Wuxia
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Wuxia (
The word "wǔxiá" is a compound composed of the elements wǔ (), either of which can be interpreted as a "swordsman" or "swordswoman", even though they may not necessarily wield a sword.
The heroes in wuxia fiction typically do not serve a lord, wield military power, or belong to the aristocratic class. They often originate from the lower social classes of ancient Chinese society. A code of chivalry usually requires wuxia heroes to right and redress wrongs, fight for righteousness, remove oppressors, and bring retribution for past misdeeds. Chinese xia traditions can be compared to martial codes from other cultures, such as the Japanese samurai bushidō.
History
Earlier precedents
Even though the term "wuxia" as the name of a genre is a recent coinage, stories about xia date back more than 2,000 years. Wuxia stories have their roots in some early
Xiake stories made a turning point in the
: 47–48The genre of the martial or military romance also developed during the Tang dynasty. In the
In the
The term "wuxia" as a genre label itself first appeared at the end of the Qing dynasty, a calque of the Japanese "bukyō", a genre of oft-militaristic and bushido-influenced adventure fiction. The term was brought to China by writers such as Liang Qichao and students who hoped that China would modernise its military and place emphasis on martial virtues, and it quickly became entrenched as the term used to refer to xiayi and other predecessors of wuxia proper. In Japan, however, the term "bukyō" faded into obscurity.[3]: 2–3 [12]: 11, 262
Many wuxia works produced during the Ming and Qing dynasties were lost due to the governments' crackdown on and banning of such works.[13] Wuxia works like Water Margin were deemed responsible for brewing anti-government sentiments, which led to rebellions in those eras.[14] The departure from mainstream literature also meant that patronage of this genre was limited to the masses and not to the literati, which led to the stifling of the development of the wuxia genre. Nonetheless, the wuxia genre remained enormously popular with the common people.[10]: 49–50
20th century
The modern wuxia genre rose to prominence in the early 20th century after the May Fourth Movement of 1919. A new literature evolved, calling for a break with Confucian values, and the xia emerged as a symbol of personal freedom, defiance to Confucian tradition, and rejection of the Chinese family system.[13]
Xiang Kairan (pen name Pingjiang Buxiaosheng) became the first notable wuxia writer, with his debut novel being The Peculiar Knights-Errant of the Jianghu (江湖奇俠傳).[15][16] It was serialised from 1921 to 1928 and was adapted into the first wuxia film, The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple (1928).[17] Zhao Huanting (趙煥亭), who wrote Chronicles of the Loyal Knights-Errant (奇俠精忠傳, serialised 1923–27), was another well-known wuxia writer based in Shanghai.[18] Starting from the 1930s, wuxia works proliferated and its centre shifted to Beijing and Tianjin in northern China. The most prolific writers there were collectively referred to as the Five Great Masters of the Northern School (北派五大家): Huanzhulouzhu, who wrote The Swordspeople from Shu Mountains (蜀山劍俠傳); Gong Baiyu (宮白羽), who wrote Twelve Coin Darts (十二金錢鏢); Wang Dulu, who wrote The Crane-Iron Pentalogy (鹤鉄五部作); Zheng Zhengyin (郑証因), who wrote The King of Eagle Claws (鹰爪王); Zhu Zhenmu (朱貞木), who wrote The Seven 'Kill' Stele (七殺碑).[19]
Wuxia fiction was banned at various times during the
There have also been works created after the 1980s which attempt to create a post-wuxia genre. Yu Hua, one of the more notable writers from this period, published a counter-genre short story titled Blood and Plum Blossoms, in which the protagonist goes on a quest to avenge his murdered father.
