Arabic exonyms

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This list of Arabic exonyms includes names that are significantly different from the names of the same places in other languages, as well as names of

exonyms
are no longer in use, these are marked by italics.

Places not mentioned are generally referred to in Arabic by their respective names in their native languages, adapted to Arabic phonology as necessary.

Austria

Austria
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Austria an-Namsā (النمسا) Comes from the Ottoman Turkish نمچه‎ (nemçe, “Austrian”), which comes from the Proto-Slavic word němьcь, which means foreigner/non-Slav/German.[1][2][3]

China

China
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Beijing Khān Bālq (خان بالق)[4][5] or Bekīn (بكين) or Beijīn/Beijīnq/Beijīngh (بيجين/بيجينق/بيجينغ) Khān Bālq is the old medieval Arabic exonym for Beijing, it was named as such after the winter capital of the Mongolian Yuan dynasty, Khanbaliq, which is the direct predecessor to modern Beijing.

Bekīn arouse from the French exonym Pékin, which itself came from the Portuguese exonym Pequim.

The exonyms Beijīn, Beijīnq, and Beijīngh are the modern Arabic exonyms for Beijing, they come from the Mandarin name of the city and are often used interchangeably.

China aṣ-Ṣīn (الصين)[6] or Māṣīn (ماصين)[7] aṣ-Ṣīn is derived from Middle Persian 𐭰𐭩𐭭‎ (čīn, “China”), from Sanskrit चीन (cīna, “China”), itself usually derived from Old Chinese 秦 (*zin, “Qin”).[6]

Māṣīn is derived from the Persian Machin (ماچين), itself derived from the Sanskrit Maha Chin meaning Great China.[7] This exonym was rarely used.

Guangzhou Ṣīn Kalan (صين كَلان)[8][9] or Ṣīn aṣ-Ṣīn (صين الصين)[8][9] or Ṣīniyat aṣ-Ṣīn (صينية الصين)[10][9] Ṣīn Kalan, Ṣīn aṣ-Ṣīn, and Ṣīniyat aṣ-Ṣīn are all derived from the Persian Machin (ماچين), itself derived from the Sanskrit Maha Chin meaning Great China. Kalan (كَلان) is also of Persian origin and translates to 'Large' or 'Great'.[9]
Hangzhou al-Khansā' (الخنساء)[11] al-Khansā' is the medieval Arabic exonym for the city of Hangzhou, it was named as such after the companion of Muhammad and famous female poet, Tumāḍir al-Khansā'. al-Khansā' translates to "snub-nosed", an Arabic epithet for a gazelle as metaphor for beauty.
Quanzhou Madinat az-Zaytūn (مدينة الزيتون)[12] Madinat az-Zaytūn translates to 'City of the Olives' and is a
tung trees ordered to be planted around the city by the city's 10th-century ruler Liu Congxiao.[13][14]

Cyprus

Cyprus
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Nicosia al-'Afqūsiyah (الأَفْقُوسِيَة)[15] or Niqūsiah (نيقوسيا) al-'Afqūsiyah (الأفقوسية) was the old Arabic name for Nicosia, and it originates from the Byzantine Greek name of the city, Λευκωσία (Lefkosia).

Niqūsiah (نيقوسيا) is the Modern Arabic name for the city.

France

France
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Bay of Biscay Bāhr al-Akhdar

Georgia

Georgia
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Georgia al-Kurj (الكُرج) or Bilād al-Kurj (بلاد الكُرج)[16] or Kurjistan (كُرْجِسْتَان) or Jorjyah (جورجيا) al-Kurj or Bilād al-Kurj (The Lands of Georgia) was the Arabic exonym for Georgia during medieval times, it most likely came from the Persian exonym for Georgia, Gorj (گرج), the name is still in use today although rarely

Kurjistan was most likely borrowed from the Turkish exonym Gorjestân, which is of Persian origin, it most likely gained popularity during Ottoman rule.

Jorjyah is currently the most widely used exonym, which comes from the European name for Georgia.

Tbilisi Tiflīs (تفليس)[17][18][19] Comes from the Persian pronunciation of the name, Tiflis.[18][19][20]

Germany

Germany
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Germany 'Almānya (أَلمَانِيَا) Comes from the French name for Germany, Allemagne, but was known in medieval times as Jirmānyah (جرمانية), which was the Arabized form of its Latin name, Germania.

Gibraltar

Gibraltar
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Gibraltar Jabal Ṭāriq (جبل طارق)[21] Founded with an Arabic name meaning 'Mountain of Tariq', named for the 8th-century Islamic military leader Tariq ibn Ziyad.

Greece

Greece
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Greece al-Yūnān (اليُونَان) Comes from Old Persian 𐎹𐎢𐎴 (Yauna, “Ionia”), which references the Greek region of Ionia, that resides in modern-day Turkey.
Heraklion Rabḍ al-Khandaq (ربض الخندق)[22] Given an Arabic name after its conquest, this name was then Hellenized as Χάνδαξ (Chándax) or Χάνδακας (Chándakas), and would remain until the 19th century when the city revived its ancient name Ηράκλειον (Heracleion).
Chania al-Hānim (الهانم) or Khānia (خانيا) al-Hānim (الهانم) is the Arabic name given to Chania after its conquest; this name was then Hellenized as Χανιά (Chania), and it is from which the modern Arabic exonym Khānia (خانيا) originates.

Hungary

Hungary
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Hungary al-Majar (المجر) Comes from the Hungarian endonym 'Magyar'.

