User:Orange Suede Sofa/sandbox/Hanford Site
The Hanford Site is a mostly decommissioned
During the
The weapons production reactors were decommissioned at the end of the Cold War, but the decades of manufacturing left behind 53 million US gallons (200,000 m3) of
The Hanford site represents two-thirds of the nation's high-level radioactive waste by volume.[8] Today, Hanford is the most contaminated nuclear site in the United States[9][10] and is the focus of the nation's largest environmental cleanup.[2] While most of the current activity at the site is related to the cleanup project, Hanford also hosts a commercial nuclear power plant, the Columbia Generating Station, and various centers for scientific research and development, such as the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and the LIGO Hanford Observatory.
Geography
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Hanford_Reach_National_Monument.png/220px-Hanford_Reach_National_Monument.png)
The Hanford Site occupies 586 square miles (1,518 km2) in
The site is bordered on the southeast by the Tri-Cities, a metropolitan area composed of Richland, Kennewick, Pasco, and smaller communities, and home to over 230,000 residents. Hanford is a primary economic base for these cities.[15]
Early history
The confluence of the
Manhattan Project
During
Site selection
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Pic_hanford_highschool.jpg/220px-Pic_hanford_highschool.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Hanford_High_School.jpg/220px-Hanford_High_School.jpg)
In September 1942, the Army Corps of Engineers placed the newly formed Manhattan Project under the command of General Leslie R. Groves, charging him with the construction of industrial-size plants for manufacturing plutonium and uranium.[12] Groves recruited the DuPont Company to be the prime contractor for the construction of the plutonium production complex. DuPont recommended that it be located far away from the existing uranium production facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The ideal site was described by these criteria:[20]
- A large and remote tract of land
- A "hazardous manufacturing area" of at least 12 by 16 miles (19 by 26 km)
- Space for laboratory facilities at least 8 miles (13 km) from the nearest reactor or separations plant
- No towns of more than 1,000 people closer than 20 miles (32 km) from the hazardous rectangle
- No main highway, railway, or employee village closer than 10 miles (16 km) from the hazardous rectangle
- A clean and abundant water supply
- A large electric power supply
- Ground that could bear heavy loads.
In December 1942, Groves dispatched his assistant Colonel Franklin T. Matthias and DuPont engineers to scout potential sites. Matthias reported that Hanford was "ideal in virtually all respects," except for the farming towns of White Bluffs and Hanford.[21] General Groves visited the site in January and established the Hanford Engineer Works, codenamed "Site W". The federal government quickly acquired the land under its eminent domain authority and relocated some 1,500 residents of Hanford, White Bluffs, and nearby settlements, as well as the Wanapum and other tribes using the area.[22] DuPont advertised for workers in newspapers for an unspecified "war construction project" in southeastern Washington, offering "attractive scale of wages" and living facilities.[23] Nearly 50,000 workers lived in a construction camp near the old Hanford townsite, while administrators and engineers lived in the government town established at Richland Village.[24] Construction of the nuclear facilities proceeded rapidly. Before the end of the war in August 1945, the HEW built 554 buildings at Hanford, including three nuclear reactors (105-B, 105-D, and 105-F) and three plutonium processing canyons (221-T, 221-B, and 221-U), each 250 meters (820 ft) long.