Themes, plots and settings
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2017) |
Modern wuxia stories are largely set in
A typical wuxia story features a young male protagonist who experiences a tragedy – such as the loss of his loved ones – and goes on to undertake several trials and tribulations to learn several forms of martial arts from various fighters. At the end of the story, he emerges as a powerful fighter whom few can equal. He uses his abilities to follow the code of xia and mends the ills of the jianghu. For instance, the opening chapters of some of Jin Yong's works follow a certain pattern: a tragic event occurs, usually one that costs the lives of the newly introduced characters, and then it sets events into motion that will culminate in the primary action of the story.[23]
Other stories use different structures. For instance, the protagonist is denied admission into a martial arts school. He experiences hardships and trains secretly and waits until there is an opportunity for him to show off his skills and surprise those who initially looked down on him. Some stories feature a mature hero with powerful martial arts abilities confronting an equally powerful antagonist as his nemesis. The plot will gradually meander to a final dramatic showdown between the protagonist and his nemesis. These types of stories were prevalent during the era of anti-Qing revolutionaries.[24]
Certain stories have unique plots, such as those by Gu Long and Huang Yi. Gu Long's works have an element of mystery and are written like detective stories. The protagonist, usually a formidable martial artist and intelligent problem-solver, embarks on a quest to solve a mystery such as a murder case. Huang Yi's stories are blended with science fiction.
Despite these genre-blending elements, wuxia is primarily a historical genre of fiction. Notwithstanding this, wuxia writers openly admit that they are unable to capture the entire history of a course of events and instead choose to structure their stories along the pattern of the protagonist's progression from childhood to adulthood instead.
Code of xia
The eight common attributes of the xia are listed as benevolence, justice, individualism, loyalty, courage, truthfulness, disregard for wealth, and desire for glory. Apart from individualism, these characteristics are similar to Confucian values such as
In the
Skills and abilities
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The martial arts in wuxia stories are based on wushu techniques and other real life Chinese martial arts. In wuxia tales, however, the mastery of such skills are highly exaggerated to superhuman levels of achievement and prowess.
The following is a list of skills and abilities a typical fighter in a wuxia story possesses:
- Martial arts (武功): Fighting techniques in a codified sequence called zhaoshi (招式), which are based on real life Chinese martial arts.
- Weapons and objects: Combatants use a wide range of weapons in combat. The most commonly used ones are the dao (broadsword or saber), jian (sword), gun (staff), and qiang (spear). Everyday objects such as abaci, benches, fans, ink brushes, smoking pipes, sewing needles, or various musical instruments, are also used as weapons as well.
- Qinggong (轻功): A form of real Chinese martial arts.[27] In wuxia fiction, however, its use is exaggerated to the point that characters can circumvent gravity to fly, cover tremendous distances in a single stride, run across surfaces of water, mount trees, and jump over or scale high walls.
- Neili (内力; lit "internal force" or "internal strength")/Neigong (內功; literally "internal skill" or "internal function"): The ability to build up and cultivate inner energy known as qi and utilise it for offensive or defensive purposes. Characters use this energy to attain skills such as superhuman strength, speed, stamina, endurance, and healing, as well as the ability to project energy beams and elemental forces from their bodies.
- acupuncture points"): Characters use various acupuncture techniques to kill, paralyse, immobilise or even manipulate opponents by attacking their acupressurepoints with their bare hands or weapons. Such techniques can also be used for healing purposes, such as halting excessive bleeding. Real life martial artists do use such techniques to paralyse or stun their opponents. However, their effectiveness is highly exaggerated in wuxia stories.
In wuxia stories, characters attain the above skills and abilities by devoting themselves to years of diligent study and exercise, but can also have such power conferred upon them by a master who transfers his energy to them. The instructions to mastering these skills through training are found in secret manuals known as miji (秘笈). In some stories, specific skills can be learned by spending several years in seclusion with a master or training with a group of fighters.