Italy

Italy
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Acireale al-Yāj (الْياج) or Liyāj (لِياج)[23]
Agira Shant Fīlibb (شنت فيلب) Arabized form of its old name San Filippo.
Alcamo Manzil al-Qāmūq (منزل القاموق) or 'Alqāmāh (علقمة)[24] Manzil al-Qāmūq (House of al-Qāmūq) is the name Muhammad al-Idrisi wrote to be the original Arabic name of Alcamo, however the Arabs at the time referred to it as 'Alqāmāh. al-Qāmūq is the founder of Alcamo.
Alcara li Fusi Al-Aqarāt Founded with Arabic name
Alì Ali (عَلِيّ)[25] One of the possible theories for the etymology of this town is the Arabic name Ali (عَلِيّ).[25]
Alimena Al-Imān Founded with Arabic name
Aliminusa Rakhbal Al-Mīnusa Founded with Arabic name
Amalfi Malf (ملف)[26]
Ancona 'Ankūnah (أَنْكُونَة)[27] or 'Anqūnah (أَنْقُونَة)[28]
Apulia Būlyah (بولية)[29]
Aquileia Iklāyah (إيكلاية)[30] or 'Anklāyah (أنكلاية)[31]
Bagheria Bab al-Gharb (باب الغرب) or Baḥrīyah (بحرية) Founded with Arabic name; either from Bab al-Garb (باب الغرب), 'Gate of the West', or from Baḥrīyah (بحرية), which means 'Sea' or 'Marine'.
Benevento Binfint (بنفنت)[24] or Binbint (بنبنت)[32]
Borghetto Al-Burjātah Founded with Arabic name
Brindisi 'Abrinṭas (ابرنطس) or 'Abrindas (ابرندس)[33]
Buscemi Qalʿat ʾAbū Shāma (قلعة أبو شامة) or Qalʿat ʾAbī Shāma (قلعة أبي شامة)[34][35] Founded with Arabic name: 'The Fortress of the Man with the Mole'.[35]

Over the centuries the name has been Romanized as Abu Xamah or Abuxama or even Abisama. The Latinized version Buxemae and Bussemae, from the

Norman period
, however, is the one closest to today's form.

Cagliari Qālmarah (قالمرة)[36]
Calabria Qalawriyah (قَلَوْرِيَة)[37][38]
Calamonaci Qalamūnash or Qal'at Mūn (قلعة مون) or Qal'at Mūnah (قلعة مونة)[39] Calamonaci has two possible etymologies: either from Qalamūnash, which itself is a derivation from the Greek Kalamiōn, or from Qal'at Mūn/Mūnah 'Fortress of Mūn/Mūnah'.[39]
Calatafimi-Segesta Qal'at Fīmī (قلعة فيمي)[40] Founded with Arabic name: 'Fortress of Fīmī'.
Caltabellotta Qal'at al-Balūṭ (قلعة البلوط)[41] Founded with Arabic name: 'Fortress of The Oak'.
Caltagirone Qal'at Ghīrān (قلعة غيران) or Qa'lat al-Jinūn (قلعة الجنون) Founded with Arabic name.

Was called Qal'at al-Jinūn (قلعة الجنون) during the Aghlabid period; also known as Ḥiṣn al-Jinūn ( حصن الجنون) or Ḥiṣn al-Jinawiyīn (حصن الجنويين), 'Fortress of the Genoese'. The name eventually became Qal'at Ghīrān (قلعة غيران), 'Fortress of Ghīran'

Caltanissetta Qal'at an-Nisa' (قَلْعَةُ النِّسَاءِ)[42] Its original name was Castra Nicia; this name was then arabized into Qal'at an-Nisa' (قَلْعَةُ النِّسَاءِ) meaning 'Fortess of the Women'.
Caltavuturo Qal'at Abī Thawr (قلعة أبي ثور)[43][44][45] Founded with Arabic name: 'Fortress of Abī Thawr'.
Camerino Qamrīn (قَمْرِين)[46]
Canicattì Khandaq aṭ-Ṭīn (خندق الطين)[47] Founded with Arabic name: 'Trench of Mud'.
Caprera Qabrīrah (قَبْرِيرَةُ)[48]
Capri Qabrah (قَبْرَةُ)[48]
Capua Qabwah (قَبْوَة)[32]
Cassaro al-Qaṣr (القصر) Founded with Arabic name: 'the Castle'.
Castello di Mongialino [it] Malja' Khalil (ملجأ خليل) or Manzil Malja' Khalil (منزل ملجأ خليل)[49] 'Khalil's Shelter'.
Catania Qaṭāniyyah (قَطَانِيَةُ)[50][23][51][52] or Qaṭāliyyah (قَطَالِيَةُ)[52] The city was also known as Balad al-Fīl (بَلَد الفِيل)[23] or Madinat al-Fīl (مَدِينَة الفِيل),[51][52] meaning 'Land/City of the Elephant'.
Catanzaro Qaṭanṣār (قطنصار)[53]
Cefalà Diana Jaflah (جفلة)[54]
Città di Castello Qaṣṭlu (قصطلو)[30]
Civitavecchia Jabt Bakkah (جبت بكّة)[55]
Collesano Qal'at aṣ-Ṣarāṭ (قلعة الصراط)[56] 'Fortress of Ṣarāṭ'
Comacchio Qamālqah (قمالقة)[30]
Corleone Qurliyūn (قُرلِيُون)[57][58] or Qurullūn (قُرُلُون)[58] or Qurulliyūn (قُرُلِيُون)[58] The etymology of the name is uncertain. It is believed to have taken its name from an Arab soldier who fought for the Aghlabids.[59]
Cosenza Kashnatah (كشنتة)[24]
Crotone Qaṭrūnah (قطرونة)[60]
Enna Qaṣr Yānih (قَصْرُ يَانِه) or Qaṣr Yāni (قصر ياني)[61] 'Castle of Yānih/Yāni'; nativized as 'Castrogiovanni', which remained in use until 1926.
Florence Flūransah (فَلُورَنْسَة)[62] or 'Iflūransah (إِفْلُورَنْسَة)[28]
Foggia Fūdjah (فُدجَة) or Fūjah (فُوجة)
Gaeta Ghayṭah (غَيْطَة)[63] or Ghāyṭah (غايطة)[64]
Gela Madinat al-'Amidah (مدينة الأعمدة)[65] 'City of the Pillars'
Italy Īṭaliya (إيطاليا) or al-'Arḍ al-Kabīrah (الأَرْض الكبيرة)[66] al-'Arḍ al-Kabīrah translates to 'The Big Land', and it is a term used by medieval Arabs for the entire Italian Peninsula, but oftentimes it was used only for the region of South Italy.
Kalsa al-Khāliṣa (الخالصة)[67] Founded with Arabic name: 'the Pure one'.
Lascari Madinah Al-Asqāri Founded with Arabic name
Lecce Lajj (لَجّ)[68]
Livorno Qurnah (قُرْنَة) It was named as such after the Livorno Jews, who are known as al-Qirānah (القرانة) in Arabic and Grana in Judeo-Arabic.
Lombardy 'Anbardiah (أَنْبَرْدِيَة)[69] or 'Anbarḍiah (أَنْبَرْضِيَة)[69] or 'Ankabardiah (أنكبردية)[70] or Bilād al-Linbard (بلاد اللنبرد)[70] Bilād al-Linbard translates to 'Land of the Lombards'.
Lucca Lukkah (لُكَّة)[28]
Marineo Mirnaw (مرناو)[54]
Marsala Marsā 'Ali (مَرْسَى عَلِيّ)[71][72] or Marsā Allāh (مَرْسَى الله)[72] Renamed with Arabic name after conquest: 'Ali's Harbour' or 'Allāh's Harbour.
Mazaro Wadī al-Majnūn (وادي المجنون)[71] 'Mad Valley' or 'Valley of the Madman'.
Messina Musaynah (مسّينى)[73] or Masīnah (مَسِّينَةُ)[74]
Mineo Mīnaw (مِيناو) or Qal'at Mīnaw (قلعة مِيناو)[49]
Misilmeri Manzil al-'Amīr (منزل الأمير)