To receive the radioactive wastes from the chemical separations process, the HEW built "tank farms" consisting of 64 single-shell underground waste tanks (241-B, 241-C, 241-T, and 241-U).[25] The project required 386 miles (621 km) of roads, 158 miles (254 km) of railway, and four electrical substations. The HEW used 780,000 cubic yards (600,000 m³) of concrete and 40,000 short tons (36,000 t) of structural steel and consumed $230 million between 1943 and 1946.[26]
Plutonium production
The B Reactor (105-B) at Hanford was the first large-scale plutonium production reactor in the world. It was designed and built by DuPont based on an experimental design by
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Hanford_B_Reactor.jpg/220px-Hanford_B_Reactor.jpg)
Construction on B Reactor began in August 1943 and was completed just over a year later, on September 13, 1944. The reactor went
Two identical reactors, D Reactor and F reactor, came online in December 1944 and February 1945, respectively. By April 1945, shipments of plutonium were headed to Los Alamos every five days, and Hanford soon provided enough material for the bombs tested at Trinity and dropped over Nagasaki.[31] Throughout this period, the Manhattan Project maintained a top secret classification. Until news arrived of the bomb dropped on Hiroshima, fewer than one percent of Hanford's workers knew they were working on a nuclear weapons project.[32] General Groves noted in his memoirs that "We made certain that each member of the project thoroughly understood his part in the total effort; that, and nothing more."[33]
Technological innovations
In the short time frame of the Manhattan Project, Hanford engineers produced many significant technological advances. As no one had ever built an industrial-scale nuclear reactor before, scientists were unsure how much heat would be generated by fission during normal operations. Seeking the greatest possible production while maintaining an adequate safety margin, DuPont engineers installed ammonia-based refrigeration systems with the D and F reactors to further chill the river water before its use as reactor coolant.[34]
Another difficulty the engineers struggled with was how to deal with radioactive contamination. Once the canyons began processing irradiated slugs, the machinery would become so radioactive that it would be unsafe for humans ever to come in contact with it. The engineers therefore had to devise methods to allow for the replacement of any component via remote control. They came up with a modular cell concept, which allowed major components to be removed and replaced by an operator sitting in a heavily shielded overhead crane. This method required early practical application of two technologies that later gained widespread use: Teflon, used as a gasket material, and closed-circuit television, used to give the crane operator a better view of the process.[35]
Cold War expansion
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Hanford_D_Reactor.jpg/220px-Hanford_D_Reactor.jpg)
In September 1946, the General Electric Company assumed management of the Hanford Works under the supervision of the newly created Atomic Energy Commission. As the Cold War began, the United States faced a new strategic threat in the rise of the Soviet nuclear weapons program. In August 1947, the Hanford Works announced funding for the construction of two new weapons reactors and research leading to the development of a new chemical separations process. With this announcement, Hanford entered a new phase of expansion.[36]
By 1963, the Hanford Site was home to nine nuclear reactors along the Columbia River, five reprocessing plants on the central plateau, and more than 900 support buildings and radiological laboratories around the site.[2] Extensive modifications and upgrades were made to the original three World War II reactors, and a total of 177 underground waste tanks were built.[2] Hanford was at its peak production from 1956 to 1965. Over the entire 40 years of operations, the site produced about 63 short tons (57 t) of plutonium, supplying the majority of the 60,000 weapons in the U.S. arsenal.[2][3] Uranium-233 was also produced.[37][38][39][40]
Decommissioning
Most of the reactors were shut down between 1964 and 1971, with an average individual life span of 22 years. The last reactor,
Reactor name | Start-up date | Shutdown date | Initial power (MWt) |
Final power (MWt) |
---|---|---|---|---|
B Reactor | Sep 1944 | Feb 1968 | 250 | 2210 |
D Reactor | Dec 1944 | Jun 1967 | 250 | 2165 |
F Reactor | Feb 1945 | Jun 1965 | 250 | 2040 |
H Reactor | Oct 1949 | Apr 1965 | 400 | 2140 |
DR ("D Replacement") Reactor | Oct 1950 | Dec 1964 | 250 | 2015 |
C Reactor | Nov 1952 | Apr 1969 | 650 | 2500 |
KW ("K West") Reactor | Jan 1955 | Feb 1970 | 1800 | 4400 |
KE ("K East") Reactor | Apr 1955 | Jan 1971 | 1800 | 4400 |
N Reactor | Dec 1963 | Jan 1987 | 4000 | 4000 |
Later operations
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Hanford_Site_sign.jpg/220px-Hanford_Site_sign.jpg)
The United States Department of Energy assumed control of the Hanford Site in 1977. Although uranium enrichment and plutonium breeding were slowly phased out, the nuclear legacy left an indelible mark on the Tri-Cities. Since World War II, the area had developed from a small farming community to a booming "Atomic Frontier" to a powerhouse of the nuclear-industrial complex.[48] Decades of federal investment created a community of highly skilled scientists and engineers. As a result of this concentration of specialized skills, the Hanford Site was able to diversify its operations to include scientific research, test facilities, and commercial nuclear power production.
Some of the facilities currently located at the Hanford Site:
- The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, owned by the Department of Energy and operated by Battelle Memorial Institute
- The Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF), a national research facility in operation from 1980 to 1992 (its last fuel was removed in 2008[49])
- LIGO's Hanford Observatory, an interferometer searching for gravitational waves
- Columbia Generating Station, a commercial nuclear power plant operated by Energy Northwest.
