Armatoles
The armatoles (Greek: αρματολοί, romanized: armatoloi; Albanian: armatolë; Aromanian: armatoli; Bosnian: armatoli), or armatole in singular, were irregular soldiers, or militia, commissioned by the Ottomans to enforce the sultan's authority within an administrative district called an armatoliki (αρματολίκι in singular, αρματολίκια, armatolikia in plural).[1] In Greek regions of the Ottoman Empire, they were composed of Greeks who were either former klephts or village stalwarts who had taken up arms against the klephts in the defense of their district.[1][2][3]
The Greek armatoles had a semi-independent status all over the
During the Greek War of Independence, the Greek armatoles, along with the klephts, formed the nucleus of the Greek fighting forces, and played a prominent part throughout its duration. Yannis Makriyannis referred to them and klephts as the "yeast of liberty" (μαγιά της λευτεριάς).[6] Despite being ineffective, they were the only viable military force for the provisional governments of the 1821-1827 period. During that time period, three attempts were made at creating a regular army, and one of the reasons for their failure was the resistance of the klepht and armatoles leaders.[7] Their motive to fight the Ottomans was more personal gain than national aspirations;[7][8] they were not aware of national projects, made alliances with the Ottomans and robbed Christians as much as Muslims.[9][10]
There were also some Bosnian armatoles, who were drawn from the local Muslim populations,[3][11][12] as well as some Aromanian armatoles, many of whom cooperated with pro-Bulgarian komitadjis.[13][14][15] There also were Megleno-Romanian armatoles.[16]
Etymology
The word "armatole" first appeared in the 15th century during
Origins and structure
The military/police organization of the armatoles, known as armatolismos, has its origins in the Byzantine period of Greek history.[1] Armatolismos was a type of feudalism where police and military functions were provided in exchange for titles of land.[1] As an institution, the armatoles first appear in Agrafa, Thessaly during the reign of Sultan Murad II (r. 1421–1451). From there, they spread to other parts of Greece except the Peloponnese.[18]
Administrative districts known as armatolikia were created in areas of Greece that had high levels of brigandage (i.e.
Greek armatoles
As mentioned earlier, the armatoles were organized based on a
The armatoles were mostly concentrated in
During the 18th century, there were around seventeen armatolikia. Ten of them were located in Thessaly and the eastern regions of Central Greece, four of them in Epirus, Acarnania, and Aetolia, and three in Macedonia. Every kapetanio had his rank-and-file soldiers known as palikaria (παλικάρια, from ancient Greek pallix) and section leaders among these palikaria were known as protopalikara (πρωτοπαλίκαρα).[21] The palikaria would train with their weapons on a daily basis.
The main weapon the palikaria utilized was the kariofili (καριοφίλι).[22] Marksmanship was the proverbial hallmark that defined the palikaria. They were also highly mobile and capable at conducting ambushes. The palikaria were resilient toward thirst, hunger and even the painful difficulties in their encounters with the klephts.
The term klephtopolemos (κλεφτοπόλεμος) was used to name the strategies/tactics that both the klephts and armatoles utilized. These tactics are used today for unconventional military campaigns by small
Greek War of Independence
During the 1810-1820 decade the Greek armatoles largely depended on the support they enjoyed from the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha of the increasingly independent Pashalik of Yanina. Because of that they had little influence from the Greek nationalist organization Filiki Eteria and had reservations about participating at the Greek War of Independence. This changed after Ali Pasha died and their future became less certain.[20] Most of the Armatoles had learned their military skills among the Christian Albanian Souliotes and other Albanian groups who had a renowned tradition in irregular warfare.[23] The klephts and armatoles played a key role during the Greek War of Independence. Despite being ineffective, they were the only viable military force for the provisional governments of the 1821-1827 period. During that time period, three attempts were made at creating a regular army, and one of the reasons for their failure was the resistance of the klepht and armatoles leaders.[7] Among armatoles leaders were Odysseas Androutsos, Georgios Karaiskakis, Athanasios Diakos, Markos Botsaris and Giannis Stathas.[24]
Contrary to conventional Greek history, many of the klephts and armatoles participated at the Greek War of Independence according to their own militaristic patron-client terms. They saw the war as an economic and political opportunity to expand their areas of operation.[7][8] Balkan bandits such as the klephts and armatoles - glorified in nationalist historiography as national heroes - were actually driven by economic interests, were not aware of national projects, made alliances with the Ottomans and robbed Christians as much as Muslims.[9][10]
Albanian armatoles
Albanian armatoles were employed by the Ottoman authorities.