[61]

'Home of the Emir'.
Monte Catalfaro Qal'at al-Far (قلعة الفار)[49] 'Fortress of the Mouse'
Mount Etna Jabal al-Nār (جبل النار)[75] 'Mountain of Fire'.
Naples Nabul (نَابُل)[76][77]
Otranto 'Aḏrant (أذرنت)[68]
Padua Bāḏuah (بَاذُوَة)[28]
Palermo Balarm (بَلَرْم)[78][79]
Pantelleria Qawṣarah (قَوْصَرَة)[79]
Pavia Bābiyah (بَابِيَة)[46][31]
Perugia Birūjah (بِرُوجَة) or Birūjiyah (بيروجية)[24]
Pesaro Bisrah (بيسرة)[80] or Biṣrah (بيصرة)[81]
Pisa Bīzā (بيزا) or Bīsh (بيش)[55][79] or Bīshah (بيشة)[55][79] Bīsh and Bīshah are medieval terms used by al-Idrisi to name the city, but in modern times Piza is referred to as Bīzā.
Ponza Bānūsah (بَانُوسَةُ)[48]
Ravenna Rabnah (ربنة)[80]
Regalbuto Rākhbāl Al-Abbūd Founded with Arabic name
Reggio Calabria Rīyyah (رية) or Rayyū (رَيُو)[82]
Rimini 'Arīmnī (اريمني) or 'Arīmnīs (اريمنيس)[80]
Rome Rūma (روما) or Rūmiyah (رُومِيَّة) Rūmiya (رُومِيَّة) was the early Arabic name for Rome, and is rarely used nowadays.
Rossano Rusyānah (رسيانة)[60]
Salerno Slirno (سلرنو)[26]
Sardinia Sardānyah (سَرْدَانِيَة)[83][84] or Suridānyah (سُرِدَانِيَة)[85]
Savoca Qalāt Az-Zabūd
Savona Shaghūnah (شغونة)[31][86]
Sciacca ash-Shāqah (الشاقة)[41][24] 'The one who Separates'
Sicily Ṣiqilliya (صِقِلِّيَة)
Simeto Wadī Mūsa (وادي موسى)[87] 'Valley of Mūsa'.
Siponto Sībent (سيبنت)[88]
Sorrento Srint (سرنت)[89]
Soverato Sibirniah (سبرنية)[24]
Siracusa Saraqūsah (سَرَقُوسَة)[87][83]
Squillace 'Asjilāsah (اسجلاسة)[90]
Taormina Tābarmīn (طَبَرْمِين)[83][91][24][73] Under the Fatimids, it was called al-Muīzziyyah (المعزّية) or Madinat al-Muīzz (مدينة المعزّ) after Caliph al-Muīzz.
Taverna Ṭabarnah (طبرنة)[92]
Taranto Ṭārant (طارنت)[93][94]
Terracina Ṭarjīnah (طرجينة)[63]
Tivoli Tūḏur (تَوْذُر)[27]
Trani Ṭrānah (طرانة) or 'Aṭrānah (اطرانة)[88]
Trapani 'Aṭrābansh (أَطْرَابَنِش) or Ṭarābanash (طَرَابَنَش)[71]
Trieste Iṣṭājānku (إصطاجانكو)[30] or Isṭājānku (إسطاجانكو)[95]
Tropea Atrabiyah (اتربية)[36]
Turin Ṭarūnah (طَرُونَة)[46]
Tuscany Tuskanah (تُسكانة)[96][97][98][99] or Ṭusqanah (طُسقانة)[100][101]
Tyrrhenian Sea Baḥr Ṭrānah (بحر طرانة)[84]
Venice al-Bunduqīyya (اَلْبُنْدُقِيَّةُ) The etymology of al-Bunduqīyya is uncertain but probably derives from modification of
bullet") + -iyya (ـِيَّة, "-ia"), ultimately derived from the ancient Greek Pontus, which abounded in hazels.[102]
The name is attested from the early 10th century.
Verona Fayrūnah (فيرونة)[24]
Vieste Bistiyah (بستية)[103]
Villanova Ballanūbah (بلنوبا) Billa Nūba (بيلّا نووِبا) It was the home of the Siculo-Arabic poet known as al-Balnūbi, it was destroyed or deserted before the Norman conquest.[104]
Vizzini Bizīnī (بزيني)[49]
Zisa Qaṣr al-Azīz (قصر العزيز)[105] The name Zisa derives from the Arab term al-Azīz, meaning "dear" or "splendid".[105]

The structure was conceived as a summer residence for the

Arabic: Jannat al-arḍ [جنة الأرض] , literally "Earthly Paradise")[106]

Malta

Malta
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Comino Kammunah (كَمُّونَة)[107]
Gozo Ghawdash (غَوْدَش)[107]
Malta Mālṭah (مَالِطَةَ)[108]
Mdina Madinat Mālṭah (مدينة مَالِطَةَ) 'City of Malta'.

Montenegro

Montenegro
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Montenegro al-Jabal al-'Aswad (الجبل الأسود) 'The Black Mountain', like Montenegro a translation of the endonym Črna Gora

Netherlands

Netherlands
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
The Hague Lāhāy (لاهاي) or Alahāyah (الَهَايَهْ)[109] Lāhāy is the Arabized form of its French name La Haye.

