Mappila Muslims
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Mappila Muslim, in general, is a member of the
According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled native Muslim community in South Asia.[2][12] In general, a Mappila is either a descendant of any higher caste native convert to Islam or a mixed descendant of any Middle Eastern — Arab or Persian — individual.[13][14] Mappilas are but one among the many communities that form the Muslim population of Kerala. No Census Report where the Muslim communities were mentioned separately is also available.[15]
The Mappila community originated primarily as a result of the West Asian contacts with Kerala, which was fundamentally based upon commerce ("the spice trade").[8] As per local tradition, Islam reached Malabar Coast, of which the Kerala state is a part of, as early as the 7th century AD.[10] Before being overtaken by the Europeans in the spice trade, Mappilas were a prosperous trading community, settled mainly in the coastal urban centres of Kerala. The continuous interaction of the Mappilas with the Middle East has created a profound impact on their life, customs, and culture. This has resulted in the formation of a unique Indo-Islamic synthesis — within the large spectrum of Kerala culture — in literature, art, food, language, and music.[10][12]
Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow the
Variations
They are often shortened to Mappila, formerly anglicised as Moplah/Mopla and historically known as Jonaka/Chonaka Mappila or Moors Mopulars/Mouros da Terra and Mouros Malabares.
Etymology
Mappila Muslims are but one among the many communities that form the Muslim population of Kerala. Sometimes the whole Muslim community in Kerala, is known by the term "Mappila". Portuguese writer Duarte Barbosa (1515) uses the term 'Moors Mopulars' for the Muslims of Kerala.[2]
"
Demographics and distribution
Demographics
According to the 2011 census, about one-quarter of Kerala's population (26.56%) are Muslims.[2] The calculated Muslim population (2011) in Kerala state is 88,73,472. The number of Muslims in rural areas is only 42,51,787, against an urban population of 46,21,685.[1][2]
Distribution
The number of Muslims is particularly high in the northern Kerala (former
According to the
District wise map of Kerala | District | Total Pop | Muslims | % of Pop | % of Muslims |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kerala | 33,406,061 | 8,873,472 | 26.56% | 100.0% | |
Kasargod | 1,307,375 | 486,913 | 37.24% | 5.49% | |
Kannur | 2,523,003 | 742,483 | 29.43% | 8.37% | |
Wayanad | 817,420 | 234,185 | 28.65% | 2.64% | |
Kozhikode | 3,086,293 | 1,211,131 | 39.24% | 13.65% | |
Malappuram | 4,112,920 | 2,888,849 | 70.24% | 32.56% | |
Palakkad | 2,809,934 | 812,936 | 28.93% | 9.16% | |
Thrissur | 3,121,200 | 532,839 | 17.07% | 6.00% | |
Ernakulam | 3,282,388 | 514,397 | 15.67% | 5.80% | |
Idukki | 1,108,974 | 82,206 | 7.41% | 0.93% | |
Kottayam | 1,974,551 | 126,499 | 6.41% | 1.43% | |
Alappuzha | 2,127,789 | 224,545 | 10.55% | 2.53% | |
Pathanamthitta | 1,197,412 | 55,074 | 4.60% | 0.62% | |
Kollam | 2,635,375 | 508,500 | 19.30% | 5.73% | |
Thiruvananthapuram | 3,301,427 | 452,915 | 13.72% | 5.10% |
Portuguese distinctions
The Muslims present in Kerala were distinguished by the Portuguese historians into two groups:
- Mouros da Terra ("Moors of the Land").
- Mouros da Arabia/Mouros de Meca ("Moors from Arabia/Mecca").
