List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
The following is a list of inventions made in the medieval
The
List of inventions
Early caliphates
- 7th century
- Ghazal: A form of Islamic poetry that originated from the Arabian Peninsula in the late 7th century.[7]
- 8th century
- Arabesque: The distinctive Arabesque style was developed by the 11th century, having begun in the 8th or 9th century in works like the Mshatta Facade.[8][9]
- Classification of Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925), contain the earliest known classifications of chemical substances.[13]
- Damascus steel: Damascus blades were first manufactured in the Near East from ingots of Wootz steel that were imported from India.[14]
- Geared gristmill: Geared gristmills were built in the medieval Near East and North Africa, which were used for grinding grain and other seeds to produce meals.[15]
- Modern Oud: Although string instruments existed before Islam, the oud was developed in Islamic music and was the ancestor of the European lute.[16]
- Sirr al-khalīqa ("The Secret of Creation", c. 750–850) and in the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950),[17] the sulfur-mercury theory of metals would remain the basis of all theories of metallic composition until the eighteenth century.[18]
- Abbasid Iraq/Mesopotamia in the 8th-century.[19] The oldest fragments found to-date were excavated from the palace of Samarra about 80 kilometres (50 miles) north of Baghdad.[20]
- Panemone windmill: The earliest recorded windmill design found was Persian in origin, and was invented around the 7th-9th centuries.[21][22]
- 9th century
- Ilm al-jabr wa'l-muḳābala. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline in its own right.[23]
- Al-Khwarizmi introduced reduction and balancing in algebra. It refers to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation, which the term al-jabr (algebra) originally referred to.[24]
- automatic controls distinguishes them from their Greek predecessors, including the Banu Musa's "use of self-operating valves, timing devices, delay systems and other concepts of great ingenuity."[25]: 23
- sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means appear in the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950).[26]
- game problems, the knight's tour, and many more subjects common in modern chess books.[27]
- Al-Jazari's invention by several centuries and its first appearance in Europe by over five centuries. However, the automatic crank described by the Banu Musa would not have allowed a full rotation, but only a small modification was required to convert it to a crankshaft.[25]: 23–24
- Conical Banu Musa, of particular importance for future developments, was the conical valve, which was used in a variety of different applications.[25]: 23
- Banu Musa brothers are credited with the first known use of conical valves as automatic controllers.[29]
- cryptology, the first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis was given by Al-Kindi (also known as "Alkindus" in Europe), in A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. This treatise includes the first description of the method of frequency analysis.[30][31]
- Banu Musa, and has a modern appearance in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[32]
- Farabian theories: three philosophical theories of al-Farabi: the theory of ten intelligences, theory of the intellect and theory of prophecy.[33]
- Glass manufacturing: Abbas ibn Firnas developed the process of creating glass from stones.[34]
- Lusterware: Lustre glazes were applied to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century; the technique soon became popular in Persia and Syria.[35]Earlier uses of lustre are known.
- Hard
- Mental institute: In 872, Ahmad ibn Tulun built a hospital in Cairo that provided care to the insane, which included music therapy.[37]
- Minaret: The first known minarets appeared in the early 9th century under Abbasid rule.[41]
- quantitative methods in navigation.[46]
- Banū Mūsā brothers invented a programmable automatic flute player and which they described in their Book of Ingenious Devices. It was the earliest programmable machine.[43]
- Arabic.[50]
- Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 9th century Baghdad.[51]
- Sugar mill: Sugar mills first appeared in the medieval Islamic world.[53] They were first driven by watermills, and then windmills from the 9th and 10th centuries in what are today Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran.[54]
- Early cataracts from patients' eyes.[55]
- Systemic The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, c. 813–833 CE[56]: 171 ) presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations. One of his principal achievements in algebra was his demonstration of how to solve quadratic equations by completing the square, for which he provided geometric justifications.[57]: 14
- Thabit numbers: Named after Thabit ibn Qurra
- Banu Musa's Book of Ingenious Devices.[58]
- Banu Musa brothers.[59]
- Wind-powered gristmill: The first wind-powered gristmills were built in the 9th and 10th centuries in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran.[54]
- Windpump: Windpumps were used to pump water since at least the 9th century in what is now Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan.[60]
- 10th century
- Alhazen's problem: A theorem by ibn al-Haytham solved only in 1997 by Neumann.
- Arabic numerals: The modern Arabic numeral symbols originate from Islamic North Africa in the 10th century. A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus (sometimes called ghubar numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world.[61]
- Cauchy-Riemann Integral: Ibn al-Haytham gave a simple form of this.[13]
- Decimal fractions: Decimal fractions were first used by Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in the 10th century.[65][66]
- Experimental scientific method: Expounded and practised by ibn al-Haytham[67]
- caliph Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held ink in a reservoir, allowing it to be held upside-down without leaking.[68]
- Law of cotangents: This was first given by Ibn al-Haytham.[13]
- Muqarnas: The origin of the muqarnas can be traced back to the mid-tenth century in northeastern Iran and central North Africa,[69] as well as the Mesopotamian region.[70]
- Ruffini-Horner Algorithm: Discovered by ibn al-Haytham[13]
- Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994.[74]
- Shale oil extraction: In the 10th century, the Arab physician Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) described a method of extraction of oil from "some kind of bituminous shale".[75]
- Snell's law: The law was first accurately described by the Persian scientist Ibn Sahl at the Baghdad court in 984. In the manuscript On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, ibn Sahl used the law to derive lens shapes that focus light with no geometric aberrations.[76] According to Jim al-Khalili, the law should be called ibn Sahl's law.[77]
- Vertical-axle caliph Umar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th-century amendment.[81] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grains and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[82] Horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today, however, were developed in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s.[78][79]
- 11th-12th centuries
- Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī on quadrilaterals were the first theorems on hyperbolic geometry.[86]
- convex lens: A convex lens used for forming a magnified image was described in the Book of Optics by Ibn al-Haytham in 1021.[87]
- Mechanical flywheel: The mechanical flywheel, used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine and, essentially, to allow lifting water from far greater depths (up to 200 metres), was first employed by Ibn Bassal (fl. 1038–1075), of Al-Andalus.[88][89][90]
- Mercuric chloride (formerly corrosive sublimate): used to disinfect wounds. [year needed][91]
- Proof by contradiction: Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039) developed the method of proof by contradiction.[92]
- Steel mill: By the 11th century, much of the Islamic world had industrial steel watermills in operation, from Al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[93]
- Optic chiasm: The crossing of nerve fibres, and the impact on vision that this had, was first clearly identified by Persian physician "Esmail Jorjani", who appears to be Zayn al-Din Gorgani (1042–1137).[95] The optic chiasm was earlier theorized by Ibn al-Haytham in the early 11th century.[96]
- Pinhole camera: Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039), an Arab physicist also known as Alhazen, has been credited with the invention of the pinhole camera in the early 11th century.[97] The camera obscura effect described by Ibn al-Haytham became the subject of many experiments over the centuries, mainly in dark rooms with a small opening in shutters, to study the nature of light and to safely watch solar eclipses.[citation needed] The camera obscura or pinhole image is a natural optical phenomenon. Early known descriptions are found in the Chinese Mozi writings (circa 500 BCE) and the Aristotelian Problems (circa 300 BCE – 600 CE).[citation needed]
- Bridge mill: The bridge mill was a unique type of watermill that was built as part of the superstructure of a bridge. The earliest record of a bridge mill is from Córdoba, Spain in the 12th century.[99]
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Islamization of knowledge |
- 13th century
- Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for which frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1.[100] This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names.[101] A 9th-century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" from Baghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric.[102]
- Mariotte's bottle: The Libros del saber de Astronomia describes a water clock which employs the principle of Mariotte's bottle.[103]
- Metabolism: Although Greek philosophers described processes of metabolism, Ibn al-Nafees is the first scholar to describe metabolism as "a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment".[105]
Al Andalus (Islamic Spain)
- 9th-12th centuries
- Inheritance of hemophilia: First proposed by hemophilia was an inherited disease.[107]
- Ligatures: Although already discovered in Ancient Greece, it was later described in the work of al-Zahrawi (936–1013), Kitab al-Tasrif, one of the most influential books in early modern medicine. Describes the process of performing a ligature on blood vessels.
- Lithotrite: Invented by Al-Zahrawi.[110]
- Mercuric oxide: First synthesized by Abu al-Qasim al-Qurtubi al-Majriti (10th century).
- Migraine surgery: First performed by al-Zahrawi (936–1013).
- Early Kocher's method and Walter position: Al-Zahrawi's Kitab al-Tasrif described both what would later become known as "Kocher's method" for treating a dislocated shoulder and the "Walcher position" in obstetrics.[107]
- Treatment of wart: al-Zahrawi first described it.[111]
- Treatment of hydrocephalus: First done by Al-Zahrawi.[112]
- Water and weight driven mechanical clocks: By Spanish Muslim engineers sometime between 900 and 1200. According to historian Will Durant, a watch-like device was invented by Ibn Firnas.
- Andalusian Oud: Abu l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Nafi‘ (789–857),[113][114] a prominent musician who had trained under Ishaq al-Mawsili (d. 850) in Baghdad and was exiled to Andalusia before 833 AD. He has been credited with adding a fifth string to his oud[115] and with establishing one of the first schools of music in Córdoba.[116]
- 14th century
- Hispano-Moresque ware: This was a style of Islamic pottery created in Arab Spain, after the Moors had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of its decoration.[117]
- Polar-axis Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albategni). Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using a gnomon that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His sundial is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.[118][119]
Sultanates
- 12th century
- Blood measurement device: Created by Al-Jazari[120]
- Double-acting principle: The principle was used by al-Jazari in his water pumps.[121]
- 13th century
- Heliometer: A devise of measuring the diameter of sun was described by Syrian astronomer Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi.[122]
- Various
- Al-Jazari in 1206. He employed it as part of his automata, water-raising machines, and water clocks such as the castle clock.[126]
- ]
- Al-Jazari (1136–1206) is credited with the invention of the crankshaft.[25]: 23–24 He described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines.[128] His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft,[129] including both the crank and shaft mechanisms.[130]
- Crank-slider: Ismail al-Jazari's water pump employed the first known crank-slider mechanism.[131]
- worm gear roller gin was invented in the Delhi Sultanate during the 13th to 14th centuries.[132]
- Design and construction methods: English technology historian
- Draw bar: The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use at Delhi in the Mughal Empire by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to the Delhi Sultanate.[134]
- Minimising
- Al-Jazari, and described in The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, written in 1206. His programmable musical device featured four automaton musicians, including two drummers, that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. It was a programmable drum machine where pegs (cams) bump into little levers that operated the percussion. The drummers could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.[136]
- Tusi couple: The couple was first proposed by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in his 1247 Tahrir al-Majisti (Commentary on the Almagest) as a solution for the latitudinal motion of the inferior planets. The Tusi couple is explicitly two circles of radii x and 2x in which the circle with the smaller radii rotates inside the Bigger circle. The oscillatory motion be produced by the combined uniform circular motions of two identical circles, one riding on the circumference of the other.
