983). ... Many female murderers have killed husbands or boyfriends who battered them repeatedly (Gillespie 1989; Browne 1987).'' }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Women and the death penalty: facts and figures | url = http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/women-and-death-penalty#facts | website = deathpenaltyinfo.org | publisher = [[Death Penalty Information Center]]}}</ref>
-In Australia, men are also over-represented as victims,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.griffith.edu.au/2017/06/28/men-are-killed-at-a-greater-rate-than-women-in-australia-what-can-we-do-to-reduce-their-risk/|title = Men are killed at a greater rate than women in Australia – what can we do to reduce their risk?}}</ref> with the Australian Institute of Criminology finding that men are 11.5 times more likely to be killed by a stranger than women.<ref name="sbs.com.au"/>
+In Australia, men are also over-represented as victims,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.griffith.edu.au/2017/06/28/men-are-killed-at-a-greater-rate-than-women-in-australia-what-can-we-do-to-reduce-their-risk/|title = Men are killed at a greater rate than women in Australia – what can we do to reduce their risk?| date=28 June 2017 }}</ref> with the Australian Institute of Criminology finding that men are 11.5 times more likely than women to be killed by a stranger.<ref name="sbs.com.au">{{Cite web |title=Myth Busting: The true picture of gendered violence |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-feed/myth-busting-the-true-picture-of-gendered-violence}}</ref>
+Data from the U.K. also shows a homicide rate for males to be twice that of females.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Homicide in England and Wales - Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/homicideinenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2021 |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}}</ref> While the proportion of homicide victims in the U.K. in the 1960s was fairly evenly split between men and women, the genders have since shown different trends: while female victim numbers remained static, male numbers increased.<ref name=":1" />
 == Police killings ==
-In the [[United States]], [[Police use of deadly force in the United States|police killings]] are one of the leading causes of death for young men.<ref name="Esposito Lee Edwards PNAS 2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Esposito |first1=Michael |last2=Lee |first2=Hedwig |last3=Edwards |first3=Frank |date=2019-07-31 |title=Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=116 |issue=34 |language=en |pages=16793–16798 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1821204116 |pmid=31383756 |pmc=6708348 |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free }}</ref> A study by Esposito, Lee, Edwards predicts that 1 in 2,000 men and 1 in 33,000 women die as a result of police use of deadly force.<ref name="Esposito Lee Edwards PNAS 2019" /> The same study predicts the risk is highest for black men, as approximately 1 in 1,000 black men can expect to be killed by police.<ref name="Esposito Lee Edwards PNAS 2019" /> Studies using recent data have found that Black, Hispanic, and Native American/Alaskan individuals are disproportionately stopped by police and killed in encounters.<ref name="guardian_data">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2015/jun/01/the-counted-police-killings-us-database |title=The Counted: people killed by the police in the US |work=The Guardian |access-date=October 21, 2016}}</ref><ref name="ross_2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ross |first1=Cody T. |last2=Hills |first2=Peter James |title=A Multi-Level Bayesian Analysis of Racial Bias in Police Shootings at the County-Level in the United States, 2011–2014 |journal=PLOS ONE |date=November 5, 2015 |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=e0141854 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0141854 |pmid=26540108 |pmc=4634878 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1041854R|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="chicago_police_study">{{Cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/01/13/us/chicago-police-federal-investigation/index.html |title=Chicago police use excessive force, DOJ finds |author=Jason Hanna and Madison Park |date=13 January 2017 |publisher=CNN |access-date=2017-01-13}}</ref><ref name="ross_2020">{{Cite journal|last1=Ross|first1=Cody T.|last2=Winterhalder|first2=Bruce|last3=McElreath|first3=Richard|date=2020-06-18|title=Racial Disparities in Police Use of Deadly Force Against Unarmed Individuals Persist After Appropriately Benchmarking Shooting Data on Violent Crime Rates|journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science|volume=12|issue=3|language=en-US|pages=323–332|doi=10.1177/1948550620916071|issn=1948-5506|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Knox Lowe Mummolo 2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Knox |first1=Dean |last2=Lowe |first2=Will |last3=Mummolo |first3=Jonathan |date=2020 |title=Administrative Records Mask Racially Biased Policing |journal=American Political Science Review |language=en |volume= 114|issue=3 |pages=619–637 |doi=10.1017/S0003055420000039 |issn=0003-0554 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