Albanian armatoles were employed by Ottoman authorities, in particular in the latter half of the 18th century. During the administration of the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha of the increasingly independent Pashalik of Yanina the Greek armatoles where replaced by Albanians, making the region's armatoles almost exclusively Albanian. The deposed Greek armatoles became klephts and their subsequent activity was not only brigandage, but also a form of resistance against Ottoman rule.[3]
Ali Pasha appointed under his direct authority a number of armatoloi and klephts who were loyal to him, and who were employed as his own military troops in Yanina and in territories under his administration.[27] The defeat of Ali Pasha by the Ottoman Empire in 1820 and the subsequent outbreak of the Greek revolution generated a vacuum of power in the region, especially until 1823. Initially the armatoloi who formerly fought for Ali Pasha tried to preserve their independence and military leadership, but when their areas of control came under the authority of the Greek revolutionary leadership, they tried to keep their power in this new context.[28]
Ali Pasha positioned the
Other armatoles
Aromanian armatoles
There also were ethnic Aromanian armatole fighters.[13][14][15] Many of these often engaged in cooperation with pro-Bulgarian komitadjis such as the Secret Macedo-Adrianopolitan Revolutionary Organization (TMORO).[13]
Bosnian armatoles
In Bosnia, armatoles were largely drawn from the local Muslim populations.[3] According to documents, in 1485-1490 these Bosnian armatoles were tasked with guarding the Turkish forts on the shores of Dalmatia which sustained attacks from the Venetians.[31]
Megleno-Romanian armatoles
Traian Cucuda, a Megleno-Romanian,[16] was a relevant armatole voivode at his time.[13]
Famous armatoles
Souliots
Greek-Albanian
Aromanians
Greeks
See also
References
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f "armatole". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-8135-0810-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-135-94206-9.
- ^ Athene: The American Magazine of Hellenic Thought. Vol. 22. Athene Enterprises, Incorporated. 1961. p. 53.
- )
- ^ Vacalopoulos 1961, p. 333: "Οί πυρήνες τών μαχητικών του δυνάμεων είναι οί άρματολοί καΐ οί κλέφτες...ν'άποτελέσουν τήν «μαγιά της λευτεριάς», όπως παραστατικά λέγει ό άγωνιστής τοϋ 21 Γιάννης Μακρυγιάννης."
- ^ a b c d e Davis, D.E. (2003). Irregular Armed Forces and their Role in Politics and State Formation. Cambridge University Press. p. 154.
- ^ a b Cronin, S. (2008). Subalterns and Social Protest: History from Below in the Middle East and North Africa. Routledge. p. 264.
- ^ a b Malesevic, S. (2013). Nation-States and Nationalisms: Organization, Ideology and Solidarity. Polity Press. p. 111.
- ^ a b Hall, J.A.; Malešević, S. (2013). Nationalism and War. Cambridge University Press. p. 258.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-472-06893-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7486-3607-5.
- ^ .
- ^ ISBN 978-0-494-87572-8.
- ^ a b "Vulturii Pindului – 13. Luptele fârșeroților cu antarții". Armatolii (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 13 September 2021.
- ^ a b Vulturii Pindului – O vizită importantă în Baltă.
- ^ Babiniotis 1998.
- ^ Vacalopoulos 1976, p. 211: "The earliest origins of the armatoles are lost in the murk of history. However, in my Origins of the Greek Nation, an analysis of various sources not previously sifted in any thorough way suggested that the institution first appeared in Thessaly during the reign of Murad II (1421–1451), specifically in the Agrafa, Thessaly. From there, it subsequently spread to other parts of the Hellenic world, though not to the Peloponnese."
- ^ Dakin 1973, p. 232 (Footnote #1): "[Dimitrios] Makris, armatolos of Zigos, was one of the heroes of Mesolonghi. He had acquired much wealth by plundering the Turks of Vrachori, and he had done well for himself out of the proceeds of the English loans."
- ^ a b Kitromilides, P.M. (2021). The Greek Revolution: A Critical Dictionary. Harvard University Press. p. 89.