- A US Navy nuclear submarine reactor dry storage site contains sealed reactor sections of 114 US Navy submarines (as of 2008).[50]
The Department of Energy and its contractors offer tours of the site. Sixty public tours, each five hours long, were planned for 2009. The tours are free, require advance reservation via the department's web site, and are limited to U.S. citizens at least 18 years of age.[51]
Environmental concerns
Hanford Site | |
---|---|
Superfund site | |
![]() The Hanford Reach of the Columbia River, where radioactivity was released from 1944 to 1971 | |
Information | |
Contaminants | radioactive waste |
Responsible parties | United States Department of Energy |
Progress | |
Construction completed | 1971 |
List of Superfund sites |
A huge volume of water from the Columbia River was required to dissipate the heat produced by Hanford's nuclear reactors. From 1944 to 1971, pump systems drew cooling water from the river and, after treating this water for use by the reactors, returned it to the river. Before being released back into the river, the used water was held in large tanks known as retention basin for up to six hours. Longer-lived isotopes were not affected by this retention, and several terabecquerels entered the river every day. These releases were kept secret by the federal government.[4] Radiation was later measured downstream as far west as the Washington and Oregon coasts.[52]
The plutonium separation process also resulted in the release of radioactive isotopes into the air, which were carried by the wind throughout southeastern Washington and into parts of
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Salmon_at_Hanford_Site.jpg/220px-Salmon_at_Hanford_Site.jpg)
Beginning in the 1960s, scientists with the U.S. Public Health Service published reports about radioactivity released from Hanford, and there were protests from the health departments of Oregon and Washington. In response to an article in the Spokane Spokesman Review in September 1985, the Department of Energy announced its intent to declassify environmental records and, in February 1986, released to the public 19,000 pages of previously unavailable historical documents about Hanford's operations.[4] The Washington State Department of Health collaborated with the citizen-led Hanford Health Information Network (HHIN) to publicize data about the health effects of Hanford's operations. HHIN reports concluded that residents who lived downwind from Hanford or who used the Columbia River downstream were exposed to elevated doses of radiation that placed them at increased risk for various cancers and other diseases.[4] A mass tort lawsuit brought by two thousand Hanford downwinders against the federal government has been in the court system for many years.[55] The first six plaintiffs went to trial in 2005, in a bellwether trial to test the legal issues applying to the remaining plaintiffs in the suit.[56]
On February 15, 2013, Governor Jay Inslee announced a tank storing radioactive waste at the site is leaking liquids on average of 150 to 300 gallons per year. He stressed that the leak poses no immediate heath risk to the public, but said that fact should not be an excuse for not doing anything.[57] On February 22, 2013, the Governor stated that "6 more tanks at Hanford site" than previously thought were "leaking radioactive waste"[58] As of 2013, there are 177 tanks at Hanford (149 having a single shell). Older single shell tanks were initially used for storing radioactive liquid waste. The tanks were designed to last 20 years. By 2005, some liquid waste was transferred from single shell tanks to (safer) double shell tanks. However, a substantial amount of residue remains in the older single shell tanks with one containing an estimated 447,000 gallons of radioactive sludge, for example. It is believed that up to six of these "empty" tanks are leaking. Two tanks are reportedly leaking at a rate of 300 gallons (1,136 liters) per annum each, while the remaining four tanks are leaking at a rate of 15 gallons (57 liters) per year each.[59][60]
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The Hanford Tank Farms, where the bulk of the waste generated from the processing facilities was stored, was classified as a Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) facility by the "Tri-parties," the federal government represented by DOE and EPA, and the state of Washington. The state made and won the case that the tank farms would be managed under the RCRA, which the state was authorized to implement by the EPA. However, not enough was or is known about the waste in these tanks to manage it safely under RCRA. RCRA's foundation is accurate characterization of waste and this knowledge does not exist to the level necessary to meet RCRA and OSHA standards (10 CFR 461?). This is due to the use of level A or B Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) at tank farms. The use of high level PPE is either not allowed or at least not appropriate for an RCRA facility under OSHA. This high level of PPE is due to the radiolytic format of ofiofofon of a great variety of toxic gases (the presence of which is hard to predict), which are occasionally