The latter, also known as the "Paradesi Muslims", in fact came from all over the Islamic world.[23][24] They included Arabs, Persians, Egyptians, Turks, Iraqis, Gujaratis, Khorasanis and Deccanis (and Melakans, Sumatrans, Bengalis).[24][25] These Muslims were not unsettled navigators but had settled in Kerala. The Malayali (and Tamil Muslim) community as a whole was considerably lower economic standing than the Paradesi Muslims.[14][26]
A Mappila is either,
- A descendant of any native convert (vast majority were (or)
- A descendant of a marriage alliance between a
Till the 16th century, as noticed by the contemporary observers, Muslims settled mainly along the coastal tracts of Kerala (especially in major Kerala ports such as Calicut (Kozhikode), Cannanore (Kannur), Tanore (Tanur), Funan (Ponnani), Cochin (Kochi) and Quilon (Kollam)).[14][26] They were traditionally elite merchants who were all part of the brisk foreign trade.[14] Until well into the European period, the Muslims were almost exclusively concentrated in the port cities.[30] Middle Eastern sailors had to rely on lighterage at most of the Kerala ports in the medieval period. This led them to enter into mutually beneficial relationships with the traditional sea fishermen community. A large majority of fishermen, once low-caste Hindus, in northern Kerala now follow Islam.[30]
Inland Growth
After and during the Portuguese period, some of the Muslim merchants were forced to turn inland (Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce.[26] Some acquired land and became landowners and some became agricultural labourers.[15] Between 16th and 20th centuries, the collective Mappila numbers increased rapidly in Malabar and Travancore and Kochi regions, chiefly by the conversion among the lower and 'outcaste' Hindu groups of the South Malabar interior.[26][31] The peak of the Muslim distribution in Kerala had gradually shifted to the interior Malabar District.[14] William Logan, comparing the Census Reports of 1871 and 1881, famously concluded that within ten years some 50,000 people from the Cheruma community (former untouchables) converted to Islam.[15] Muslim growth in the 20th century has considerably outpaced that of the general Kerala population due to higher birth rates.[12][15]
British distinctions
During the British period the so-called Mappila Outbreaks, c. 1836–1921 led the officials to make and maintain a distinction between the interior Mappilas and the 'respectable' Mappila traders of the coastal cities, such as
- Thangals (the Sayyids) – at the top were the aristrocratic Tangals (the Sayyids), who claim descent from the family of Muhammad.[32]
- Arabis - Below the Thangals are Arabis (mostly from the coastal towns), the people tracing their origin from the West Asian intermarriage with Malayali women.[32]
- Landed Aristocracy - the Arabis were followed by the landed aristocracy, centred on Cannanore, North Malabar, arguably converts from high caste Hindus.[26][12]
- Lastly, there were the converts from the Backward and Scheduled Hindu castes (such as the South Malabar interior Mappilas, Pusalars/Puyislans and the Ossans).[26][14]
History
Arrival of Islam in Kerala and Lakshadweep
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to
Islam arrived in Malabar Coast, a part of the larger Indian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from the Middle East.[35] It is generally agreed among scholars that Middle Eastern merchants frequented the Malabar Coast, which was the link between the West and ports of East Asia, even before Islam had been established in Arabia.[36][37] The western coast of India was the chief centre of Middle Eastern trading activities right from at least 4th century AD and by about 7th century AD, and several West Asian merchants had taken permanent residence in some port cities of the Malabar Coast. According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep, situated just to the west of Malabar Coast, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of Andrott.[38] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns of Kerala. Arab writers such as Masudi of Baghdad (934–955 AD), Idrisi (1154 AD), Abul-Fida (1213 AD) and al-Dimishqi (1325 AD) mentions the Muslim communities in Kerala.[14] Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Islamic community in South Asia.[39][40]
The Southwestern Coast of India was known as "Malabar" (a mixture of Tamil Malai and Arabic or Persian Barr, most probably) to the West Asians. Persian scholar al-Biruni (973–1052 AD) appears to have been the first to call the region by this name. Masudi of Baghdad (896–965 AD) speaks about the contacts between Malabar and Arabia. Authors such as Ibn Khurdad Beh (869 – 885 AD), Ahmad al Baladhuri (892 AD), and Abu Zayd of Ziraf (916 AD) mentions Malabar ports in their works.[41]