+In the [[United States]], [[Police use of deadly force in the United States|police killings]] is one of the leading causes of death for young men. The likelihood of dying as a result of police use of force is 1 in 2,000 men and 1 in 33,000 women.<ref name="Esposito Lee Edwards PNAS 2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Esposito |first1=Michael |last2=Lee |first2=Hedwig |last3=Edwards |first3=Frank |date=2019-07-31 |title=Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=116 |issue=34 |pages=16793–16798 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1821204116 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=6708348 |pmid=31383756 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11616793E |doi-access=free}}</ref> Studies using recent data have found that Black, Hispanic, and Native American/Alaskan individuals are disproportionately stopped by police and killed in encounters.<ref name="ross_2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ross |first1=Cody T. |last2=Hills |first2=Peter James |title=A Multi-Level Bayesian Analysis of Racial Bias in Police Shootings at the County-Level in the United States, 2011–2014 |journal=PLOS ONE |date=November 5, 2015 |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=e0141854 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0141854 |pmid=26540108 |pmc=4634878 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1041854R|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="ross_2020">{{Cite journal|last1=Ross|first1=Cody T.|last2=Winterhalder|first2=Bruce|last3=McElreath|first3=Richard|date=2020-06-18|title=Racial Disparities in Police Use of Deadly Force Against Unarmed Individuals Persist After Appropriately Benchmarking Shooting Data on Violent Crime Rates|journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science|volume=12|issue=3|pages=323–332|doi=10.1177/1948550620916071|issn=1948-5506|doi-access=free|hdl=21.11116/0000-0006-9525-8|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Knox Lowe Mummolo 2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Knox |first1=Dean |last2=Lowe |first2=Will |last3=Mummolo |first3=Jonathan |date=2020 |title=Administrative Records Mask Racially Biased Policing |journal=American Political Science Review |volume= 114|issue=3 |pages=619–637 |doi=10.1017/S0003055420000039 |issn=0003-0554 |doi-access=free}}</ref> These inequalities in turn show higher rates of death by police for people of color, particularly black men having 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police use of force.<ref name="Esposito Lee Edwards PNAS 2019" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lett |first1=Elle |last2=Asabor |first2=Emmanuella Ngozi |last3=Corbin |first3=Theodore |last4=Boatright |first4=Dowin |date=2021 |title=Racial inequity in fatal US police shootings, 2015–2020 |url=https://jech.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/jech-2020-215097 |journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=394–397 |doi=10.1136/jech-2020-215097 |pmid=33109524 |s2cid=225078910 |issn=0143-005X}}</ref>
+Data from Australia, the European Union, and the United Kingdom also demonstrates that death while in police custody is more frequent among men.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Independent Office for Police Conduct |title=Deaths during or following police contact: Statistics for England and Wales 2019/20 |url=https://www.policeconduct.gov.uk/sites/default/files/Documents/statistics/deaths_during_following_police_contact_201718.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dalton |first=Vicki |date=1999 |title=Death and Dying in Prison in Australia: National Overview, 1980–1998 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1073110500014005/type/journal_article |journal=Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=269–274 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-720X.1999.tb01461.x |pmid=11067604 |s2cid=41532306 |issn=1073-1105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frater |first=Alison |date=2008-04-19 |title=Deaths in custody |journal=BMJ |volume=336 |issue=7649 |pages=845–846 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39546.635729.80 |issn=0959-8138 |pmc=2323041 |pmid=18420666}}</ref>
+== By country ==
+=== India ===
+A study of men in the rural area of [[Haryana]], India found that 52.4% of men in this area experienced some form of gender-based violence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Malik JS |first=Nadda A. |date=2019 |title=A Cross-sectional Study of Gender-Based Violence against Men in the Rural Area of Haryana, India |journal=[[Indian Journal of Community Medicine]]|volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=35–38 |doi=10.4103/ijcm.IJCM_222_18 |doi-access=free|pmid=30983711 |pmc=6437789 }}</ref>
+=== Nigeria ===
+In Nigeria, domestic violence against men is often overlooked and carries a cultural stigma. Adetutu Aragbuwa's research into online comments on Nigerian news articles shows mixed views: while some justify violence against men as self-defense by women, others outright condemn all forms of violence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aragbuwa |first=Adetutu |date=August 2021 |title=A Standard Reading of Selected Online Readers' Comments on Domestic Violence against Men in Nigeria |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1097184X19898875 |journal=Men and Masculinities |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=451–467 |doi=10.1177/1097184X19898875 |issn=1097-184X}}</ref>
+=== Sudan ===
+In the context of the [[Darfur genocide]], gender-based violence was not only prevalent against women but also systematically used against men and boys as a tool of war and genocide. This gender-based violence included acts that emasculated victims, such as sexual violence, humiliation, genital harm, and killings based on sex. These acts were deeply gendered, reflecting and reinforcing hegemonic gender norms within Sudanese society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ferrales |first1=Gabrielle |last2=Nyseth Brehm |first2=Hollie |last3=Mcelrath |first3=Suzy |date=August 2016 |title=Gender-Based Violence Against Men and Boys in Darfur: The Gender-Genocide Nexus |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0891243216636331 |journal=Gender & Society |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=565–589 |doi=10.1177/0891243216636331 |issn=0891-2432}}</ref>
 ==See also==
 *[[Bodily integrity]]
-*[[Boys are stupid, throw rocks at them! controversy]]
 *[[Children's rights]]
 *[[Male expendability]]
@@ Line 107: / Line 123: @@
 *[[Prison rape]]
 *[[Sex differences in crime]]
-*''[[SCUM Manifesto]]''
 *[[Violence against women]]
 ==References==
 {{Reflist|30em}}
-{{Sexual identities}}
 [[Category:Violence against men| ]]
@@ Line 120: / Line 133: @@
 [[Category:Men's rights]]
 [[Category:Men's movement]]
-[[Category:Circumcision debate]]