released at levels that have caused injury and possibly the death of workers. The state of Washington ruled in favor of workers injured by unmonitored and unknown emissions from tank waste. The state maintains no presence monitoring safety due to emissions on the site. The issuance of state CleanAir Act (CAA) permits was originally used to protect workers, but it was not sufficient; even colocated workers not associated with specific waste processes or treatments applied to the waste (e.g., evaporation, addition of chemicals, mixing, and interstitial liquoid removal) have suffered unacknowledged injuries over the years. More recently, this includes what independent physicians have called "toxic encephalopathy", better known as "mad hatter's disease". This is possibly due to the emissions of dimthyl mercury, a high vapor pressure form of mercury, and "mixed organic vapors" of which 1000's have been identified. Another RCRA related aspect of the design, construction, and operation of tanks systems requiring secondary containment to facilitate the detection of "any" leak to the environment is the inability of most of these systems, either at the Wase Treatment Plant, or at Tank farms (includinng tank "systems,"including associated pipinh and other apputenance to detect small leaks, or "drip leaks". The result given the non-newtonian nature and high solids saturation of the waste is that a small leak may not be detected until substantial damage has been done to the secondary liner or pipe, thus leaving leaks to the environment undetected by present-day operating practices or equipment. Such systems have been deemed obsolete by many states where secondary containment testing is required, or only systems that can detect either a very tiny leak,such as a drip, or that can detect either the failure of the primary or secondary containment systems (e.g., pressure maintained on the annulus).
Cleanup era
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Hanford_site_tank_interior.jpg/220px-Hanford_site_tank_interior.jpg)
On June 25, 1988, the Hanford site was divided into four areas and proposed for inclusion on the
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Spent_nuclear_fuel_hanford.jpg/220px-Spent_nuclear_fuel_hanford.jpg)
While major releases of radioactive material ended with the reactor shutdown in the 1970s, parts of the Hanford Site remain heavily contaminated. Many of the most dangerous wastes are contained, but there are concerns about contaminated groundwater headed toward the Columbia River. There are also continued concerns about workers' health and safety.[64]
The most significant challenge at Hanford is stabilizing the 53 million U.S. gallons (204,000 m3) of high-level radioactive waste stored in 177 underground tanks. About a third of these tanks have leaked waste into the soil and groundwater.[66] As of 2008[update], most of the liquid waste has been transferred to more secure double-shelled tanks; however, 2.8 million U.S. gallons (10,600 m3) of liquid waste, together with 27 million U.S. gallons (100,000 m3) of salt cake and sludge, remains in the single-shelled tanks.[5] That waste was originally scheduled to be removed by 2018. The revised deadline is 2040.[64] Nearby aquifers contain an estimated 270 billion U.S. gallons (1 billion m3) of contaminated groundwater as a result of the leaks.[67] As of 2008[update], 1 million U.S. gallons (4,000 m3) of highly radioactive waste is traveling through the groundwater toward the Columbia River. This waste is expected to reach the river in 12 to 50 years if cleanup does not proceed on schedule.[5] The site also includes 25 million cubic feet (710,000 m3) of solid radioactive waste.[67]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Handfor_ERDF_Grand_Opening.jpg/220px-Handfor_ERDF_Grand_Opening.jpg)
Under the Tri-Party Agreement, lower-level hazardous wastes are buried in huge lined pits that will be sealed and monitored with sophisticated instruments for many years. Disposal of plutonium and other high-level wastes is a more difficult problem that continues to be a subject of intense debate. As an example, plutonium has a
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/40px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png)
A sample of purified plutonium was uncovered inside a safe in a waste trench at the site during excavations from 2004 to 2007, and has been dated to approximately the 1940s, making it the second-oldest sample of purified plutonium known to exist. Analyses published in 2009 concluded that the sample originated at Oak Ridge, and was one of several sent to Hanford for optimisation tests of the T-Plant until Hanford could produce its own plutonium. Documents refer to such a sample, belonging to "Watt's group", which was disposed of in its safe when a radiation leak was suspected.[75][76]
Some of the radioactive waste at Hanford was supposed to be stored in the planned Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository, but after that project was cancelled due to the opposition of citizens of Nevada, Washington State sued. They were joined by South Carolina. Their first suit was dismissed, and second suits have been filed.
