Battle of Alesia
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Battle of Alesia | |||||||||
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Part of the Gallic Wars | |||||||||
A reconstructed section of the Alesia investment fortifications | |||||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||||
Roman Republic | Gallic confederation | ||||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
Julius Caesar Mark Antony Titus Labienus Gaius Trebonius |
Vercingetorix Vercassivellaunos Sedullos † Commius Mediomatrici | ||||||||
Strength | |||||||||
10–11 legions[1][2] (30–50,000 legionaries) 60–75,000 approx. total Romans and allies |
328,000–470,000 total (ancient sources)[a]
<70,000–180,000 total (modern est.)[7][8]
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Casualties and losses | |||||||||
12,800 killed and wounded[9] |
290,000 (Caesar, exaggerated)[9]
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The Battle of Alesia or siege of Alesia (September 52 BC) was the climactic military engagement of the
The battle site was probably atop Mont Auxois, above modern Alise-Sainte-Reine in France, but this location, some have argued, does not fit Caesar's description of the battle. A number of alternatives have been proposed over time, among which only Chaux-des-Crotenay (in Jura in modern France) remains a challenger today.[10]
The event is described by Caesar himself in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico as well as several later ancient authors (namely Plutarch and Cassius Dio). After the Roman victory, Gaul (very roughly modern France) was subdued, although Gallic territories north of Gallia Narbonensis would not become a Roman province until 27 BC. The Roman Senate granted Caesar a thanksgiving of 20 days for his victory in the Gallic War.[11]
Background
In 58 BC, following his first consulship in 59 BC, Julius Caesar engineered his own appointment as
Caesar engaged in the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), which led to his conquest of Gaul beyond Gallia Narbonensis. When the Helvetii, a federation of tribes from what is now Switzerland, planned a migration to the Atlantic coast through Gaul, Caesar went to Geneva and forbade the Helvetii to move into Gaul. While he went to Gallia Cisalpina to collect three other legions, the Helvetii attacked the territories of the Aedui, Ambarri, and Allobroges, three Gallic tribes, which called for Caesar's help. Caesar and his Gallic allies defeated the Helvetii. The Gallic tribes then asked for Caesar to intervene against an invasion by the Suebi, a Germanic tribe. Caesar defeated the Suebi and, to demonstrate Roman power, crossed the Rhine in 56 BC. In 57 BC he intervened in intra-Gallic conflicts and marched on the Belgae of northern Gaul. From then on he conquered the Gallic peoples one by one. His successes in Gaul brought Caesar political prestige in Rome and great wealth through the spoils of wars and the sale of war captives as slaves.
Gallic existential concerns came to a head in 52 BC and caused the widespread revolt the Romans had long feared. The campaigns of 53 BC had been particularly harsh, and the Gauls feared for their prosperity. Previously, they had not been united, which had made them easy to conquer. But this changed in 53 BC, when Caesar announced that Gaul was now being treated as a Roman province, subject to Roman laws and religion. This was a subject of immense concern for the Gauls, who feared the Romans would destroy the Gallic holy land, which the Carnutes watched over. Each year the druids met there to mediate between the tribes on the lands considered the center of Gaul. A threat to their sacred lands was an issue that finally united the Gauls. Over the winter the charismatic king of the Arverni tribe, Vercingetorix, assembled an unprecedented grand coalition of Gauls.[12]
Prelude
Caesar was still in Rome when news of the revolt reached him. He rushed north in attempt to prevent the revolt from spreading, heading first to
Vercingetorix had originally been opposed to defending Avaricum, but the Bituriges Cubi had persuaded him otherwise. The Gallic army was camped outside the settlement. Even while defending, Vercingetorix wished to abandon the siege and outrun the Romans. But the warriors of Avaricum were unwilling to leave it. Upon Caesar's arrival, he promptly began construction of a defensive fortification. The Gauls continuously harassed the Romans and their foraging parties while they built their camp, and attempted to burn it down. But not even the fierce winter weather could stop the Romans, and a very sturdy camp was built in just 25 days. Siege engines were built, and Caesar waited for an opportunity to attack the heavily fortified oppidum. He chose to attack during a rainstorm, where the sentries were distracted. Siege towers were used to assault the fort, and artillery battered the walls. Eventually, the artillery broke a hole in the wall, and the Gauls were unable to stop the Romans from taking the settlement. The Romans then looted and raped the settlement; Caesar took no prisoners and claimed the Romans slew 40,000. That the Gallic coalition did not fall apart after this defeat is a testament to the leadership of Vercingetorix. Even despite this setback, the Aedui were willing to revolt and join the coalition. This was yet another setback to Caesar's supply lines, as he could no longer get supplies through the Aedui (though the taking of Avaricum had supplied the army for the moment).