- Griot: The griot musical tradition originates from the Islamic Mali Empire, where the first professional griot was Balla Fasséké.[137]
- Segmental Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote, "Segmental gears first clearly appear in al-Jazari".[139]
- Sufi inventor, poet, and pioneer of Khyal, Tarana and Qawwali, in the Delhi Sultanate.[140][141] Others say that the instrument was brought from Iran and modified for the tastes of the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire.[141]
- 14th century
- Cotton gin with crank handle: The incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in either the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.[142]
Ottoman Empire
- 14th century
- Islamic Janissaries of the Ottoman Empire formed in the fourteenth century, were made up through trained soldiers and composed of slaves paid with regular salaries.[143][144]
- 15th century
- Persia and Turkey. From the Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas.[149]
- Dardanelles Operation. Turkish forces loaded the ancient relics with propellant and projectiles, then fired them at the British ships. The British squadron suffered 28 casualties from this bombardment.[150]
- Sultan Mehmed II they were drilled with firearms and became "the first standing infantry force equipped with firearms in the world."[155]
- 16th century
- Firearm kneeling position: At the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 tüfenks (usually translated as musket) "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest."[156] The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing.[157]
- Marching band and military band: The marching band and military band both have their origins in the Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century.[158]
- Janissaries utilized it during the Battle of Mohács.[159]
- Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din (1577-1580).[160]
- Practical impulse engineer in 16th century Ottoman Egypt, who described a method for rotating a spit by means of a jet of steam playing on rotary vanes around the periphery of a wheel. A similar device for rotating a spit was also later described by John Wilkins in 1648.[161]
- Taqi al-Din in his Al-Turuq al-samiyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya (The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines), in 1551 CE (959 AH). It was an impulse steam turbine with practical applications as a prime mover for rotating a spit, predating Giovanni Branca's later impulse steam turbine from 1629.[162]
Safavid dynasty
- 15th century
- Classical arabesques. All these patterns required a more elaborate system of weaving, as compared to weaving straight, rectilinear lines. Likewise, they require artists to create the design, weavers to execute them on the loom, and an efficient way to communicate the artist's ideas to the weaver. Today this is achieved by a template, termed cartoon (Ford, 1981, p. 170[163]). How Safavid manufacturers achieved this, technically, is currently unknown. The result of their work, however, was what Kurt Erdmann termed the "carpet design revolution".[164] Apparently, the new designs were developed first by miniature painters, as they started to appear in book illuminations and on book covers as early as in the fifteenth century. This marks the first time when the "classical" design of Islamic rugs was established.[165]
Mughal Empire
- 16th century
- Hookah or water pipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar I (1542–1605) invented the Hookah or water pipe used most commonly for smoking tobacco.[166][167][168][169]
- Metal cylinder rocket: In the 16th century, Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly against war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.[170]
- Multi-barrel matchlock volley gun: Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi-shot gun. Shirazi's gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun.[171] One such gun he developed was a seventeen-barrelled cannon fired with a matchlock.[172]
- Seamless
- 17th century
- worm gearing, by the 17th century.[134]
See also
- Timeline of science and engineering in the Islamic world
- Science in the medieval Islamic world
- Islamic attitudes towards science
- Medicine in the medieval Islamic world
- Islamic arts
- Islamic economics
- Islamic literature
- Islamic philosophy
- Islamic technology
- Gunpowder empires
Notes
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We wish to construct a pen which can be used for writing without having recourse to an ink-holder and whose ink will be contained inside it. A person can fill it with ink and write whatever he likes. The writer can put it in his sleeve or anywhere he wishes and it will not stain nor will any drop of ink leak out of it. The ink will flow only when there is an intention to write. We are unaware of anyone previously ever constructing (a pen such as this) and an indication of 'penetrating wisdom' to whoever contemplates it and realises its exact significance and purpose. I exclaimed, 'Is this possible?' He replied, 'It is possible if God so wills'.
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"Three scientists, Ibn al-Haytham, Khayyam and al-Tūsī, had made the most considerable contribution to this branch of geometry whose importance came to be completely recognized only in the 19th century. In essence their propositions concerning the properties of quadrangles which they considered assuming that some of the angles of these figures were acute of obtuse, embodied the first few theorems of the hyperbolic and the elliptic geometries. Their other proposals showed that various geometric statements were equivalent to the Euclidean postulate V. It is extremely important that these scholars established the mutual connection between this postulate and the sum of the angles of a triangle and a quadrangle. By their works on the theory of parallel lines Arab mathematicians directly influenced the relevant investigations of their European counterparts. The first European attempt to prove the postulate on parallel lines – made by Witelo, the Polish scientists of the 13th century, while revising Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir) – was undoubtedly prompted by Arabic sources. The proofs put forward in the 14th century by the Jewish scholar Levi ben Gerson, who lived in southern France, and by the above-mentioned Alfonso from Spain directly border on Ibn al-Haytham's demonstration. Above, we have demonstrated that Pseudo-Tusi's Exposition of Euclid had stimulated both J. Wallis's and G. Saccheri's studies of the theory of parallel lines."
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External links
- Qatar Digital Library - an online portal providing access to previously digitised British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science