Reports of a radioactive leak in 2013, along with $40 billion already spent to clean up, and an estimated $115 billion more required.[77]
Hanford organizations
The Hanford site operations were initially directed by the
Year Begun | Month | Organization | Responsibility | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|
1942 | December 12 | U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
|
Lead U.S. Government entity | Held role until January 1, 1947 |
1942 | December 12 | E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company (DuPont) | All site activities | Initial Hanford site contractor |
1946 | September 1 | General Electric Company (GE) | All site activities | Replaced DuPont |
1947 | January 1 | Atomic Energy Commission | Lead U.S. Government entity | Replaced U.S. Army Corps of Engineers |
1953 | May 15 | Vitro Engineers | Hanford Engineering Services | Assumed GEs new facility design role |
1953 | June 1 | J.A. Jones Construction | Hanford Construction Services | Assumed GEs construction role |
1965 | January 1 | U.S. Testing | Environmental & bioassay testing | Assumed GEs environmental and bioassay testing role |
1965 | January 4 | Battelle Memorial Institute | Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL) | Assumed GE's laboratory operations - subsequently renamed Pacific Northwest National Laboratory |
1965 | July 1 | Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC) | Computer services | New scope |
1965 | August 1 | Hanford Occupational Health Foundation | Industrial Medicine | Assumed GE's industrial medicine role |
1965 | September 10 | Douglas United Nuclear | Single pass reactor operations & fuel fabrication | Assumed part of GE's reactor operations |
1966 | January 1 | Isochem | Chemical processing | Assumed GE's chemical processing operations |
1966 | March 1 | ITT Federal Support Services, Inc. | Support services | Assumed |
1967 | July 1 | Douglas United Nuclear | N Reactor operation | Assumed remainder of GE's reactor operations |
1967 | September 4 | Atlantic Richfield Hanford Company | Chemical Processing | Replaced Isochem |
1967 | August 8 | Hanford Environmental Health Foundation | Industrial Medicine | Name change only |
1970 | February 1 | Westinghouse Hanford Company
|
Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory | Spun off from PNL with mission to build the Fast Flux Test Facility |
1971 | September | ARHCO | Support Services | Replaces ITT/PSS |
1973 | April | United Nuclear Industries, Inc. | All production reactor operations | Name change from Douglas United Nuclear only |
1975 | January 1 | Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) | Lead U.S. Government entity | Replaced AEC - managed site until October 1, 1977 |
1975 | October 1 | Boeing Computer Services (BCS) | Computer services | Replaced CSC |
1977 | October 1 | U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
|
Lead U.S. Government Agency | Replaced ERDA - manages site presently |
1977 | October 1 | Rockwell Hanford Operations (RHO) | Chemical Processing & Support Services | Replaces ARCHO |
1981 | June | Braun Hanford Company (BHC) | Architect & Engineering Services | Replaces Vitro |
1982 | March | Kaiser Engineering Hanford (KEH) | Architect & Engineering Services | Replaces BHC |
1987 | March 1 | KEH | Construction | Consolidated contract includes former J.A. Jones work |
1987 | June 29 | WHC
|
Site management & operations | Consolidated contract includes former RHO, UNC & KEH work. |
1996 | October 1 | Fluor Daniel Hanford, Inc. (FDH)
|
Site management & operations | FDH is integrating contractor with 13 subcontracted companies |
2000 | February 7 | Fluor Hanford
|
Site cleanup operations | Transition to site cleanup (13 Fluor subcontractors held various roles) |
2009 | October 1 | Washington River Protection Solutions | Tank Farm cleanup operations | Transition to multi contractor roles (Mission Support Alliance MSA) |
Other divisions of the site (historical)
- Plutonium Finishing Plant (PFP) - made plutonium metal for use in weapons[79]
- B Plant, S Plant, T Plant - processing, separation, and extraction of various chemicals and isotopes[80][81]
- Health Instruments Section - an attempt to keep workers and the environment safe[81]
- REDOX Plant / C Plant - recovered wasted uranium from World War II processes[81]
- Experimental Animal Farm and Aquatic Biology Laboratory[81]
- Technical Center - radiochemistry, physics, metallurgy, biophysics, radioactive sewer, neutralization, metal fab, fuels manufacturing[81]
- Tank Farms - storage of liquid nuclear waste[81]
- Metal Recovery Plant / U Plant - recover uranium from tank farms[81]