- ^ Vacalopoulos 1976, p. 212: "The district over which the armatoles' authority extended was called an armatoliki. Commanders were known as capetanos or capetanios (from the Italian capitano), the rank and file as pallikaria (from the ancient Greek pallix, -ikos), and section leaders as protopallikara."
- ^ A front-loading gun from Cario & Figlio, an 18th-century maker of such guns.
- ^ a b Isabella 2023, p. 178.
- ^ Örenç, A.F. Balkanlarda ilk dram: unuttuğumuz Mora Türkleri ve eyaletten bağımsızlığa Yunanistan. Babıali Kültür Yayıncılığı. p. 35.
- ^ Beissinger 1991: "The Romanian haiduc (plural, haiduci) finds Balkan parallels in the Serbo-Croatian hajduk, Bulgarian haiduk, Greek klepht, and Albanian armatole."
- ISBN 978-1-134-25958-8. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
- ^ Isabella 2023, pp. 178–179.
- ^ Isabella 2023, p. 179.
- ^ Deligiannis, Periklis (2009). "Οδυσσέας Ανδρούτσος : Η μάχη της Γραβιάς (8 Μαϊου 1821)" [Odysseas Androutsos : The battle of Gravia (8 May 1821)]. Στρατιωτική Ιστορία ("Military History") (in Greek). Περισκόπιο ("Periskopio") (151): pp. 13–14.
- ^ Isabella 2023, pp. 180–181.
- ^ Vasdravellēs, Iōannēs K. (1968). The Greek Struggle for Independence: The Macedonians in the Revolution of 1821. Institute for Balkan Studies. p. 2.
- ^ a b Isabella 2023, p. 178: "Most of them had learned their military art among the Souliots (Christian Albanians who were often at odds with Ali Pasha) and other Albanian groups with a venerable tradition in irregular warfare."
- ^ Boime 2004, pp. 193–194: "Both the Philikí Etairía and the nationalist Phanariots depended upon the klephts and armatoloi for cannon fodder, and much of the actual fighting was carried out by former regional warlords and bandit leaders like Markos Botzaris, who led a tribe of Albanians known as the Suliotes;"
- ISBN 9783031108495.
- ^ Magliveras, Simeon (2009). The ontology of difference: nationalism, localism and ethnicity in a Greek Arvanite village (PDF) (PhD). Durham University. p. 55.
- ISBN 9780292773424.
- OCLC 1037469979.
- OCLC 1258219244.
- OCLC 1047705748.
- OCLC 1062180277.
- ISBN 978-1-134-55394-5.
- ^ Kahl, Thede (2003). "Aromanians in Greece: Minority or Vlach-speaking Greeks?". Jahrbücher für Geschichte und Kultur Südosteuropas. 5: 213.
Indeed, the list of examples of Aromanians in Greek history is quite impressive: [...] Georgakis Olympios (1772-1821, member of "Filiki Etaireia", fought in the revolution of 1821)
Sources
- Babiniotis, George D. (1998). Λεξικό της Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας (in Greek). Athens, Greece: Kentro Leksikologias. ISBN 978-9-60-861900-5.
- Beissinger, Margaret H. (1991). The Art of the Lăutar: The Epic Tradition of Romania. Folklore and Oral Tradition Series. Garland. ISBN 9780824028978.
- Boime, Albert (2004). Art in an Age of Counterrevolution, 1815-1848. A Social History of Modern Art. Vol. 3. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226063379.
- Dakin, Douglas (1973). The Greek Struggle for Independence, 1821–1833. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02342-0.
- Isabella, Maurizio (2023). Southern Europe in the Age of Revolutions. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691246192.
- Vacalopoulos, Apostolis (1961). Ιστορία του Νέου Ελληνισμού [History of Neo-Hellenism]. Vol. 2. A.E. Vakalopoulos.
- Vacalopoulos, Apostolis (1976). The Greek Nation, 1453–1669. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9780813508108.
Further reading
- Brewer, David (2011). The Greek War of Independence: The Struggle for Freedom from Ottoman Oppression. New York and London: Overlook/Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-71-564161-3.
- Paroulakis, Peter Harold (1984). The Greeks: Their Struggle for Independence. Darwin, Northern Territory (Australia): Hellenic International Press. ISBN 978-0-95-908940-0.