It was known among the Arabs in old times as Alahāyah.[109]

Portugal

Portugal
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Albufeira al-Buḥayrah (البُحَيْرَة) Founded with Arabic name, 'The Lake'.
Alcácer do Sal Qaṣr 'Abi Dānis (قصر أبي دانس)[110] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Castle of 'Abi Dānis
Alcoutim al-Quṭāmi (القطامي)[111] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Falcon'.
Alfândega da Fé al-Funduq (الفندق)[112] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Inn'.
Algarve al-Gharb (الغرب)[113][114] Founded with Arabic name, 'The West'.
Aljezur al-Juzur (الجزر) Founded with Arabic name, 'The Islands'.
Almada Ḥiṣn al-Mā'din (حصن المعدن)[115] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Metal Fortress'.
Almeirim Madinah al-Māryām Founded with Arabic name
Almodôvar al-Mudawwar (المُدَوَّر)[116] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Round One'.
Beja Bājah (باجة)[117] The town was known during the times of the Visigoths as Paca, this was then Arabized into Bājah (باجة) during Umayyad times, and eventually turned into its modern form Beja when the Christians took over.[117]
Coimbra Qulumriyah (قُلُمْرِيَة)[118][119][120] or Qulunbariyah (قلنبرية)[121] Arabized form of its old Roman name Colimbria.
Faro Shantamariat al-Gharb (شَنْتَمَرِيَّةُ الغرب)[122] 'Santa Maria of the West'.
Fátima Fāṭīmah (فاطمة) Named after Fāṭīmah az-Zahra', the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
Ossonoba 'Akshūnbah (أكشونبة)[70][123] Arabized form of its old Roman name Ossónoba.
Ourém Abdegas Abdegas was apparently name of the Muslim village on which the city of Ourém was founded, the Arabic pronunciation of the word is unknown.
Sacavém Shaqabān (شقبان)
Silves Shilb (شِلْب)[123]
Tavira Ṭabīrah (طبيرة)[124][125] Founded with Arabic name

Spain

Spain
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Aguilar de la Frontera Ḥiṣn Bulāy (حصن بُلَاي)[126] 'The Fortress of Bulāy'
Albacete al-Basīṭ (ﭐَلبَسِيط)[127] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Plain' or 'The Flat', referring to the flat plains around.[127]
Albaicín al-Bayyāzīn (ٱلْبَيّازِينْ)[128] Founded with Arabic name
Albaida
 al-Baydā' (البيضاء)[128] Founded with Arabic name, 'The White'.
Albalá al-Balāṭ (البلاط)[129] or al-Ballā'a (البَلَّاعة)[128] Founded with Arabic name.

al-Balāṭ 'The Tiles' or 'The Stones', in reference to the Roman road nearby al-Ballā'a 'The Gutter'.

Albarracín Banī Rāzin (بَنِي رَزِينٍ) or Sahlat Banī Rāzin (سَهْلَةُ بَنِي رَزِينٍ)[130] or Shantamariat ash-Sharq (شَنْتَمَرِيَّةُ الشَّرْقِ)[130] Named after the Hawwara Berber Banu Razin dynasty that ruled the Taifa of Albarracín in the early eleventh century, it was also known as 'Ibn Rāzin (ابن رزين)[128] or as-Sahlah (السَّهْلَةُ)[130]

Before it was ruled by the Banu Razin, it was known Shantamariah (شَنْتَمَرِيَّةُ)[131] or Shantamariat ash-Sharq (شَنْتَمَرِيَّةُ الشَّرْقِ),[130] i.e. 'Santa Maria of the East'.

Alberite al-Baldah (البلدة) 'The Town'.

This is one of two theories for the etymology of the town, the other one being the Latin Alber-iter.

Alburquerque
 Abu al-Qūrq or Baladiyat Abī al-Qūrq (بَلَدِيَّةُ أَبِي القُرْقِ)[132] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Father of al-Qūrq' or ' The Town of the Father of al-Qūrq'.
Alcalá de los Gazules Qal'at Jazūla (قلعة جزولة)[133][134] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Fortress of Jazūla'.
Alcalá de Guadaíra Qal'at Jābir (قلعة جابر)[135][136] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Fortress of Jābir'.
Alcala de Henares
 Qal'at Hināris (قلعة هنارس)[137] or Madīnat al-Mā'idah (مدينة المائدة)[137]
Alcántara Qanṭarat as-Sayf (قَنْطَرَة السَّيْفِ) or al-Qanṭarah (القنطرة)[138] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Arched Bridge of the Sword' or 'The Arched Bridge'.
Alcantarilla Qanṭarat 'Ashkābah (قنطرة اشكابة) Founded with Arabic name, 'The Arched Bridge of 'Ashkābah'
Alcañiz al-Kanā'is (الكنائس)[139] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Churches'.
Alcaraz Jabal al-Karaz (جبل الكرز)[138] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Mountain of Cherry'
Alcaucín al-Qawsayn (القَوْسَيْنِ) Founded with Arabic name, 'The Two Arches'.
Alcázar de San Juan al-Qaṣr (القصر)[140] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Castle'.
Alcazarén al-Qaṣrayn (القَصْرَين)[141] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Two Castles'.
Alcolea al-Qulay'ah (القُلَيعة) Founded with Arabic name, 'The Little Castle'.
Alcúdia al-Qudiah (القودية) or al-Kudiah (الكُدية)[142][143] Founded with Arabic name, the name comes from the Maghrebi Arabic word al-Kidya (الكدية), which means 'The Plateau'.
Alcuéscar Al-Qāwāsqar Founded with Arabic name
Alfambra al-Ḥamrāʼ (الْحَمْرَاء)[144] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Red One'.
Alfamén al-Ḥammām (الحمَّام)[144][145] or al-Fahīmn (الفهيمن)[146] Founded with Arabic name, al-Ḥammām (الحمَّام) 'The Bathhouse'.
Alfarnate al-Farnat (الفرنت)[147] Founded with Arabic name, 'Flour Mill'.
Algaida al-Ghaīdah (الغَيضة)[114] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Grove'.
Algarrobo al-Kharrūbah (الخَرُّوبة)[148] or al-Kharrūb (الخَرُّوب)[114] Founded with Arabic name
Algeciras al-Jazīrah al-Khadrā' (الجزيرة الخضراء)[149] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Green Island'.
Alhama de Murcia al-Ḥammah (الحَمّة)[150] or Ḥammat Mursiyah (حَمّة مرسية) Founded with Arabic name, 'The Hot Springs' or 'The Hot Springs of Mursiyah'.
Alhambra al-Ḥamrāʼ (الْحَمْرَاء) or al-Qalʻatu al-Ḥamrāʼ (الْقَلْعَةُ ٱلْحَمْرَاءُ)[151][152] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Red One' or 'The Red Fortress'.
Alhaurín de la Torre Burj al-Ḥawrīn (برج الحَورِيِّين)[150] Founded with Arabic name, 'Tower of the Hawwara'.
Alicante Laqant (لقنت)[123][153][154][155] or al-Qant (القنت)[156] Arabisation of the Latin Lucentum,[157] which comes from the Greek Leuké ("white").
Almáchar al-Makhar (المَخَر)[158] Founded with Arabic name
Almadén al-Mā'din (المعدن)[159][160][137][161] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Metal'.
Almansa al-Manṣaf (المَنْصَف)[162][163] Founded with Arabic name, 'The area half-way through the road'.
Almassora al-Manṣūrah (المنصورة) or al-Maḥṣūrah (المحصورة)[164] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Victorious one'; named after the Andalusian military leader al-Manṣūr, while al-Maḥṣūrah translates to 'The Confined one'.
Almazán al-Maḥṣan (المَحْصَن)[165] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Fortified'.
Almenar al-Manār (المَنار)[164] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Illuminated one'.
Almensilla al-Manzilah (الَمنزِلَة)[164] Founded with Arabic name, 'The House'.
Almería al-Mariyyah (المَرِيَّة)[166][167][123][164] Founded with Arabic name
Almonacid de la Cuba al-Munastīr (المُنَستير)[168][169] Founded with Arabic name, Arabized form of the word monastery.
Almudaina al-Mudainah (المُدَينة)[170] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Little City'.
Almuñécar al-Munakkab (المُنَكَّب) or Ḥiṣn al-Munakkab (حصن المُنَكَّب)[171][170][172][173][174] Founded with Arabic name
Alovera al-Ḥuwayrah (الحُوَيْرَة)[175] Founded with Arabic name
Alpujarras al-Busharāt (البُشارات)[172][176] Founded with Arabic name
Alquézar al-Qaṣr (القصر)[177] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Castle'.
Alzira Jazīrat Shaqr (جزيرة شَقْر)[178] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Island of Júcar/Xúquer'.

Shaqr is the Arabic name for the Júcar/Xúquer river.

Andalusia al-'Andalus (الأَنْدَلُس)[179][180][181] al-Andalus is the name that the Muslims gave to the Iberian Peninsula, it is mainly used to refer to the Muslim ruled regions of Iberia during the Middle Ages, the name may be derived from the name of the Vandals.[182]

The modern autonomous community of 'Andalusia' is named after it.

Ardales Arḍīṭ (أَرْضِيطُ)[183] or Ḥarshafa (حرشفة)[184] According to 'A Dictionary of Spanish Place Names', the original name of Ardales was Cardales, which means 'Thistle fields', and later turned into Hardares. The Arabic version then became 'Harsafa' which means ‘edible thistle’[183] ['Harsafa' is most likely referring to the singular form of Cardoon in Arabic, which is Ḥarshafa]

Arḍīṭ may have also originated from Hardares, however that is unconfirmed.

Arriate ar-Rīyāḍ (الرِّيَاض)[185] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Gardens'.
Axarquía ash-Sharqiyah (الشرقية) Founded with Arabic name, 'The Eastern One'.
Azofra
 as-Sukhrah (السُّخرة)[186] Founded with Arabic name
Azuqueca de Henares as-Sukaykah (السُّكَيكة)[187] Founded with Arabic name, comes from the Arabic word Sikah (سكة), and translates to 'The Little Lane'.
Badajoz Baṭalyaws (بَطَلْيَوْس)[155][154] Founded with Arabic name
Banyalbufar Banī al-Baḥar (بني البحر) A possible etymology, 'People of the Sea' or 'Tribe of the Sea'.
Belchite Balshal or Bilshid A possible etymology
Benacazón Binā' Qassūm (بناء قَسّوم)[188] or Ibn/Banī Qassūm (ابن/بني قَسّوم) Founded with Arabic name, 'The Building of Qassūm';

Ibn/Banī Qassūm translates to 'The Son/Descendants of Qassūm'.

Benadalid Ibn ad-Dalīl (ابن الدليل)[188] Founded with Arabic name, 'Son of the Guide'.
Benaguasil Ibn al-Wazir(ابن الوزير)[189] or Banī al-Wazir(بني الوزير) Founded with Arabic name, 'The Son/Descendants of al-Wazir', al-Wazir was the family that founded the city over the ruins of a Roman villa..
Benahavís Binā' Ḥabīsh (بناء حبيش)[189] Founded with Arabic name, 'The Building of Ḥabīsh'.

The word Ḥabīsh could have come from the Arabic word Ḥabashi (حبشي), which meant Ethiopian, but was used to identify any dark-skinned African; this could indicate that the city was founded by a man of Sub-Saharan African descent.

Benalmádena Binā' al-Ma'dānah (بناء المَعْدَانة)[189] or Ibn/Banī al-Ma'dan (ابن/بِنى المعدن) or Banī al-Madīnah (بِنى المدينة) Founded with Arabic name.

Binā' al-Ma'dānah (بناء المَعْدَانة) translates to 'The Building of Metal', Ibn/Banī al-Ma'dan (ابن/بِنى المعدن) translates to 'Son/Descendants of Metal', Banī al-Madīnah (بِنى المدينة) translates to 'Descendants of the City'.

Benarrabá Ibn ar-Rabāḥ (ابن الرَّبَاح)[190] or Banū/Banī ar-Rabāḥ (بنو/بني الرَّبَاح) Founded with Arabic name.

Ibn ar-Rabāḥ (ابن الرَّبَاح) translates to 'Son of ar-Rabāḥ', Banū/Banī ar-Rabāḥ (بنو/بني الرَّبَاح) translates to 'Descendants of ar-Rabāḥ'.

Binissalem Banī Sālim (بني سالم)[191] Founded with Arabic name.

Banī Sālim (بني سالم) translates to 'Descendants of Sālim'.