Menpai (门派)
Menpai is often translated as sect, school, society, church, house, or cult. Members of the same menpai follow the guidance and train under the same leader. If the members of the menpai are related, then it can be translated as clan. Since some of the menpai are religiously affiliated, "sect" has come to be a common translation for the non-family based menpai. However, it would be inaccurate to use sect to denote menpais that are not associated with religion.[28]
Literature
Notable modern wuxia writers include:
Name | Pen name | Active years | Some works | Brief description |
---|---|---|---|---|
Louis Cha Leung-yung Zha Liangyong 查良鏞 |
Jin Yong 金庸 |
1955–72 | The Book and the Sword, Condor Trilogy, Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils, The Smiling, Proud Wanderer, The Deer and the Cauldron | The most popular, and regarded by some as the most accomplished, writer to date. His works have been adapted into films and television series numerous times. |
Chen Wentong 陳文統 |
Liang Yusheng 梁羽生 |
1954–83 | Qijian Xia Tianshan, Datang Youxia Zhuan, Baifa Monü Zhuan, Saiwai Qixia Zhuan, Yunhai Yugong Yuan, Xiagu Danxin | The pioneer of the "new school" wuxia genre. Some of his works were adapted into films and television series. |
Xiong Yaohua 熊耀華 |
Gu Long 古龍 |
1960–85 | Xiaoli Feidao Series, Lu Xiaofeng Series |
A writer who blends elements of mystery in his works. He writes in short paragraphs and is influenced stylistically by Western and Japanese writers. Some of his works were adapted into films and television series. |
Woon Liang Geok Wen Liangyu 溫涼玉 |
Woon Swee Oan Wen Rui'an 溫瑞安 |
1973–present | Si Da Ming Bu, Buyi Shenxiang, Jingyan Yi Qiang | His works were adapted into the television series The Four and Face to Fate, and the film The Four. |
Huang Zuqiang 黃祖強 |
Huang Yi 黃易 |
1987–2017 | Xunqin Ji, Fuyu Fanyun, Datang Shuanglong Zhuan | Combines wuxia with science fiction in his works. His works were adapted into the television series A Step into the Past, Lethal Weapons of Love and Passion and Twin of Brothers. |
Lau Wai Ming 劉偉明 |
Jozev Kiu 喬靖夫 |
1996–Present | Blood and Steel | Redefined Wuxia fiction from the traditional emphasis on the code of chivalry and Chinese culture. |
Comics
New and original wuxia writings have dwindled significantly in modern times,[29] particularly so as patronage and readerships of the genre decimated due to readily available alternatives in entertainment such as DVDs, gaming consoles, and other newer forms of entertainment.[30] However, the genre has persisted in the form of manhua (Chinese comics) in places like Hong Kong and Taiwan, with the core essentials of the wuxia genre living on in weekly editions equivalent to the Japanese manga.[31] Some notable comic artists are listed as follows:
Name | Pseudonym | Active years | Some works | Brief description |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ma Wing-shing Ma Rongcheng 馬榮城 |
Ma Wing-shing Ma Rongcheng 馬榮成 |
1980s–present | Chinese Hero, Black Leopard |
Some of his works were adapted into films and television series such as The Storm Riders, Wind and Cloud, The Blood Sword, and A Man Called Hero. |
Wong Jan-lung Huang Zhenlong 黃振隆 |
Wong Yuk-long Huang Yulang 黃玉郎 |
1980s–present | Oriental Heroes, Weapons of the Gods, Legend of Emperors, Buddha's Palm | Some of his works were adapted into films and television series like Dragon Tiger Gate, Kung Fu VS Acrobatic, and The Buddhism Palm Strikes Back. |
Khoo Fuk-lung Qiu Fulong 邱福龍 |
1990s–present | Saint, Solar Lord |
Film and television
The earliest wuxia films date back to the 1920s. Extant early wuxia films produced in China include Red Heroine (1929),[32] Woman Warrior White Rose (1929),[33] and Woman Warrior of the Wild River 6: Rumble at Deerhorn Gully (1930),[34] the sixth film in a series. Hua Mu Lan (1939), another surviving film,[35] is considered a representative of the second wave of wuxia films, during the Anti-Japanese War.[36] Films directed by King Hu and produced by the Shaw Brothers Studio featured sophisticated action choreography using wire and trampoline assisted acrobatics combined with sped-up camera techniques.[37] The storylines in the early films were loosely adapted from existing literature.[38][39][40]
Wuxia was introduced to Hollywood studios in 2000 by
Ash Is Purest White (Chinese: 江湖儿女; 'Sons and Daughters of Jianghu'), a 2018 Chinese drama directed by Jia Zhangke, is a modern film that refers to the underworld interpretation of jianghu. It was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival. The story is loosely based on the leader of a gang from Jia Zhangke's childhood, whom he had admired as a role model. Like the rest of Jia's films, it opened to widespread acclaim.