- Uranium Trioxide Plant (aka Uranium Oxide Plant aka UO3 Plant) - took output from other plants (i.e. liquid
- Plutonium-Uranium Extraction Plant / PUREX Plant - extracted useful material from spent fuel waste (also see the PUREX article)[80][81]
- Plutonium Recycle Test Reactor (PRTR) - experimented with alternative fuel mixtures[79][81]
- Plutonium Fuels Pilot Plant (PFPP) - see PRTR
Historic photos
-
Cooling water retention basins at the F-Reactor
-
Underground tank farm with 12 of the site's 177 waste storage tanks
-
Inside one of the waste storage tanks
-
Inside the PUREX facility
-
View of the central plateau fromRattlesnake Mountain
-
The government town of Richland in the early days of the site
-
Hanford workers lining up for paychecks
-
Hanford scientists feedingradioactivefood to sheep
-
Testing a sheep's thyroid for radiation
-
Cold War-era billboard
-
"Atomic Frontier Days" parade in Richland
See also
- Idaho National Laboratory
- Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant
- Savannah River Site
- Los Alamos National Laboratory
- Rocky Flats Plant
- Pantex
- Fernald Feed Materials Production Center
- Sandia National Laboratories
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory
- Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
- James Acord
- Radioactive contamination from the Rocky Flats Plant
- Safe As Mother's Milk
References
- ^ "B Reactor". United States Department of Energy. Archived from the original on February 2, 2010. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f "Hanford Site: Hanford Overview". United States Department of Energy. Archived from the original on June 5, 2012. Retrieved February 13, 2012.
- ^ a b "Science Watch: Growing Nuclear Arsenal". The New York Times. April 28, 1987. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f "An Overview of Hanford and Radiation Health Effects". Hanford Health Information Network. Archived from the original on January 6, 2010. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ Washington Department of Ecology. Archived from the originalon June 24, 2008. Retrieved January 19, 2010.
- ^ Hanford Facts
- ^ Stang, John (December 21, 2010). "Spike in radioactivity a setback for Hanford cleanup". Seattle Post-Intelligencer.
- ^ Harden, Blaine (June 2, 2007). "Debate Intensifies on Nuclear Waste". Washington Post. p. A02. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
{{cite news}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Dininny, Shannon (April 3, 2007). "U.S. to Assess the Harm from Hanford". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Associated Press. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ a b Schneider, Keith (February 28, 1989). "Agreement for a Cleanup at Nuclear Site". The New York Times. Retrieved January 30, 2008.
- ^ "The Columbia River at Risk: Why Hanford Cleanup is Vital to Oregon". oregon.gov. August 1, 2007. Archived from the original on June 2, 2010. Retrieved March 31, 2008.
- ^ ISBN 1-57477-133-7.
- ^ Seelye, Katharine (June 10, 2000). "Gore Praises Move to Aid Salmon Run". The New York Times. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ "Site Map Area and Description". Columbia Riverkeepers. Archived from the original on February 8, 2007. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ Lewis, Mike (April 19, 2002). "In strange twist, Hanford cleanup creates latest boom". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ "Hanford Reach National Monument". HistoryLink.org: The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ Hanford Island Archaeological Site (NRHP #76001870) and Hanford North Archaeological District (NHRP #76001871). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007. (See also the commercial site National Register of Historic Places.)
- ISBN 0-8032-7101-8.
- ISBN 1-57477-133-7.
- ^ Gerber, Michele (1992). Legend and Legacy: Fifty Years of Defense Production at the Hanford Site. Richland, Washington: Westinghouse Hanford Company. p. 6.
- ^ Franklin, Matthias (January 14, 1987). "Hanford Engineer Works, Manhattan Engineer District: Early History". Speech to the Technical Exchange Program.
- ^ Oldham, Kit (March 5, 2003). "Construction of massive plutonium production complex at Hanford begins in March 1943". History Link. Retrieved April 6, 2008.
- ^ "Needed by E. I. duPont de Nemours & Company for Pacific Northwest (advertisement)". Milwaukee Sentinel. June 6, 1944. pp. 1–5. Retrieved March 25, 2013.
- ^ Thayer, H. (1996). Management of the Hanford Engineer Works in World War II. New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers Press.
- ISBN 1-57477-133-7.