Bufalí
 Abū Khālid (أبو خالد)[192] Founded with Arabic name.

Abū Khalid (أبو خالد) translates to 'Father of Khālid'.

Bujalance Burj al-Ḥansh (بُرج الحنش)[192] Founded with Arabic name

Burj al-Ḥansh (بُرج الحنش) translates to 'Tower of al-Ḥansh', al-Ḥansh is a type of snake known as the Eastern racer.

Cáceres Qaṣrash (قصرش)[193] or Qaṣrāsh (قصرآش) Arabisation of Latin Norba Caesarina or Castra Cæcilia
Cádiz Qādis (قادِس) or Ghādish (غادِش) Arabized form of its old Latin name Gades.
Cadrete Qadrit Arabized form of its old Latin name Cateracta, the Arabic pronunciation is unknown.
Calatañazor Qal'āt An-Nusūr (قلعة النُسُور)[194][195][31][196] Founded with Arabic name: 'Fortress of the Vultures'
Calatayud Qal‘at ’Ayyūb (قلعة أيوب)[194][197][155] Founded with Arabic name: 'Fortress of ’Ayyūb'
Calatrava la Vieja Qalʿat Rabāḥ (قلعة رَبَاح)[198][199][200][201] Founded with Arabic name: 'Fortress of Rabāḥ'
Cartagena Qarṭājannah (قَرْطاجَنَّة)[202][203] Arabized form of its Latin name Carthaginem
Caspe Qaṣb (قصب)[204] or Qasb (قسب) Possibly either an Arabized form of its original name or founded with an Arabic name.

The place name Casp was documented in Andalusi sources as "Qsp", "Qasp" or "Qasb", and has been related to the Arabic word "Casba"[204] [This could be referring to Qaṣba (قصبة), which translates to 'Rod']

Castile al-Qashtālah (القشتالة)[205] or al-Qila' (القلاع)[205] al-Qashtālah is the Arabized form of its original name Castille, while al-Qila' is a translation of the name to Arabic, and translates to 'The Castles'.
Castillo de Locubín Ḥiṣn al-'Uqbān (حصن العِقْبَان) or Ḥiṣn al-'Uqab (حصن العُقاب) Founded with Arabic name: Ḥiṣn al-'Uqbān translates to 'Fortress of the Eagles', while Ḥiṣn al-'Uqab translates to 'Fortress of the Eagle'

The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa took place here, and is known in Arabic as The Battle of al-'Uqab, named after Ḥiṣn al-'Uqab.

Castillo de Montemayor Ulyat Kanbaniya
Cazarabet Qaṣr Abbād Founded with Arabic name
Ceuta Sabtah (سَبْتَة)[206] The area was known as Septem Fratres (Seven Brothers)[207] in Latin, this would eventually be shortened to Septum[208] or Septa,[209] and would later become known as Sabtah in Arabic.
Cieza Madinat Siyāsah (مدينة سياسة)[210][211][212] or Madinat as-Siyāsah (مدينة السياسة) It is possible that the name Madinat Siyāsah (City of Siyāsah) is an Arabized form of the city's previous name, Segisa, which was mentioned by Ptolemy.[213]

The name Madinat as-Siyāsah may also be of Arabic origin, and would then translate to 'The City of Politics'.

Ciudad Real Māslākha
Ciutadella de Menorca Madīnat al-Jazīra (مدينة الجزيرة) or Madīnat Menūrqah (مدينة منورقة) 'The City of the Island' and 'The City of Menorca', respectively
Cordoba Qurṭubah (قرطبة)[214][215] Arabized form of its old Roman name Corduba, which in theory might be the Latinized form of the Phoenician-Punic qart ṭūbah meaning 'good town'.
Covadonga Ṣakhrat Bilāy (صخرة بلاي)[216] 'The Boulder of Pelagius'; named after the founder of the Kingdom of Asturias, who defeated the Arabs there in the first ever Christian victory in Iberia, known as 'Siege of the Boulder' (حصار الصخرة) in Arabic and as 'Battle of Covadonga' in English.
Cuarte de Huerva Qūwart (قورت)[217][218]
Cuenca Quwanka (قُوَنْكَةُ)[219] or Quwanqa (قُوَنْقَةُ)[220] or Kuwanka (كونكة)[154][155][221] Under the Arabs the castle of the city was known as 'qunka' which has no other feature than to reflect the previous Christian name, and so the name may be of Arabic origin.[222]

The name may also be an Arabization of the original Roman name, which derives from the Latin conca meaning "river basin", referring to the gorge of the rivers Júcar and Huécar.

Cuevas del Almanzora Kuhūf al-Manṣurah (كهوف المنصورة)[223] 'The Caves of al-Manṣurah'

al-Manṣurah translates to 'The Victorious one' and is named after the Andalusian military leader al-Manṣūr.

Cutanda Qutunda (قُتُنْدَةُ)[224] Possibly an Arabized form of its original name, which is Germanic kotta ‘heights’ echoed by Latin quota.[225]
Chiprana Shibrānah (شبرانة)[226] Possibly an Arabized form of its original Roman name Cipriano.[213]
Daroca Qal'at Darūqah (قلعة دَرُوقَةَ)[227][228][124][197] Qal'at Darūqah, which translates to 'Fortress of Darūqah', was given to the city after its conquest by the Arabs.
Deià Ḍay'ah (ضيعة)[229] Founded with Arabic name
Dénia Dāniyyah (دانيّة)[230][154][155] Arabized form of its Visigothic name Denia.
Ebro River Nahr 'Ibrah (نَهْرُ إِبْرَةَ)[231] or Nahr Ṭurṭūshah (نَهْرُ طَرْطُوشَةَ)[231] Translates to "River of 'Ibrah" and "River of Tortosa" respectively
Écija Istijjah (إِسْتِجَةُ)[232][84] or Isījjah (إسيجة)[172] Arabized form of its Roman name Astigi.
Elche 'Alsh (ألش)[154] Arabized form of its Roman name Ilici or Illice.
Fabara Hawwārah (حوارة)[233] or Fawārah (فوارة)[234] The name comes from either the Hawwara Berber tribe, or from the Arabic Fawārah (فوارة), which translates to fountain, sparkling spring, or geyser.[235]
Faraján Farḥān[236][229] Founded with Arabic name, translates to 'Happy' or 'Delightful'
Fuentes de Ebro Funtush Founded with Arabic name
Gállego Yalaq Founded with Arabic name
Genalguacil Jannat Al-Wāzir Founded with Arabic name
Generalife Jannat Al-Arīf Founded with Arabic name
Getafe Al-Jādāfih Founded with Arabic name
Girona Jarandah (جَرَنْدَةُ)[237] Jirūnah (جِيرُونَةُ)[237]
Granada Gharnāṭah (غرناطة)[238][239][240][241] The meaning and origin of the name are unknown, it could be of Arabic, Berber, or Latin origin.
Guadalajara Wādī Al-Ḥijārah (وادي الحجارة)[242][243] and Madinat al-Faraj (مَدِينَة الفَرَج) [242] Founded with Arabic name.

Wādī Al-Ḥijāra translates to 'The Valley of Stones' and Madinat al-Faraj translates to 'The City of al-Faraj'.

Guadalcanal Wādi Al-Khānnā Founded with Arabic name
Guadalcázar Wādi Al-Qasr Founded with Arabic name
Guadalevín Wadī Al-Libān Founded with Arabic name
Guadalquivir Wādi Al-Qabīr Founded with Arabic name
Guadalope Wādi Al-Lawh Founded with Arabic name
Guadasséquies Wadi As-Sukkār Founded with Arabic name
Guadix Wādi Al-Ash Founded with Arabic name
Huelva Walbah (وَلْبَة) or 'Unbah (أونبة)[244] Arabized form of its old Roman name Onuba.
Huerva Warbah Founded with Arabic name
Huesca Washqah (وشقة)[245][197] Arabized form of its old Roman name Osca.
Igualeja Balāt Al-Wālay
Íscar Hisn Al-Asqār Founded with Arabic name
Isla de Las Palomas Jazīra Al-Tārif
Jaén Jayyān Founded with Arabic name
Jalón Shalun (شَلوْن)[246] Founded with Arabic name
Jerez de la Frontera Sharīsh (شَرِيش)[247][136] or Shirsh (شِرِش)[248]
Jiloca Shaluqah Founded with Arabic name
Júcar River Nahr Shaqr (نهر شَقْر)[249][137][154][155] Nahr Shaqr translates to 'The River of Shaqr', Shaqr is most likely an Arabized form of the river's original name.[250]
Lleida Lāridah (لاردة)[230][137][245][197]
Lucena al-Yusānah (اليُسَانَة)[172] Arabized form of its Hebrew name Eliossana.
Macharaviaya Māšār Abu Yahyā Founded with Arabic name
Madrid Mājriṭ (مجريط)[251][252] Founded with Arabic name, comes from the Arabic word Majrā (مجرى), which means stream.[252]
Mairena del Aljarafe Maharana Founded with Arabic name
Maluenda Malwanda Founded with Arabic name
María de Huerva Ḥiṣn Al-Mariyya Founded with Arabic name
Marratxí Al-Murāqšī Founded with Arabic name
Medina Azahara
 Madinah Az-Zāhra Founded with Arabic name
Medinaceli Madinah As-Salīm Founded with Arabic name
Medina-Sidonia Madinah Aš-Šadūna Founded with Arabic name
Melilla Malīlah (مليلة)
Mérida Māridah (ماردة)[70][123][154][155] Arabized form of its old Latin name Emerita.
Mequinenza Miknāsa (مكناسة)[253][254][197] The name comes from Miknasa, a Zenata Berber tribe, this was Latinized as Miquinencia and later turned into its modern Spanish name Mequinenza.
Morón de la Frontera Mawrūr (مورور)
Montañana Munt Anyāt Founded with Arabic name
Monzalbarba Manzil Barbar
Muel Muwīl Founded with Arabic name
Nájera An-Nājarrah Founded with Arabic name
Navarre Balāt Al-Baškans
Orihuela Uryūlah (أريولة)
Orés Warša Founded with Arabic name
Palma de Mallorca Madinah Al-Mayūrqah
Pechina Bajjānah (بَجَّانَة)[255]
Puebla de Almenara Garīp al-Mānārah Founded with Arabic name
Ricla Rikla Founded with Arabic name
Rueda de Jalón Ḥiṣn Rūṭat al-Yahūd (حصن روطة اليهود)[256] Founded with Arabic name, translates to 'The Fortress of the Jewish Rūṭah'.
Salobreña Shlūbiniah (شلوبينية)[173] or Shalūbaniah (شَلُوبَنِيَة)[174]
Santaella Shant Yālah (شَنْتَ يَالَه)
Santiago de Compostela Shānt Yāqūb (شانت ياقوب)[257][77]
Segovia Shqūbiyah (شقوبيّة) or Shkūbiyah (شكوبية)[31][258]
Segura War Al-Abyād
Seville Ishbīliyyah (أشبيليّة)[259]
Sierra de Alcaraz Silsilat Jibāl al-Karaz (سلسلة جبال الكرز)[138] 'The Cherry Mountain range'
Simancas Sīmānqah (سيمانقة)[260] or Shānt Mānkash (شانت مانكش)
Somed Ḥiṣn Sumid Founded with Arabic name
Tarazona Ṭarasūna (طرسونة)
Tarifa Tarīfah Founded with Arabic name
Tarragona Ṭarraqūnah (طَرَّكُونَةُ)[261][262][197] Arabized form of its old Latin name Tarraconis.
Teruel Ṭarwīl (طَرْوِيلُ)[263] Founded with Arabic name
Toledo Ṭulayṭulah (طُلَيْطِلَة)[264] Arabized form of its old Latin name Toletum.
Torre Alháquime Burj al-Ḥakīm (بُرج الحكيم)[265] Founded with Arabic name, translates to 'The Tower of al-Hakīm'.
Tortosa Ṭurṭūshah (طرطوشة)[266][197][155] Arabized form of its old Latin name Dertusa or Dertosa.
Trafalgar Ṭaraf al-Ghār (طرف الغار)[267][268][269] or Ṭaraf al-Gharb (طرف الغرب)[270][269] or al-Ṭaraf al-'Aghar (الطرف الأغر)[271] Founded with Arabic name.