There have been Western attempts at the genre, such as the 2008 film
In 2013, Keanu Reeves directed and starred as the main antagonist in Man of Tai Chi, with Tiger Chen as a martial artist attending underground fights. The Mulan remake in 2020 was Disney's attempt in making a wuxia movie.[46] In 2021, Marvel's Shang-Chi opens with a wuxia sequence and has action sequences inspired by Jackie Chan.[47][48]
Video games
Some notable wuxia video games of the
Games adapted from the works of wuxia writers include Heroes of Jin Yong, an RPG based on characters in Jin Yong's novels; Dragon Oath, an MMORPG inspired by Jin Yong's Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils; and Martial Kingdoms, a strategy game featuring several martial arts schools which commonly appear in wuxia fiction.
The wuxia genre continues to be drawn as a pool of inspiration or source material for Chinese video game studios. In June 2022, Tencent's Lightspeed Studio released a demo trailer on Code: To Jin Yong.[53] In the following month, Everstone Studio unveiled Where Winds Meet, a game compared to Ghost of Tsushima and Assassin's Creed.[54] 2023 saw the release of "Hero's Adventure: Road to Passion" in November, a wuxia-inspired open world RPG.
See also
- List of organisations in wuxia fiction
- Martial arts film
- Sword and sorcery – a similar western fantasy genre
- Xianxia– a subgenre of wuxia novel
- Zhou Tong (archer)
- Guzhuang – ancient Chinese-style costume, typically used in Xianxiaand Wuxia
References
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唐代著名的武俠小說有《紅線傳》、《虯髯客傳》、《劉無雙傳》、《崑崙奴傳》、《聶隱娘傳》,等等(空空兒、精精兒則是附在《聶隱娘傳》中)。
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{{cite book}}
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- ^ "Hua Mu Lan 木蘭從軍 (1939)". Chinese Film Classics. 17 February 1939. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
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Further reading
- Jenner, WJF. "Tough Guys, Mateship and Honour: Another Chinese Tradition". East Asian History 12 (1996): 1–34.
- Liu, Petrus. Stateless Subjects: Chinese Martial Arts Fiction and Postcolonial History. Ithaca: Cornell University East Asia Series. (ISBN 978-1933947624)
- McCloud, Aaron Matthew Gordon (2010). Papercuts: The Literary and the Martial in the Genre of Wuxia Fiction. Thesis (B.A.). Reed College. OCLC 643126927.
- 汪涌豪 《中国游侠史》 上海:上海文化出版社,1994 [Wang, Yonghao (1994): "History of Chinese Knight-errantry". Shanghai: Shanghai Wenhua Chubanshe]. OCLC 726816835. (in Chinese)
External links
- Early silent wuxia film with English subtitles: Woman Warrior White Rose (1929)
- Early silent wuxia film with English subtitles: Red Heroine (1929)
- Early silent wuxia film with English subtitles: Woman Warrior of the Wild River 6: Rumble at Deerhorn Gully (1930)
- Early musical wuxia film with English subtitles: Hua Mu Lan (1939)
- "HK Martial Arts Cinema" by David Bordwell—An article about wuxia films
- Wuxia, sztylety i wielka miłość. O filmie "Dom Latających Sztyletów" Archived 25 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine (in Polish)
- Information on the wuxia genre from a website about actress Zhang Ziyi Archived 20 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine