Ancient maritime history

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Ancient history
Preceded by prehistory
Near East
Europe
Horn of Africa
North Africa
Eurasian Steppe
Central Asia
East Asia
South Asia
Northern America
Mesoamerica
Andes
Caribbean
West Africa and Central Africa
Southeast Asia and Oceania
See also

obsolete source
] Some evidence suggests that man may have crossed the sea as early as 700,000 years ago.

In ancient maritime history,

Age of Exploration
.

Maritime prehistory

General principles

The earliest seafaring is presumed to have developed in the "nursery" areas of

Mediterranean. Both ISEA and the Mediterranean had a warm climate and, particularly in the former, large numbers of intervisible islands; both assisted early seafarers.[5][6] Water transport also developed on major rivers, such as the Nile
.

The first watercraft are likely to have been rafts, as these make less demands on the woodworking skills of pre-neolithic builders. Rafts or hide-covered boats (e.g. coracle) have a low probability of surviving in an archaeological site; there are historical instances of rafts being dismantled after use and the components being used for other purposes, further reducing the chances of archaeological survival. Therefore, maritime transport has to be inferred from evidence such as human migration which cannot have been carried out by land, even in cases of lowered sea levels due to extensive glaciation. Other presumed evidence of water transport has proved problematical. Excavated bones of pelagic fish species (such as tuna) have been erroneously interpreted as demonstrating deep-sea fishing. Prior to fish stocks being reduced by commercial fishing, these species have been readily caught where deep water exists close to the shoreline.[6]

The invention (or adoption) of the sail is believed to have happened quite late in the prehistory of maritime transport, coinciding with other changes in the process of neolithicisation. Iconographic evidence of sail in Egypt dates to the late fourth millennium BC, and there is suggestive evidence in the eastern Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf in the late third millennium BC. These advances in water transport are broadly contemporaneous with wheeled transport pulled by draught animals (examples c. 3000-2000 BC). The invention of new forms of transport technology, both at sea and on land, have posed questions about relationships between the processes that have come into play with each development.[7]

Whilst the invention of the sail may appear obvious to a modern seafarer, its introduction and then spread into other regions (or the independent invention in those regions) happened slowly. From the eastern Mediterranean and Red Sea/Persian Gulf c. 2500 BC, expansion into the central Mediterranean and the west coast of India happened c. 2000 BC. Eastward spread into the Bay of Bengal and Island Southeast Asia has been dated to c. 1000 BC, with spread into the western Mediterranean at about the same time. Northern Europe, excluding Nordic countries, has evidence of sail use from the early years AD, whilst Scandinavia appears not to have used sails until late in the first millennium AD. Sailing was not used in the Caribbean until the arrival of Columbus' ships in 1492.[8]

Whether the sail was invented on different occasions in different places is difficult to assess, with diffusionist theories falling in and out of fashion. One instance of independent invention may be in the region of the Guayaquil river in modern Ecuador.[9] Sails of a relatively unique design were being used when Europeans first arrived in the area in the 16th century. The geography of the Guayaquil river is reminiscent of that of the Nile, with the prevailing wind going in the opposite direction to the flow of the river. This allows drifting downstream and sailing upstream: a suitable situation to encourage invention of sailing.[10]

Island Southeast Asia into greater Australia

The lowered sea levels of the

hominins and can only be reached from either Mindanao or the Sangihe Islands by crossing an expanse of water at least 100 km (62 mi) wide, even during the low sea levels of the Pleistocene. Other evidence of early maritime transport are the appearance of obsidian tools with the same source on neighboring islands. These include the Philippine obsidian network (Mindoro and Palawan, c. 33,000-28,000 BP), and the Wallacea obsidian network (Timor, Atauro, Kisar, Alor, c. 22,000 BP). However, the method of crossing remains unknown and could have ranged from simple rafts to dugout canoes by the terminal Pleistocene.[11][12][13]

The sea crossing by humans to the Sahul landmass (modern Australia and New Guinea) from the Sundaland peninsula occurred around 53,000 to 65,000 years ago. Even with the lower sea level of that time, this crossing would have involved travelling out of sight of land – the overall distances involved at the possible crossing points are all over 55 miles. It is likely that large bamboo rafts were used, possibly with a sail of some sort. Up until 58,000 BP, the winds during the Northern Australian wet season were particularly favourable for making this crossing (relevant even without sails). The reduction in favourable winds after that date fits well with the single colonisation phase of Australia during prehistory.[14]: 26–29 [15][16]

In the

whales is to simply drive them ashore by placing a number of small boats between the whale and the open sea and attempting to frighten them with noise, activity, and perhaps small, non-lethal weapons such as arrows.[18]

Austronesian expansion

Main articles:
Austronesian expansion and Polynesian navigation
Map showing the migration and expansion of the Austronesians which began at about 3000 BC from Taiwan

Austronesian expansion starting at around 3000 to 1500 BC, and ending with the colonization of Easter Island and New Zealand in the 10th to 13th centuries AD.[19][failed verification][20] Prior to the 16th century Colonial Era, Austronesians were the most widespread ethnolinguistic group, spanning half the planet from Easter Island in the eastern Pacific Ocean to Madagascar in the western Indian Ocean.[21][22] They also established vast maritime trading networks, among which is the Neolithic precursor to what would become the Maritime Silk Road.[23][failed verification
]

Typical Austronesian ship designs, left to right:

The acquisition of the

paráw, Samoan folau, Hawaiian halau, and Māori wharau.[20]

Similarly the first encounter with large sea-going ships by the Chinese is through trade with Southeast Asian Austronesian ships (likely Javanese or Sumatran) during the Han dynasty (220 BC–200 AD) as recorded by the Chinese historian Wan Chen (萬震) in his 3rd century AD book "Strange Things of the South" (Nánzhōu Yìwùzhì – 南州異物志). This led to the development of China's own maritime technologies later on, during the Song dynasty in the 10th to 13th century AD.[24][25]: 38–42 

At the furthest extents of the Austronesian expansion, colonists from Borneo crossed the Indian Ocean westward to settle in Madagascar and the Comoros by around 500 AD.[26][failed verification][27]

In the east, the first true ocean voyage was the colonization of the

Polynesians continued spreading eastwards into the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Hawaii, Easter Island, and Aotearoa, New Zealand by around AD 700 to 1200.[22][28][29]

star path navigation". Basically, the navigators determined the course of the ship to the destination by recognising the rising and setting positions of certain stars on the horizon.[30]: 10 [31]

Māori people of New Zealand are said to have Navigated following the zodiacal constellation of Scorpio, between Libra and Sagittarius in the southern sky positioned at about 16 hours 30 minutes right ascension and 30° south declination to find, Aotearoa, "The Land of the Long, White, Cloud".

Ancient routes and locations

See also: Indo-Mediterranean

Ancient maritime routes usually began in the

better source needed
]

Names, routes and locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea at the turn of the first millennium.
Much of the Radhanites' Indian Ocean trade would have depended on coastal cargo-ships such as this dhow.

Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the utilization of the monsoon winds, soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as the

Romans in the 2nd century BC.[34] A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at one-sixtieth the cost of over-land routes.[35]

See also:
Ship transport

Sumer

Further information: Indo-Mesopotamia relations and Meluhha § Trade with Sumer

Egypt

Egyptian ship, 1250 BC
World's oldest depiction of a stern-mounted steering rudder (c. 1420 BC)

The Ancient Egyptians had knowledge of sail construction.[36]

The first warships of

Old Kingdom
, but the first mention and a detailed description of a large enough and heavily armed ship dates from 16th century BC. "And I ordered to build twelve warships with rams, dedicated to Amun or Sobek, or Maat and Sekhmet, whose image was crowned best bronze noses. Carport and equipped outside rook over the waters, for many paddlers, having covered rowers deck not only from the side, but and top. and they were on board eighteen oars in two rows on the top and sat on two rowers, and the lower – one, a hundred and eight rowers were. And twelve rowers aft worked on three steering oars. And blocked Our Majesty ship inside three partitions (bulkheads) so as not to drown it by ramming the wicked, and the sailors had time to repair the hole. And Our Majesty arranged four towers for archers – two behind, and two on the nose and one above the other small – on the mast with narrow loopholes. they are covered with bronze in the fifth finger (3.2mm), as well as a canopy roof and its rowers. and they have (carried) on the nose three assault heavy crossbow arrows so they lit resin or oil with a salt of Seth (probably nitrate) tore a special blend and punched (?) lead ball with a lot of holes (?), and one of the same at the stern. and long ship seventy five cubits (41m), and the breadth sixteen, and in battle can go three-quarters of iteru per hour (about 6.5 knots)..." The text of the tomb of Amenhotep I (KV39). When Thutmose III achieved warships displacement up to 360 tons and carried up to ten new heavy and light to seventeen catapults based bronze springs, called "siege crossbow" – more precisely, siege bows. Still appeared giant catamarans that are heavy warships and times of Ramesses III used even when the Ptolemaic dynasty.[37]

The world according to Herodotus, 440 BC

According to the

Phoenicians, which reputedly, at some point between 610 and before 594 BC, sailed in three years from the Red Sea around Africa to the mouth of the Nile. Some Egyptologists dispute that an Egyptian Pharaoh would authorize such an expedition,[38]
except for the reason of trade in the ancient maritime routes.

The belief in Herodotus' account, handed down to him by oral tradition,[39] is primarily because he stated with disbelief that the Phoenicians "as they sailed on a westerly course round the southern end of Libya (Africa), they had the sun on their right – to northward of them" (The Histories 4.42) – in Herodotus' time it was not generally known that Africa was surrounded by an ocean (with the southern part of Africa being thought connected to Asia[40]). So fantastic an assertion is this of a typical example of some seafarers' story and Herodotus therefore may never have mentioned it, at all, had it not been based on facts and made with the according insistence.[41]

This early description of Necho's expedition as a whole is contentious, though; it is recommended that one keep an open mind on the subject;

Xerxes the Great.[43] Regardless, it was believed by Herodotus and Pliny.[44]

Much earlier, the

20th Dynasty.[45] The Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah explicitly refers to them by the term "the foreign-countries (or 'peoples'[46]) of the sea"[47][48] in his Great Karnak Inscription.[49] Although some scholars believe that they "invaded" Cyprus and the Levant
, this hypothesis is disputed.

Kingdom of Punt

Main article:
Somali maritime history
straits of Malacca
.

In ancient times the

Nabataea and the Roman Empire. Somali sailors used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the beden
to transport their cargo.

The Mediterranean

Tyre seems to have been the southernmost. Sarepta between Sidon and Tyre, is the most thoroughly excavated city of the Phoenician homeland. The Phoenicians often traded by means of a galley, a man-powered sailing vessel. They were the first civilization to create the bireme
. There is still debate on the subject of whether the Canaanites and Phoenicians were different peoples or not.

The

Mediterranean was the source of the vessel, galley, developed before 1000 BC, and development of nautical technology supported the expansion of Mediterranean culture. The Greek trireme was the most common ship of the ancient Mediterranean world, employing the propulsion power of oarsmen. Mediterranean peoples developed lighthouse technology and built large fire-based lighthouses, most notably the Lighthouse of Alexandria
, built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt.

Many in ancient western societies, such as

Sea God. Before the Greeks, the Carians were an early Mediterranean seagoing people that travelled far. Early writers do not give a good idea about the progress of navigation nor that of the man's seamanship. One of the early stories of seafaring was that of Odysseus
.

In

Argus. Thus, "Argonauts" literally means "Argo sailors". The voyage of the Greek navigator Pytheas of Massalia is an example of a very early voyage. A competent astronomer and geographer, Pytheas ventured from Greece to Western Europe and the British Isles.[50]

The

Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans
was a manuscript document that listed in order the ports and coastal landmarks, with approximate distances between, that the captain of a vessel could expect to find along a shore. Several examples of periploi have survived.

pirates in ancient times. The island of Lemnos long resisted Greek influence and remained a haven for Thracian pirates. By the 1st century BC, there were pirate states along the Anatolian coast, threatening the commerce of the Roman Empire
.

The earliest seagoing culture in the Mediterranean is associated with Cardium pottery. Their earliest impressed ware sites, dating to 6400–6200 BC, are in Epirus and Corfu. Settlements then appear in Albania and Dalmatia on the eastern Adriatic coast dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC.[52] The earliest date in Italy comes from Coppa Nevigata on the Adriatic coast of southern Italy, perhaps as early as 6000 cal B.C. Also during Su Carroppu culture in Sardinia, already in its early stages (low strata into Su Coloru cave, c. 6000 BC) early examples of cardium pottery appear.[53] Northward and westward all secure radiocarbon dates are identical to those for Iberia c. 5500 cal BC, which indicates a rapid spread of cardium and related cultures: 2,000 km from the gulf of Genoa to the estuary of the Mondego in probably no more than 100–200 years. This suggests a seafaring expansion by planting colonies along the coast.[54]

The Persian Wars

Main articles: Greco-Persian Wars and Peloponnesian War
Greek Trireme

In

Pausanias, defeated the Persian army at Plataea. The Athenian fleet then turned to chasing the Persians out of the Aegean Sea, and in 478 BC they captured Byzantium. In the course of doing so Athens enrolled all the island states and some mainland allies into an alliance, called the Delian League because its treasury was kept on the sacred island of Delos. The Spartans, although they had taken part in the war, withdrew into isolation after it, allowing Athens to establish unchallenged naval and commercial
power.

Athenian warship (Trireme), c. 400 BC

Punic Wars

Main article: Punic Wars

The

Mediterranean
would pass to the modern world via Europe instead of Africa.

Pre-Roman Britain

Ancient British canoe

The Coracle, a small single-passenger-sized float, has been used in Britain since before the first Roman invasion as noted by the invaders. Coracles are round or oval in shape, made of a wooden frame with a hide stretched over it then tarred to provide waterproofing. Being so light, an operator can carry the light craft over the shoulder. They are capable of operating in mere inches of water due to the keel-less hull. The early people of Wales used these boats for fishing and light travel and updated models are still in use to this day on the rivers of Scotland and Wales.

Early

Britons also used the dugout canoe. Examples of these canoes have been found buried in marshes and mud banks of rivers at lengths of upward eight feet.[55]

In 1992 a notable archaeological find, named the "

Carbon dating reveals that the craft dating from approximately 1600 BC might be the oldest known sea-going boat. The hull was of half oak logs and side panels also of oak were stitched on with yew lashings. Both the straight-grained oak and yew bindings are now extinct as a shipbuilding method in England. A reconstruction in 1996 proved that a crew between four and sixteen paddlers could have easily propelled the boat during Force 4 winds upwards of four knots but with a maximum of 5 knots (9 km/h). The boat could have easily carried a significant amount of cargo and with a strong crew may have been able to traverse near thirty nautical miles in a day.[56]

Northern Europe

The

monastic
plundering made by Norsemen in Great Britain and Ireland.

Olaf Tryggvason. When he returned to Greenland, he bought the boat of Bjarni Herjólfsson and set out to explore the land that Bjarni had found (located west of Greenland), which was, in fact, Newfoundland, in Canada. The Saga of the Greenlanders tells that Leif set out around the year 1000 to follow Bjarni's route with 15 crew members, but going north.[57]

Maritime Southeast Asia

Main articles:
Austronesian maritime trade network, Maritime Jade Road, and Maritime Silk Road

Dong Son culture of northern Vietnam is also evidence of the antiquity and density of this prehistoric Southeast Asian maritime network.[62]

Austronesians also established very early connections (part of the early

purple yam in Africa in the first millennium BCE.[64]

By around the 2nd century BCE, the prehistoric Austronesian jade and spice trade networks in Southeast Asia fully connected with the

Tamil traders also sailed the western parts of the routes.[62][71] It allowed the exchange of goods from East and Southeast Asia on one end, all the way to Europe and eastern Africa on the other.[72][71]

Austronesians

Austronesian

Tonkin Gulf) and Guangzhou (southern China), the endpoints.[62] Secondary routes also passed through the coastlines of the Gulf of Thailand;[72][73] as well as through the Java Sea, Celebes Sea, Banda Sea, and the Sulu Sea, reconnecting with the main route through the northern Philippines and Taiwan. The secondary routes also continue onward to the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea for a limited extent.[72]

Austronesian proto-historic and historic maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean[72]

The main route of the western regions of the Maritime Silk Road directly crosses the

Comoros, Madagascar, and the Seychelles.[72][74] The Maldives was of particular importance as a major hub for Austronesian sailors venturing through the western routes.[72] The Austronesian people also reached Madagascar in the early 1st millennium AD and colonized it.[75][76][77][78]

pilgrims to South Asia booked passage with the Austronesian ships (which they called the k'un-lun po) that traded in the Chinese port city of Guangzhou. Books written by Chinese monks like Wan Chen and Hui-Lin contain detailed accounts of the large trading vessels from Southeast Asia dating back to at least the 3rd century CE.[79][80]: 347 [81]
: 262 

Spice Islands, as well as maritime trade-routes between India and China.[82]

The

Persia, indicating they traded as far as the Middle East.[83][84][85]

These maritime routes persisted (with increasing participation of other maritime cultures) into the medieval era, before declining and being replaced with European trade routes during the colonial era in the 15th century.[62][86][87]

Indian subcontinent

Main articles:
Harappan civilisation near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast. Other ports were probably at Balakot and Dwarka. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade.[90] Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with Mesopotamia,[91] where the Indus Valley was known as Meluhha
.

Emperor

Kautilya's Arthashastra devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under nāvādhyakṣa (Sanskrit for Superintendent of ships) [1]. The terms, nāvā dvīpāntaragamanam (Sanskrit
for sailing to other lands by ships) and samudrasaṁyānam (maritime travel) appear in the work.

The

Indo China and throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, introducing elements of their culture to the people with whom they traded. The 6th century Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa mentions the Bay of Bengal as 'Kaliṅgodra' and historically the Bay of Bengal has been called 'Kaliṅga Sāgara' (both Kaliṅgodra and Kalinga Sagara mean Kalinga Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in the maritime trade.[92]

Japan

Main article: Naval history of Japan
A clay figure of a haniwa model of a ship, from Japan's Kofun period (250–538); during the Three Kingdoms of Korea, the Japanese sided with Baekje against a naval alliance between the Chinese Tang dynasty and Korean Silla.

Japan had a navy by at least the 6th century, with their invasions and involvement in political alliances during the Three Kingdoms of Korea. A joint alliance between the Korean Silla Kingdom and the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) heavily defeated the Japanese and their Korean allies of Baekje in the Battle of Baekgang on August 27 to August 28 of the year 663 AD. This decisive victory expelled the Japanese force from Korea and allowed the Tang and Silla to conquer Goguryeo.

Ancient Rome

Main article: Ships of ancient Rome
Model of a Roman bireme

Latin: navis, lit. 'ship'. These are found in many ancient Roman texts, and named in different ways, such as by the appearance of the ship: for example, navis tecta (covered ship); or by its function, for example: navis mercatoria (commerce ship), or navis praedatoria (plunder ship). Others, like navis frumentaria (grain), navis lapidaria (stones), and navis vivaria (live fish), are about the cargo. The Althiburos mosaic in Tunisia lists many types of ships.[94] The expression naves longae (lit. "long ships") is the plural of the noun phrase navis longa ("long ship"), following the rules for pluralization of feminine, third declension nouns in Latin, and inflectional agreement of the adjective longus
to match.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Augustus Hamilton. Fishing and sea-foods of the ancient Māori. J. Mackay, govt. printer, 1908
  2. OCLC 5276554
    .
  3. ^ Rawlinson 2001: 11–12.
  4. ^ see Trade_route of Maritime_trade
  5. ^ O'Connor 2010, p. 44.
  6. ^ a b Anderson 2010, pp. 4–6.
  7. ^ Anderson 2010, pp. 7, 12.
  8. ^ Anderson 2010, pp. 7, 10.
  9. ^ Anderson 2023.
  10. ^ Anderson 2010, p. 9.
  11. ISBN 978-1-119-25155-2
    .
  12. doi:10.1080/00438243.2023.2172072
    .
  13. ISBN 978-1-62349-277-9
    .
  14. ISBN 978-0-19-992507-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  15. ISBN 978-0-8173-1939-7
    .
  16. S2CID 205257212
    .
  17. ^ "Rock art hints at whaling origins". BBC News. 20 April 2004. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
  18. OCLC 836405865
    .
  19. JSTOR 20704987
    . Retrieved 4 March 2025.
  20. ^
    ISBN 978-0-415-10054-0
    .
  21. ISBN 978-1-920942-85-4
    .
  22. ^ a b Bellwood, Peter (2014). The Global Prehistory of Human Migration. p. 213.
  23. ISBN 978-1-58839-524-5
    .
  24. S2CID 162840685
    .
  25. ^ Dick-Read, Robert (2005). The Phantom Voyagers: Evidence of Indonesian Settlement in Africa in Ancient Times. Thurlton.
  26. PMID 15288523
    .
  27. ISBN 978-1-902937-20-5
    .
  28. S2CID 128641903
    .
  29. ^ Goodenough, Ward Hunt (1996). Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific. Vol. 86, Part 5. American Philosophical Society. pp. 127–128.
  30. ^ Liebner, Horst H. (2005), "Perahu-Perahu Tradisional Nusantara: Suatu Tinjauan Perkapalan dan Pelayaran", in Edi, Sedyawati (ed.), Eksplorasi Sumberdaya Budaya Maritim, Jakarta: Pusat Riset Wilayah Laut dan Sumber Daya Nonhayati, Badan Riset Kelautan dan Perikanan; Pusat Penelitian Kemasyarakatan dan Budaya, Universitas Indonesia, pp. 53–124
  31. ^ McGrail 2015b, p. 184.
  32. ^ See: Arabian Sea Trade routes
  33. ^ a b c Denemark 2000: 107.
  34. ^ Toutain 1979, p. 243.
  35. ^ Scarre 1995.
  36. ^ Hatshepsut oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and with several sails. Various others exist, also.
  37. ^ Nelson Harold Hayden, Allen Thomas George and Dr Raymond O. Faulkner. «Tuthmosis III. First Emperor in the History of Mankind. His Regal companions and a Great assistants» Oxford UNV Publishing, 1921 p. 127.
  38. JSTOR 3856314
    .
  39. ^ M. J. Cary. The Ancient Explorers. Penguin Books, 1963. p. 114
  40. ^ Die umsegelung Asiens und Europas auf der Vega. Volume 2. By Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. p. 148
  41. ^ Heinz Gartmann: Sonst stünde die Welt still. Das große Ringen um das Neue. Econ, Düsseldorf 1957
  42. ^ The Cambridge History of the British Empire. CUP Archive, 1963. p. 56
  43. JSTOR 3856314
    .
  44. ^ The Geographical system of Herodotus By James Rennel. p348+
  45. hieroglyphics
    , transliteration and English is given in the dissertation of Woodhuizen, 2006, who developed it from works of Kitchen cited there
  46. ^ As noted by Gardiner V. 1 p. 196, other texts have "foreign-peoples"; both terms can refer to the concept of "foreigners" as well. Zangger in the external link below expresses a commonly held view that "sea peoples" does not translate this and other expressions but is an academic innovation. The Woudhuizen dissertation and the Morris paper identify Gaston Maspero as the first to use the term "peuples de la mer" in 1881.
  47. ^ Gardiner V. 1 p. 196.
  48. ^ Manassa p. 55.
  49. ^ Line 52. The inscription is shown in Manassa p. 55 plate 12.
  50. ^ Bunbury, Edward Herbert; Beazley, Charles Raymond (1911). "Pytheas" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 703–704.
  51. ISBN 0-631-19807-5
    , p. 185
  52. ^ Barry Cunliffe, Europe Between the Oceans (2008), pp. 115–116; Staso Forenbaher and Preston Miracle, The spread of farming in the Eastern Adriatic, Antiquity, vol. 79, no. 305 (September 2005), additional tables.
  53. ^ Showcase 3 in the Archeological Museum G. A. Sanna in Sassari
  54. PMID 11707599
    .
  55. ^ 57.—Ancient British Canoes. (500x225)
  56. ^ Canterbury Archaeological Trust: Buckland Anglo-Saxon Cemetery Archived May 9, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  57. The Saga of Eric the Red
    , relates that Leif discovered the American mainland while returning from Norway to Greenland in 1000 (or possibly 1001), but does not mention any attempts to settle there. However, the Saga of the Greenlanders is usually considered the more reliable of the two.
  58. ISSN 1835-1794.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link
    )
  59. ^ Turton, M. (17 May 2021). "Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south". Taipei Times. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
  60. ^ Everington, K. (6 September 2017). "Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar". Taiwan News. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
  61. ISBN 978-971-94292-0-3
    .
  62. ^ a b c d e Guan, Kwa Chong (2016). "The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea" (PDF). NSC Working Paper (23): 1–30.
  63. ^ a b Zumbroich, Thomas J. (2007–2008). "The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond". eJournal of Indian Medicine. 1: 87–140. Archived from the original on 23 March 2019.
  64. ^
    ISBN 9788192624433
    .
  65. ISBN 9781588395245
    .
  66. ISBN 9789814311175
    .
  67. ISBN 9780521419994
    .
  68. doi:10.54645/2024171ZAK-61
    .
  69. ISBN 978-1-134-81624-8
    .
  70. ISBN 978-602-9346-00-8
    .
  71. ^
    ISBN 978-90-4855-242-9
    .
  72. ^
    ISBN 978-3-319-33822-4
    .
  73. ISBN 9780812205022
    .
  74. ISBN 978-90-4855-242-9
    .
  75. S2CID 21753825
    .
  76. PMID 28405364
    .
  77. PMID 19535740
    .
  78. hdl:11343/121829
    .
  79. ISBN 9780199271863
    .
  80. S2CID 162840685
    .
  81. ^ Manguin, Pierre-Yves (1993). "Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient: 253–280.
  82. doi:10.21463/jmic.2018.07.2.05
    .
  83. ^ "Butuan Archeological Sites". UNESCO. Retrieved 16 June 2024.
  84. doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1993.tb00403.x
    .
  85. ^ Lacsina, Ligaya (2014). Re-examining the Butuan Boats: Pre-colonial Philippine watercraft. National Museum of the Philippines.
  86. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctv2n7gng.15
    .
  87. doi:10.1017/S002246340000446X
    .
  88. ^ Science and Technology in Ancient India. Vijnan Bharati, 2002. p. 18.
  89. ^ Shikaripur Ranganatha Rao. Lothal, a Harappan Port Town (1955–62). 1979. p. 44.
  90. ^ Possehl, Gregory. Meluhha. in: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996, 133–208
  91. ^ (e.g. Lal 1997: 182–188)
  92. ^ The Journal of Orissan History. Vol. 13–15. Orissa History Congress. 1995. p. 54.
  93. ^ Labate 2017, Conclusion.
  94. ^ Carlson 2011, p. 397.

References

Further reading
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_maritime_history&oldid=1284504396"