Turkic migration

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The Turkic migrations were the spread of

Seljuq dynasty settled in Anatolia starting in the 11th century, resulting in permanent Turkic settlement and presence there. Modern nations with large Turkic populations include Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, and Turkic populations also exist within other nations, such as Chuvashia, Bashkortostan, Tatarstan and the Sakha Republic of Siberia in Russia, Northern Cyprus, the Crimean Tatars, the Kazakhs in Mongolia, the Uyghurs in China, and the Azeris in Iran
.

Origin theories

The Hun Empire in about 450, according to European authors. The star marks where the nomadic Huns chose to encamp, the Hungarian plain, a sort of enclave of steppe country in a mountainous region.

Proposals for the homeland of the Turkic peoples and their language are far-ranging, from the

heterogeneous group and that the Turkification of Eurasia was a result of language diffusion, not a migration of a homogeneous population.[7]

Debate about the origins of the Huns

Main article: Huns
Asia in 200 BC, showing the early Xiongnu state and its neighbors

The Huns have often been considered a people with Turkic origins and/or associated with the

Indo-Iranian people, the Alans.[9]
After entering Europe, the Huns incorporated members of other peoples, such as the Alans, Slavs and Goths.

None or few of the Huns were literate (judging by the accounts of contemporaries such as

Pecheneg -tzour and Kirghiz -čoro. Some Turkic ethnonyms had cognate endings, such as Utigur, Onogur, and Ultingir. However, other personal names among the Huns appear to have had Iranian, Germanic, mixed or unknown origins.[11]

History

Göktürk wave (5th-8th c.)

The First Turkic Khaganate in 568
Tang campaigns against the Western Turks
Main article: Göktürks

Tiele and Turk

The earliest Turks mentioned in textual sources are the Xinli (薪犁), Gekun (鬲昆),[12] and Tiele (鐵勒), the last of which possibly transcribes endonym *Tegreg '[People of the] Carts',[13] recorded by the Chinese in the 6th century. According to the New Book of Tang, Tiele may be a mistaken form of Chile/Gaoche,[14] who themselves may be related to Xiongnu and Dingling.[15][16] Many scholars believe the Di, Dili, Dingling, and later Tujue mentioned in textual sources are all just Chinese transcriptions of the same Turkic word türk,[17] yet Golden proposes that Tujue transcribed *Türküt while Dili, Dingling, Chile, Tele, & Tiele transcribed *Tegreg.[18]

The first reference to Türk or Türküt appears in 6th-century Chinese sources as the transcription Tūjué (突厥). The earliest evidence of Turkic languages and the use of Turk as an endonym comes from the Orkhon inscriptions of the Göktürks (English: 'Celestial Turks') in the early 8th century. Many groups speaking Turkic languages never adopted the name Turk for their own identity. Among the peoples that came under Göktürk dominance and adopted its political culture and lingua-franca, the name Turk was not always the preferred identity. Turk, therefore, did not apply to all Turkic peoples at the time, but only referred to the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, while the Western Turkic Khaganate and Tiele used their own tribal names. Of the Tiele, the Book of Sui mentions only tribes which were not part a part of the First Turkic Khaganate.[19] There was not a unified expansion of Turkic tribes. Peripheral Turkic peoples in the Göktürk Empire like the Bulgars and even central ones like the Oghuz and Karluks migrated autonomously with migrating traders, soldiers and townspeople.

The precise date of the initial expansion from the early homeland remains unknown. The first state known as Turk, giving its name to the many states and peoples afterward, was that of the Göktürks (gök 'blue' or 'celestial', however in this context

Rouran seeking inclusion in their confederacy and protection.[20] His tribe consisted of famed metalsmiths and was granted land near a mountain quarry that looked like a helmet, from which they got the name Turk/Tujue 突厥.[21][22][23] In 546, the leader of the Ashina, Bumin, aided the Rouran in putting down a Tiele revolt. Bumin requested a Rouran princess for his service but was denied, after which he declared independence. In 551, Bumin declared himself Khagan and married Princess Changle from Western Wei. He then dealt a serious blow to the Rouran Khaganate the next year, but died soon after. His sons, Issik Qaghan and Muqan Qaghan, continued to wage war on the Rouran, finishing them off in 554. By 568, their territory had reached the edges of the Byzantine Empire, where the Avars, possibly related to the Rouran in some fashion, escaped.[24] In 581, Taspar Qaghan died and the khaganate entered a civil war that resulted in two separate Turkic factions. The Eastern Khaganate was defeated by the Tang dynasty in 630 while the Western Khaganate fell to the Tang in 657. In 682, Ilterish Qaghan rebelled against the Tang and founded the Second Turkic Khaganate, which fell to the Uyghurs in 744.[25]

Bulgar

The migration of the Bulgars after the fall of Old Great Bulgaria in the 7th century.
The Pontic–Caspian steppe around 650 AD

The

Avars, who they revolted against in 635 under the leadership of Kubrat. Prior to this, Kubrat had made an alliance with Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire. He was baptized in 619. Kubrat died in the 660s and his territory, Old Great Bulgaria
, was divided between his five sons.

One of them, the elder brother Batbayan stayed and was subjugated by the Khazars.

Another one,

Volga River. He is remembered as the founder of Volga Bulgaria.[28][29][30]

Another of the sons named

Thessalonika
by 679.

Matese mountains of southern Italy.[31]

Asparuh was the first ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire.[32], the first state that the Roman empire recognised in the Balkans and the first time it legally surrendered claims to part of its Balkan dominions.[33] In 680 the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV (r. 668–685), having recently defeated the Arabs, led an expedition at the head of a huge army and fleet to drive off the Bulgars but suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of Asparuh at Onglos, a swampy region in or around the Danube Delta where the Bulgars had set a fortified camp.[33][34] The Bulgars advanced south, crossed the Balkan Mountains and invaded Thrace.[35] In 681, the Byzantines were compelled to sign a humiliating peace treaty, forcing them to acknowledge Bulgaria as an independent state, to cede the territories to the north of the Balkan Mountains and to pay an annual tribute.[33][36]

Khazar

The origin of the Khazars is unclear. According to

Sabirs in Turkic. Dunlop (1954) suggests a relation to Uyghurs, some of whom might have migrated west before 555 CE.[37] Because imperial Chinese sources linked Khazars to Göktürks,[38] others believe the Khazars were founded by Irbis Seguy, the penultimate ruler of the Western Turkic Khaganate, since the Hudud al-'Alam says the Khazar king descended from the Ansa, which has been interpreted as Ashina. By the mid-7th century, the Khazars were located in the North Caucasus, where they fought against the Umayyads constantly.[39]

Kyrgyz

According to the

Tibetans, Arabs, and Karluks. From 820 onward, the Kyrgyz were constantly at war with the Uyghurs, until 840, when the Uyghur Khaganate was dismantled. Although the Kyrgyz managed to occupy some of the Uyghur lands, they had no great effect on the geopolitical configuration around them. The Chinese paid no heed to them other than to award them with some titles and reasoned that since the Uyghurs were no longer in power, there was no reason to maintain relations with the Kyrgyz any longer. The Kyrgyz themselves seemed to lack any interest in occupying the former territory of the Uyghurs in the east. By 924, the Khitans had occupied Otuken in the territory of the former Uyghur Khaganate.[45]

Turgesh

In 699, the

Suluk re-established themselves in Zhetysu. Suluk was killed by one of his subordinates in 737 after he was defeated by the Umayyads. The Tang took advantage of the situation to invade Turgesh territory and took the city of Suyab. In the 760s, the Karluks drove out the Turgesh.[46]

Karluk

Kara-Khanid Khanate in 1006

The Karluks

Chigils, and Yagmas formed the Kara-Khanid Khanate in the 9th century, but it's unclear whether the leadership of the new polity fell to the Karluks or the Yagmas.[51]

Remarks
  1. ^ Their name qarluğ ~ *qarluq is often derived from Proto-Turkic *qar,[47] meaning "snow".[48] Marcel Erdal critiques that suggestion as folk-etymology and proposes that "the name is likely to be an exonym, formed as an -(O)k derivate from the verb kar-ıl- ‘to mingle (intr.)’ discussed in Erdal (1991: 662); it would thus have signified ‘the mingled ones’, presumably because the tribe evolved from the mingling of discrete groups," as already suggested by Doerfer.[49]

Pecheneg

Territories of the Pechenegs c. 1030

Paul Pelliot (apud Pritsak, 1975) first proposed that the 7th century Chinese historical Book of Sui preserved the earliest record on the Pechenegs; the book mentioned a people named Bĕirù (北褥; LMC: *puǝ̌k-rjwk < EMC: *pǝk-ŋuawk), who had settled near the Ēnqū (恩屈; LMC: *ʔən-kʰyt < EMC: *ʔən-kʰut < *On[o]gur) and Alan (阿蘭; MC: *ʔa-lan) peoples (identified as Onogurs and Alans, respectively), to the east of Fulin (拂菻) (or the

Pontic steppes. In the 10th century, they had substantial interactions with the Byzantine Empire, who depended on them for keeping control of their neighbors. Byzantine and Muslim sources confirm that the Pechenegs had a leader, but the position was not passed down from father to son. In the 10th century, the Pechenegs came into military conflict with the Rus', and in the early 11th century, military conflict with the Oghuz Turks drove them further west across the Danube into Byzantine territory.[58]

Uyghur wave (8th-9th c.)

Oghuz

The Oghuz Yabgu State c.750

The Oghuz Turks take their name from the Turkic word for 'clan', 'tribe', or 'kinship'. As such, Oghuz is a common appellation for many Turkic groups, such as the

Karakhanids.[60] Zuev (1960) connects the Oghuzes to the Western Turkic tribe 姑蘇 Gūsū (< MC *kuo-suo) mentioned in the Chinese encyclopedia Tongdian, as well as the 三屈 'Three Qu' (< MC *k(h)ɨut̚) in the 8th-century Taibo Yinjing (太白陰經) 'Venus's Secret Classic' and the three Ġuz hordes mentioned in Al-Masudi's Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems.[61]

The Oghuz migration westward began with the fall of the Second Turkic Khaganate and the rise of the Uyghur Khaganate in 744. Under the Uyghur rule, the Oghuz leader obtained the title of "right

yabgu". When they appeared in Muslim textual sources in the 9th century, they were described using the same title. The Oghuz fought a series of wars with the Pechenegs, Khalaj, Charuk, and Khazars for the steppes, emerging victorious and establishing the Oghuz Yabgu State. The Oghuz were in constant conflict with the Pechenegs and Khazars throughout the 10th century, as recorded by Muslim texts, but they also cooperated at times. In one instance, the Khazars hired the Oghuz to fight off an attack by the Alans. In 965, the Oghuz took part in a Rus' attack on the Khazars and in 985 they joined the Rus' again in attacking Volga Bulgaria. The Yabgu State of the Oghuz did not have a central leadership and there is no evidence of the Yabgu acting as a spokesman for the entire Oghuz people. By the 10th century, some Oghuz had settled in towns and converted to Islam, although many tribes still followed Tengrism.[62]

Cuman Kipchak

Cuman–Kipchak confederation in Eurasia circa 1200

The relationship and origins of the

Kankalis.[63] The Kipchaks might have been mentioned as Turk-Kibchak in the 8th century Moyun Chur inscription, though this was uncertain as only the letters 𐰲𐰴 (čq *čaq?) were readable on the damaged inscription; they were first definitely mentioned in the 9th century by Ibn Khordadbeh, who placed them next to the Toquz Oghuz, while Al-Biruni claimed that the Qun were further east of them. Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi writes that the Qun came from the lands of Cathay which they fled from in fear of the Khitans. This may have been what the Armenian chronicler Matthew of Edessa was referring to when he recounted Pale Ones being driven out by the people of the Snakes,[64] whom Golden identified as a Mongolic or para-Mongolic people known as Qay in Arabic, Tatabï in Old Turkic, and Kumo Xi in Chinese language.[65]

Kimek

In the mid-9th century, the

Bayandur, Kipchaks, Lanikaz, and Ajlad;[66] and whose leader held the title of "Shad Tutuk", derived from the Middle Chinese military title tuo-tuok 都督 'military governor' (> standard Chinese: dūdū), but started using the title of "Yabgu" instead when remnants of the Uyghur Khaganate fled to them in 840. By the early 10th century, the Kimeks bordered the Oghuz to the south, where the Ural formed the boundary. According to the Hudud al-'Alam, written in the 10th century, the Kimeks used the title of Khagan. They were the most removed from the sedentary civilization of all the Turks and had only one town within their territory. In the 11th century, the Kimeks were displaced by the Cumans.[67]

Later Turkic peoples

Uyghur Khaganate in geopolitical context c. AD 800
Pontic steppes
, c. 1015

Later Turkic peoples include the Khazars,

Turkmens: either Karluks (mainly 8th century) or Oghuz Turks, Uyghurs, Yenisei Kyrgyz, Pechenegs, Cumans-Kipchaks, etc. As these peoples were founding states in the area between Mongolia and Transoxiana, they came into contact with Muslims, and most gradually adopted Islam. However, most groups of Turkic people who belonged to other religions, including Christians, Judaists, Buddhists, Manichaeans, and Zoroastrians[citation needed] continued to exist in smaller numbers, up until the Mongol Invasions
of Inner and Central Asia..

Seljuk Turks
from Central Asia migrated over large areas of Anatolia.

Turkmens

While the Karakhanid state remained in this territory until its conquest by Genghis Khan, the Turkmen group of tribes was formed around the core of the Karluks and the more westward Oghuzes.[68] The current majority view for the etymology of the name is that it comes from Türk and the Turkic emphasizing suffix -men, meaning 'most Turkish of the Turks' or 'pure-blooded Turks.'[69][70] Thus, the ethnic consciousness among some, but not all Turkic tribes as "Turkmens" in the Islamic era came long after the fall of the non-Muslim Gokturk (and Eastern and Western) Khanates.

Turkic soldiers in the army of the

Seljuk dynasty
, and eventually captured the territories of the Abbasid dynasty and the Byzantine Empire.

Meanwhile, the Kyrgyz and Uyghurs were struggling with one another and with the Chinese Empire. The Kyrgyz people ultimately settled in the region now referred to as

Kypchaks in what is now Southern Russia, following the westward sweep of the Mongols in the 13th century. Other Bulgars settled in Europe in the seventh and eighth centuries, but were assimilated by the Slavs, giving the name to the Bulgarians and the Slavic Bulgarian language
.

It was under

Azerbaijani nation
.

By early modern times, the name Turkestan has several definitions:

  1. land of sedentary Turkic-speaking townspeople that have been subjects of the Central Asian
    Dzungars
    . Turkic peoples of the Kypchak branch, i.e. Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, are not normally considered Turkestanis but are also populous (as pastoralists) in many parts of Turkestan.
  2. a specific district governed by a 17th-century Kazakh Khan, in modern-day Kazakhstan, which were more sedentary than other Kazakh areas, and were populated by towns-dwelling Sarts

The Salars are desended from Turkmen who migrated from Central Asia and settled in a Tibetan area of Qinghai under Ming Chinese rule. The Salar ethnicity formed and underwent ethnogenesis from a process of male Turkmen migrants from Central Asia marrying Amdo Tibetan women during the early Ming dynasty.[71][72][73][74]

See also

References

Citations

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Sources

External links
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