- ISBN 0-8032-7101-8.
- ^ ISBN 1-57477-133-7.
- ^ "BCW Supplies: Quarters tubes – round". BCW Diversified. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
- ISBN 1-57477-133-7.
- ^ Findlay, John (1995). Nuclear Technologies and Nuclear Communities: A History of Hanford and the Tri-Cities, 1943–1993. Seattle, WA: Hanford History Project, Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest, University of Washington. p. 50.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ISBN 1-57477-133-7.
- ISBN 1-57477-133-7.
- ^ Groves, Leslie (1983). Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project. New York, NY: Da Capo Press. p. xv.
- ^ Sanger, S. L. Working on the Bomb: an Oral History of WWII Hanford. Portland, Oregon: Continuing Education Press, Portland State University. p. 70.
- ^ Sanger, S. L. Working on the Bomb: an Oral History of WWII Hanford. Portland, Oregon: Continuing Education Press, Portland State University. interview with Generaux.
- ISBN 1-57477-133-7.
- ^ Historical use of thorium at Hanford
- ^ Chronology of Important FOIA Documents: Hanford's Semi-Secret Thorium to U-233 Production Campaign
- ^ Questions and Answers on Uranium-233 at Hanford
- ^ Hanford Radioactivity in Salmon Spawning Grounds
- ^ "Cocooning Hanford Reactors". City of Richland. December 2, 2003. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
- ^ NRHP site #92000245. "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007. (See also the commercial site National Register of Historic Places.)
- ^ "B-Reactor Museum Association". B Reactor Museum Association. January 2008. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ "Big Step Toward B Reactor Preservation". KNDO/KNDU News. March 12, 2008. Retrieved April 6, 2008.
- ^ Chemical & Engineering News Vol. 86 No. 35, Sept. 1, 2008, "Hanford's B Reactor gets LANDMARK Status", p. 37
- ^ "National Historic Landmarks Program - B Reactor". National Park Service. August 19, 2007. Retrieved January 5, 2009.
- ^ "Plutonium: the first 50 years: United States plutonium production, acquisition, and utilization from 1944 through 1994". U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ Hevly, Bruce (1998). The Atomic West. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Cary, Annette (June 3, 2009). "Fast Flux Test Facility shutdown completed at Hanford". Hanford News.[dead link]
- ^ http://navy.memorieshop.com/Subs/Tunny/Tunny-Reactor.html
- ^ "Hanford Site Tours". United States Department of Energy. Archived from the original on April 2, 2012. Retrieved April 1, 2012.
- ^ "Radiation Flowed 200 Miles to Sea, Study Finds". The New York Times. July 17, 1992. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ISBN 0-8032-7101-8.
- ^ Martin, Hugo (August 13, 2008). "Nuclear site now a tourist hot spot". The Los Angeles Times.
- ^ Hanford Downwinders Litigation Website. Downwinders.com. Retrieved on September 27, 2009.
- ^ McClure, Robert (May 21, 2005). "Downwinders' court win seen as 'great victory'". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ "Tank storing radioactive waste leaking in Washington". CNN. Retrieved February 15, 2013.
- ^ "Washington Gov. Inslee's office: 6 more tanks at Hanford site are leaking radioactive waste". Breaking News. Retrieved February 22, 2013.
- ^ "Gov: 6 underground Hanford nuclear tanks leaking | Inquirer News". Newsinfo.inquirer.net. March 23, 2004. Retrieved February 23, 2013.
- ^ Johnson, Eric (February 1, 2013). "Radioactive waste leaking from six tanks at Washington state nuclear site". Reuters. Retrieved February 23, 2013.
- ^ "Hanford - Washington Superfund site". U.S. EPA. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
- ^ "Hanford Site Tour Script" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. October 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 27, 2008. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ "Hanford Site: Hanford Advisory Board". United States Department of Energy. Retrieved February 14, 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f Stiffler, Lisa (March 20, 2008). "Troubled Hanford cleanup has state mulling lawsuit". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved May 8, 2008.[dead link]
- ^ "Hanford 1100-Area (USDOE) Superfund site". U.S. EPA. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
- ^ Wald, Matthew (January 16, 1998). "Panel Details Management Flaws at Hanford Nuclear Waste Site". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ a b Wolman, David (April 2007). "Fission Trip". Wired Magazine. p. 78.