Scholar C. N. Ahammad Moulavi has mentioned that he has seen at Irikkalur near Valapattanam a tombstone bearing the date 670 AD/Hijra 50 (it seems that the tombstone is now lost).[12] Inscriptions found on a tombstone on the beach outside the Juma'h Mosque in Panthalayani Kollam record the death of one Abu ibn Udthorman in Hijra 166. The mosque itself contains two medieval royal charters, one on a block of granite built into the steps of the mosque tank and another one a loose stone lying outside, of the Kodungallur Chera king Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD). The position of the royal Chera charter (in Old Malayalam) inside the mosque suggests that the city belonged to the Muslims or included them or came into their possession at a later stage.[12][15][41] A few Umayyad (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from Kothamangalam in the eastern part of Ernakulam district.[12]
The earliest major epigraphic evidence of Muslim merchants in Kerala is a royal charter by Ayyan Atikal, the powerful governor of Kollam under the Chera king of Kodungallur. The
In keeping with Kodungallur's significant role in the spice trade, the legends of Kerala Christians, Jews and Muslims all depict this port city as the focal point for the spread of their respective faiths. According to the legend of Cheraman Perumal, or as per one version of it, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 570–632).[42][43][39][44] Perumal's proselytisers, led by Malik ibn Dinar, established a series of mosques in his kingdom and north of it, thus facilitating the expansion of Islam in Kerala.[12][41] It is assumed that the first recorded version of this legend is an Arabic manuscript of anonymous authorship known as "Qissat Shakarwati Farmad".[30] While there is no concrete historical evidence for this tradition, there can be little doubt of the early Muslim presence, and of the religious tolerance based on economic imperatives, on the Malabar Coast.[12] The account of conversion of Islam by the then Cheraman Perumal is generally considered apocryphal by mainstream scholars.[45]
First mosques of Malabar according to the Qissat Shakarwati Farmad[46]
According to the Qissat, the first mosque was built by Malik ibn Dinar in Kodungallur, while the rest of the mosques were founded by Malik ibn Habib.[23]
Location | Qadi |
---|---|
Kalankallur (Kodungallur) | Muhammad ibn Malik |
Kulam (Kollam) | Hasan ibn Malik |
Hili (Madayi) | 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Malik |
Fakanur/Makanur (Barkur) | Ibrahim ibn Malik |
Manjalur (Mangalore) | Musa ibn Malik |
Kanjarkut (Kasaragod) | Malik ibn Muhammad |
Jurfatan/Jirfatan (Cannanore) | Shahab al-Din ibn 'Umar ibn Muhammad ibn Malik |
Darmaftan (Dharmadam) | Hussayn ibn Muhammad ibn Malik al-Madani |
Fandarinah (Panthalayani) | Sa'd al-Din ibn Malik al-Madani |
Shaliyat (Chaliyam) | Zayn al-Din ibn Muhammad ibn Malik al-Madani |
It is believed that
Growth of Islam in Kerala
The Middle Eastern Muslim traders and Kerala mercantile community went through a long period of peaceful intercultural growth till the arrival of the Portuguese explorers (early 16th century).[2][12] Quilon (Kollam) in south Kerala was the southernmost of the Kerala ports associated with black pepper. It served as the region's gateway to the eastern Indian Ocean. East and Southeast Asia were the primary markets for Kerala's main export, the spices, until at least the c. 15th century. In 1403, it seems that, the Ming court first learned of the existence of Malacca from one pepper merchant, a Muslim believed to have come from the Malabar Coast.[30][2]
Moroccan traveller Ibn Battutah (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.[2] Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development.[12] The monopoly of overseas spice trade in the Arabian Sea was safe with the Arab and Persian shipping magnates from the Malabar Coast.[50] Fortunes of these merchants depended on the political patronage of the native chiefs of Calicut (Kozhikode), Cannanore (Kannur), Cochin (Kochi), and Quilon (Kollam).[12] The chiefs of these tiny kingdoms derived a great part of their revenue from taxing the spice trade.[12] A 13th century granite inscription, in Old Malayalam and Arabic, at Muchundi Mosque in Calicut mentions a donation by the king to the mosque. The inscription is the only surviving historical document recording royal endowment by a Hindu ruler, in the form of a grant, to the Muslim community in Kerala.[51][30]