Ṭaraf al-Ghār (طرف الغار) translates to 'Edge/Cape of the Cave/Laurel', Ṭaraf al-Gharb (طرف الغرب) translates to 'Edge/Cape of the West'. In modern Arabic, the place is sometimes re-transcribed as al-Ṭaraf al-'Aghar (الطرف الأغر).[271]

Tudela Tuṭaylah (تُطَيْلَة)[266][31][197] Arabized form of its old Latin name Tutela.
Úbeda 'Ubbdah (أُبَّدَةُ)[272][273][266] or 'Abbdat al-'Arab (أبّدة العرب)[272] Founded with Arabic name
Valladolid Balād al-Walīd (بلد الوليد)[274][275][276] 'The Land of al-Walīd' (disputed)
Zafra Ṣafra' (صفراء) Founded with Arabic name, translates to 'The Yellow One'.
Zamora Sammūrah (سَمُّورة)[266][277] or Zammūrah(زَمُّورَة)[278] Arabized form of its old Visigothic name Semure.
Zaragoza Saraqusṭah (سَرَقُسْطَةُ)[279] Arabized form of its old Greek name Caesaraugusta (Καισαραυγοῦστα).
Zuera Ṣukhayrah (بلدية صُخَيرة)[280] or Zuhayrah (زُهَيرة)[281] Founded with Arabic name, Ṣukhayrah translates to 'Little Rock' while Zuhayrah translates to 'Little Flower'.

Sweden

Sweden
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Sweden Asūj (أَسُوج)[282][283] This was the pre-modern arabic exonym for Sweden, nowadays almost all Arabs use as-Sūwayd (السُوَيد)

Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan
English name Arabic name Endonym Notes
Name Language
Ashgabat 'Ishq Ābād (عشق أباد) The literal name of the city is "city of love" or "city of devotion", and the name consists of the Arabic word 'Ishq (عشق), which means 'Love or Want', and the Persian suffix Ābād (أباد), which means 'City'.

See also

References

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  2. ISBN 978-3-11-020343-1 Archived from the original
    on 2020-01-03.
  3. ^ The Wiktionary for النمسا
  4. ^ These passages about Khān Bālq taken from al-Masalik website, which itself is taken from The Rihla, a travelogue written by Ibn Battuta. Archived version made in 31 Aug, 2018
  5. ^ The Medieval World Through Muslim Eyes by Abdullah Ibrahim. Archived Version made in 26 Feb, 2020]
  6. ^ a b The Wiktionary for الصين
  7. ^
    ISBN 81-206-1966-8
  8. ^ a b These passages about Guangzhou taken from al-Masalik website, which itself is taken from The Rihla, a travelogue written by Ibn Battuta.
  9. ^ a b c d The Mutual Civilizational Influences Between the Islamic World and China (المؤثرات الحضارية المتبادلة بين العالم الإسلامي والصين) by Ibrahim Muhammad, pg. 62.
  10. ^ Muhammad al-Idrisi, Nuzhat al-mushtāq fī ikhtirāq al-āfāq. p.211 This page about Guangzhou on Wikisource] QID:Q1089336
  11. ^ Jawahir al-Kalam by Sheikh Muhammad Hasan an-Najafi, pg.145. Archived version made in 30 Nov, 2019]
  12. ^ These passages about Quanzhou taken from al-Masalik website, which itself is taken from The Rihla, a travelogue written by Ibn Battuta.
  13. ISBN 978-3-447-06103-2
  14. ISBN 0-415-34850-1
    .
  15. ^ «al-'Afqusiyah (Nicosia): The name of the main city of Cyprus, it known in Roman(Latin) as 'Afaqadion', which means the most strategic area. I was told so by an Arabic man of Cypriot origin.» [الأَفْقُوسِيَة] part 1 pg 232, Yaqut al-Hamwi. معجم البلدان.
  16. ^ "بلاد الكرج وعلاقاتها مع القوى المجاورة (500- 658هـ/ 1106- 1260م)". Journal of the College of Basic Education. 22 (94/انساني). 2016.
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  18. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-190563-6. Archived
    from the original on 28 May 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021. The former name is the Persian pronunciation, which is also used by Russians and Armenians. The present Georgian spelling was adopted in 1936
  19. ^ a b Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition: "Tiflīs"
  20. ^ Wiktionary for تفلیس
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  219. ^ Muhammad al-Idrisi, Nuzhat al-mushtāq fī ikhtirāq al-āfāq. p.560 QID:Q1089336
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  221. ^ Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall (1855), Über die arabische Geographie von Spanien (In German and Arabic), Wien: Wilhelm Braumüller Universitäts-Verlagsbuchhandlung, part 6 pg. 391, OCLC:163303843, QID:Q121346011
  222. ^ A Dictionary of Spanish Place Names (PDF) pg.96, by Humanities Commons.
  223. ^ List of Arabic and Spanish names for Iberian cities and places. Archived version on 14 July 2019.
  224. ^ «Qutunda (Cutenda): A town in al-Andalus, within the Thagr of Saraqusṭah, a battle between the Muslims and the Franks took place there, which was cited by the imam of the hadith scholars in Andalusia, Judge Abu Ali al-Hussein bin Muhammad bin Firah bin Hayun bin Sakra al-Sadfi al-Saraqusti, in Rabi’ al-Awwal in the year 514 Hijri, at the age of sixty years.» [قُتُنْدَةُ] part 4 pg310, Yaqut al-Hamwi. معجم البلدان.
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  235. ^ Wiktionary for فوارة
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  237. ^ a b Muhammad Abdullah Annan, دولة الإسلام في الأندلس, part 1, pg. 257, QID: Q20418218
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  242. ^ a b «Ibn Hawqal said: And Wādī Al-Ḥijāra is near the Madinat Salem. Ibn Saeed said: To the east of Ṭulayṭilah (Toledo) is the Madinat al-Faraj, and its river is called Wādī Al-Ḥijāra, and to its east is Madinat Salem.» Abu al-Fida', تقويم البلدان
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  250. ^ Joan Carles Membrado Tena. Sucronense toponymy in Valencia. Barcelona: Biblio 3W, REVISTA BIBLIOGRÁFICA DE GEOGRAFÍA Y CIENCIAS SOCIALES. University of Barcelona. Vol. XVII, No. 999, November 5, 2012
  251. ^ "Madrid... Arabic history shrouded in oblivion (مدريد.. تاريخ عربي يلفه النسيان)". Archived from the original on 2018-07-26 and 2017-04-25.
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