- ^ Hanson, Laura A. (November 2000). "Radioactive Waste Contamination of Soil and Groundwater at the Hanford Site" (PDF). University of Idaho. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ISBN 1-57477-134-5.
- ^ Dininny, Shannon (September 8, 2006). "Hanford plant now $12.2 billion". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved January 29, 2007.
- ^ The Economist, "Nuclear waste: From bombs to $800 handbags", 19 March 2011, p. 40.
- ^ "Hanford Waste Treatment Plant: DOE Needs to Take Action to Resolve Technical and Management Challenges". GAO-13-38. General Accounting Office. December 19, 2012. Retrieved May 9, 2013.
- ^ Valerie Brown (May 9, 2013). "Hanford Nuclear Waste Cleanup Plant May Be Too Dangerous: Safety issues make plans to clean up a mess left over from the construction of the U.S. nuclear arsenal uncertain". Scientific American. Retrieved May 9, 2013.
The Vit Plant was supposed to start operating in 2007 and is now projected to begin in 2022. Its original budget was $4.3 billion and is now estimated at $13.4 billion.
- ^ Stiffler, Lisa (April 3, 2008). "State steps back from brink of Hanford suit". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved May 8, 2008.
- ^ Chemical & Engineering News: Antique Plutonium: Manhattan Project-era plutonium is found in a glass jug during Hanford Site cleanup
- ^ Seattle Pi: Historic plutonium found in safe at Hanford
- ^ http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-201_162-57590463/possible-radioactive-leak-into-soil-at-hanford/
- ^ Briggs, J.D. (March 22, 2001). "Historical Time Line and Information about the Hanford Site, Richland, Washington" (PDF). Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Retrieved February 14, 2012.
- ^ a b
Lini, D.C. and L. H. Rodgers / SAIC / FH (March 2002). "Plutonium Finishing Plant Plutonium- Uranium Oxide" (PDF). US DOE. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- ^ a b c "222-S Hanford Site". Advanced Technologies and Laboratories Intl. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Gerber, M.S. (2001 Feb). "History of Hanford Site Defense Production (Brief)" (PDF). )
- ^
Freer, Brian and Charles Conway (June 2002). "History of the Plutonium Production Facilities at the Hanford Site Historic District, 1943–1990. Section 4 - Chemical Separations" (PDF). US DOE.[dead link]
- ^ Brevick, Stroup, Funk; et al. (1997). "Supporting Document for the Historical Tank Content Estimate for SY-Tank Farm". )
- ^ Johnson; et al. (1994). "Historical records of radioactive contamination in biota at the 200 Areas of the Hanford Site". )
- ^
Carbaugh E.H., Bihl, D.E., and MacLellan,J.A. (January 1, 2003). "Methods and Models of the Hanford Internal Dosimetry Program, PNNL-MA-860" (PDF). Retrieved October 5, 2009.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Executive Summary Hanford Recycled Uranium Project" (PDF). )
Further reading
- John M. Findlay and Bruce Hevly. Atomic Frontier Days: Hanford and the American West (University of Washington Press; 2011) 368 pages; explores the history of the Hanford nuclear reservation and the tri-cities of Richland, Pasco, and Kennewick, Washington
External links
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- Official Hanford website Department of Energy.
- Washington Department of Ecology - Nuclear Waste Program State agency that regulates Hanford cleanup.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Federal agency that regulates Hanford cleanup.
- Hanford Challenge Hanford watchdog group, based in Seattle.
- Hanford News Current news from the Tri-City Herald.
- Hanford Site Environmental Report Detailed annual report on radioactive concentrations measured at the Hanford Site.
- Atomic Heritage Foundation Historic Preservation of Manhattan Project Sites at Hanford.
- B Reactor Museum Association A collection of Hanford-related documents from a group fighting to preserve the B-100 Reactor at Hanford.
- Contaminated US site faces 'catastrophic' nuclear leak 2008 New Scientist report.
- Heart of America Northwest Hanford watchdog group, based in Seattle.
- The Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Annotated bibliography for the Hanford Site.
- A Review of Data Triples Plutonium Waste Figures Matthew L. Wald, The New York Times, July 10, 2010
- Washington River Protection Solutions Hanford environmental remediation contractor.
- Safe as Mother's Milk: The Hanford Project