By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak of Calicut (Kozhikode) as the major port city in Kerala.[30] Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of Calicut, such as that of the port commissioner, were held by Muslims. The port commissioner, the "shah bandar", represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Batttutah mentions Shah Bandars in Calicut and Quilon (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar). The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean. The famous nakhuda Mishkal who possessed ships for the trade with China, Yemen and Persia was active in Calicut in the 1340s. But unlike in some of the other regions of the Indian Ocean, in Kerala, it seems that the nakhudas did not held any positions of commercial, communal leadership.[30] The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of Arakkal, near Cannanore, who were the vassals of the Kolathiri, ruled over the Lakshadweep.[52] Zayn al-Din Makhdum (c. 1498–1581) estimates that 10% of the population of Malabar was Muslim by the midpoint of the 16th century AD.[12] Samarqandi said that in Calicut he met Muslims among the "horde of infidels", and that both kings and beggars wear the same thing but that the Muslims wear fine clothing in the Arab fashion.[53]
The Middle Eastern Muslims controlled the lucrative western arm of the overseas long-distance trade (to the ports of the
The European period
In the past, there were many Muslim traders in the ports of Malabar.[54] Following the discovery of a direct sea route from Europe to Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon.[55][56] In the first two decades of 16th century CE (c. 1500–1520), Portuguese traders were successful in reaching in agreements with the local Hindu chiefs and native Muslim (Mappila) merchants in Kerala. The major contradiction was between the Portuguese state and the Arab and Persian traders, and the Kingdom of Calicut.[23] In January 1502, the First Battle of Cannanore between the Third Portuguese Armada and Kingdom of Cochin under João da Nova and Zamorin of Kozhikode's navy marked the beginning of Portuguese conflicts in the Indian Ocean. The big Mappila traders in Cochin supplied large quantities of Southeast Asian spices to the Portuguese carracks.[23][24] These traders, along with the Syrian Christians, acted as brokers and intermediaries in the purchase of spices and in the sale of the goods brought from Europe.[24] Wealthy Muslim merchants of the Malabar Coast – including Mappilas – provided large credits to the Portuguese. These businessmen received large trading concessions, stipends and privileges in return. Interaction between the Portuguese private traders and Mappila merchants also continued to be tolerated by the Portuguese state..
Sooner rather than later, tensions arose between the wealthy Mappila traders of Cannanore and the Portuguese state. The ships of the Cannanore Mappilas again and again fell prey to the Portuguese sailors off the coast of Maldives, an important point between Southeast Asia and the Red Sea. Interests of the Portuguese casado moradores in Cochin, now planning to capture the spice trade through the Gulf of Mannar and to Sri Lanka, came into the conflict with Mappilas and the (Tamil) Maraikkayars. The narrow gulf held the key to the trade to Bengal (especially Chittagong).[23] By the 1520s, open confrontations between the Portuguese and the Mappilas, from Ramanathapuram, and Thoothukudi to northern Kerala, and to western Sri Lanka, became a common occurrence.[52][23] The Mappila traders actively worked in even in the island of Sri Lanka to oppose the Portuguese. The Portuguese maintained patrolling squadrons off the Kerala ports and continued their raids on departing Muslim fleets at Calicut and Quilon.[24] After a series of naval battles, the once powerful Mappila chief was finally forced to sue for peace with the Portuguese in 1540. The peace was soon broken, with the assassination of the qazi of Cannanore Abu Bakr Ali (1545), and the Portuguese again came down hard on the Mappilas. In the meantime, the Portuguese also entered into friendship with some of the leading Middle Eastern merchants residing on the Malabar Coast (1550). The mantle of the Muslim resistance was now taken by the Ali Rajas of Cannanore, who even forced the king of Calicut to turn against the Portuguese once again.[23] By the close of the 16th century, the Ali Rajas had emerged as figures with as much influence in Kerala as the Kolathiri (Chirakkal Raja) himself.[24]
Before the 16th century, Middle Eastern Muslims dominated the economic, social and religious affairs of Kerala Muslims. Many of these merchants fled Kerala in the course of the 16th century. The vacuum created economic opportunities for some Mappila traders, who also took on a greater role in the social and religious affairs in Malabar.[30] The Portuguese tried to establish a monopoly in the spice trade in India, using violent naval warfare.[60][61][62] Whenever a formal war was broke out between the Portuguese and the Calicut rulers, the Portuguese attacked and plundered, as the opportunity offered, the Muslim ports in Kerala. Small, lightly armed, and highly mobile vessels of the Mappilas remained a major threat to Portuguese shipping all along the west coast of India.[23][24] Mappila merchants, now controlling pepper trade in Calicut in the place of the West Asian Muslims, drew Mappila corsairs and used them to transport the spices past Portuguese blockades. Some Mappila traders even tried to outwit the Portuguese by reorienting their trade to Western Indian ports. Some chose an overland route, across the Western Ghats, for the export of spices.[30] By the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese were finally able to deal with the "Mappila challenge". Kunjali Marakkar was defeated and killed, with the help of the Calicut ruler, in c. 1600 AD. The Ali Rajas of Cannanore was given permission to send ships to even to the Red Sea, as a way of ensuring their cooperation.[23] The relentless battles led to the eventual decline of the Muslim community in Kerala, as they gradually lost control of the spice trade. The Muslims — who had been depended solely on commerce — were reduced into severe economic perplexity. Some traders turned inland (South Malabar) in search of alternate occupations to commerce. The Muslims of Kerala gradually became a society of small traders, landless labourers and poor fishermen. The once affluent, and urban, Muslim population became predominantly rural in Kerala.[12][26]
The
The
The discriminatory land tenure system — tracing its origins to pre modern Kerala — gave Muslims of Kerala (and other tenants and labourers) no access to land ownership.
Post-colonial era
The Muslim material strength — along with the extent of modern education, theological "reform", and active participation in democratic process — recovered slowly after the 1921–22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in provincial and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Mappila literacy rate was only 5% in 1931. Even by 1947, only 3% of the taluk officers in Malabar region were Muslim.[12]
The community was able to produce a number of high-regarded leaders in the following years. This included
Active participation in the state elections gave rise to a psychology of accommodation that took the Muslims into cooperate relationships with Hindus and Christians of Kerala. The Communist-lead Kerala government granted the wish of the Muslim League for the formation of a Muslim majority district in 1969.
Modern Mappila theological revisions and social reforms were initiated by Wakkom Maulavi (1873–1932) in Kollam. The Maulavi was initially influenced by Muḥammad 'Abduh and Rashīd Riḍā, and to some degree by the ideas of Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī and Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb. He notably encouraged the Mappilas to adopt English education.[12] Notable reformers such as K. M. Seethi Sahib (1898–1960), Khatib Muhammad K. M. Maulavi (1886–1964), E. K. Maulavi (1879–1974) and M. K. Haji carried his work forward to the modern age. K. M . Maulavi tried to spread the new ideas of southern Kerala to the more orthodox Malabar region. C. O. T. Kunyipakki Sahib, Maulavi Abussabah Ahmedali (died 1971), K. A. Jaleel, C. N. Ahmad Moulavi, and K. O. Ayesha Bai were other prominent social and political reformers of the 20th century. An organisation known as the Muslim Educational Society (MES), founded in 1964 by P. K. Abdul Ghafoor and friends, also played a role in the development of the community. Aikya Sangham (founded in 1922, Kodungallur) and Farook College (founded 1948) also promoted the higher education among the Muslims.[12]
A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in the
Ever since in the Indian Independence from the British in 1947, the overwhelming majority of Muslims in former Malabar District have supported the Muslim League. In south Kerala, the community generally supported Indian National Congress and in the north Kerala a small proportion vote Communist Left. Politically, the Muslims in Kerala have exhibited more unanimity than any other major communities in modern Kerala.[26]
Theological orientations/denominations
Most of the Muslims of Kerala follow the traditional
The Sunnis referred here are identified by their conventional beliefs and practices and adherence to the
- Sunnī Islam[79]
- two groups(majority of traditional Sunnis in Kerala are Shafiʽis).
- Ḥanafī
- Salafists (the Mujahids)—with different splinter factions (with varying degrees of puritanism).[79] Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen (K. N. M) is the largest Mujahid organisation in Kerala.[79]
- Islamists (the Jama'at-i-Islami India)—representing political Islam in Kerala.[79]
- Shīiah Islam
Culture
Devotion and Festivals
Because of the lack of ulema, before 1900 Islam among the majority of Mappilas, especially those converts from lower Hindu castes, was highly syncretic and was a mixture of Islamic and pre-Islamic practices, and today it retains many such practices. For instance, Mappilas often worshipped holy men (auliya) or matrys (shaheed) at their tombs (which should be distinguished from praying with the intercession of a vali). Still today it retains some of these practices. These saints were taken out in procession during festivals called nercha, which were organised along the lines of festivals for folk deities incorporating similar music and customs, such as the varavu (procession). In the later 20th century, many reformers considered these festivals to be 'un-Islamic' but they are still important parts of religious life for all communities in the region.[31]
Mappila literature
Mappila Songs/Poems is a famous folklore tradition emerged in c. 16th century. The ballads are compiled in complex blend of Malayalam/Tamil and Arabic, Persian/Urdu in a modified Arabic script.[80] Mappila songs have a distinct cultural identity, as they sound a mix of the ethos and culture of Dravidian South India as well as West Asia. They deal with themes such as romance, satire, religion, and politics. Moyinkutty Vaidyar (1875–91) is generally considered as the poet laureate of Mappila Songs.[12]
As the modern Mappila literature developed after the 1921–22 Uprising, religious publications dominated the field.[12]
Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994), followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Mappila authors of the modern age. Mappila periodical literature and newspaper dailies — all in Malayalam — are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as "Chandrika", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Mappila community.[12]
Mappila folk arts
- Oppana was a popular form of social entertainment among the Muslims of Kerala. It is generally presented by women numbering about fifteen including musicians, as a part of wedding ceremonies a day before the wedding day. The bride, dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments, is the chief spectator; she sits on a peetham, around which the singing and dancing take place. While women sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride in steps. Two or three girls begin the songs and the rest join the chorus.
- Kolkkali was a popular dance form among the Muslims of Kerala. It is played in group of 12 people with two sticks, similar to the Dandiya dance of Gujarat.
- Duff Muttu[81] (also called Dubh Muttu) was an art form prevalent among Muslims of Kerala, using the traditional duff, or daf, also known as tappitta. Participants dance to the rhythm as they beat the duff.
- Mappila Ramayan[82] ballad singing is prevalent amongst people who practice folkloric traditions in the Mappila community of Wayanad. Unlike usual religious interpretations, Mappila Ramayan or Lamayan[83] evokes cultural memories and is set in Malabar Muslim milieu. Their Ramayan ballards are usually laced with everyday activities of the community and embellished with Urdu terms.
Mappila Cuisine
The Mappila cuisine is a blend of traditional
The
The snacks include
-
Anonymous 16th-century Portuguese illustration from Códice Casanatense, depicting Kerala Muslims ("Mouros Malabares")
-
Mappilas captured after a battle withMalabar Rebellion.
-
Mappila prisoners of 1921–22 Uprising go to trial at Calicut
-
Mappila man and woman from Kerala
-
Mappila man in Malabar (1926–1933)
-
Ali Musliyar, the rebel leader of the Mappila Uprising (1921–22), shortly before his execution in Coimbatore.
-
Mappila women in their traditional attire (1904)
-
Muslims of Ponnani (1930–37)
See also
- Arabi Malayalam
- Arabi Malayalam script
- Beary Muslims
- Beary language
- Marakkars
- Tamil Muslims
- Sri Lankan Moors
- Nasrani Mappila
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Further reading
- S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar (1942), Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language, University of Madras, retrieved 3 December 2020 (The English translation of the historic work Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written about the society of Kerala by Zainuddin Makhdoom II during sixteenth century CE)
External links