[12]
Vercingetorix now withdrew to Gergovia, the capital of his own tribe, which he was eager to defend. Caesar arrived as the weather warmed and fodder finally became available which somewhat eased supply issues. As usual, Caesar promptly set to building a fortification for the Romans. Caesar set about capturing territory closer to the oppidum. What happened in the ensuing Battle of Gergovia remains somewhat unclear. Caesar claims that he had just ordered his men to take a hill near to the oppidum, and that he then sounded a retreat. But no such retreat occurred and the Romans directly assaulted the settlement. Gilliver finds it likely that Caesar did not actually sound a retreat and that it was his plan all along to directly assault the settlement. Caesar's dubious claim is likely to distance himself from the ensuing and overwhelming failure of the Romans. The Roman assault ended in clear defeat as the Romans were greatly outnumbered. Caesar (whose self-reported casualty numbers are likely much lower than the actual amount) claims that 700 men died including 46 centurions. Caesar withdrew from his siege and Vercingetorix's victory attracted many new tribes to his cause. So too, however, did the Romans who convinced numerous Germanic tribes to join them.[12]
Vercingetorix marched the army he had gathered thus far, mainly cavalry, to intercept Caesar. The two armies met in the Battle of the Vingeanne, where Caesar won the subsequent victory defeating Vercingetorix's cavalry.[14]
Siege
With his cavalry routed Vercingetorix withdrew towards the Mandubii oppidum of Alesia, in what would become the siege of Alesia. After the poor performance at Gergovia, a direct assault on the Gauls by Caesar was no longer a viable solution. Thus, Caesar opted simply to besiege the settlement and starve out the defenders. Vercingetorix was fine with this, as he intended to use Alesia as a trap to conduct a pincer attack on the Romans, and sent a call for a relieving army at once. Vercingetorix likely did not expect the intensity of the Roman siege preparations. Although modern archeology suggests that Caesar's preparations were not as complete as he describes, it is apparent that Caesar laid some truly incredible siege works. Over the span of a month, some 25 miles of fortifications were built. They included a trench for soldiers, an anti-cavalry moat, towers at regular intervals, and booby traps in front of the trenches. The fortifications were dug in two lines, one to protect from the defenders, and one to protect from the relievers. Archeological evidence suggests the lines were not continuous as Caesar claims, and made much use of the local terrain, but it is apparent that they worked. Vercingetorix's relieving army arrived quickly, yet concerted coordinated attacks by both the defenders and relievers failed to oust the Romans.[12]
Alesia was an
Vercingetorix sent messengers around Gaul to rally the tribes to war and come to Alesia. When Caesar heard of this from deserters and captives, he dug a trench twenty
Some of the Roman soldiers had to go a considerable distance to get the timber for the construction of the works and grain to feed the troops. This reduced the number of troops at the Roman works. The Gauls made sorties with large forces to attack the works. Therefore, Caesar added further structures to the works to make them defensible by the reduced number of troops. Cut tree trunks were sharpened to create stakes. They were fastened at the bottom and sunk into a five pedes deep trench (1.5 m, 4.9 ft) with the boughs protruding from the ground. They were tied in rows of five so that they could not be pulled up without the attackers being impaled by the sharp stakes. Pits three pedes (0.9 m, 2.9 ft) deep which sloped inwards slightly to the bottom were dug in front of the stakes. They were placed in five intersected rows in the shape of a quincunx (an arrangement of five objects with four at the corners and the fifth at the centre). Tapering stakes, the thickness of a man's thigh, were sharpened at the top, hardened with fire, and sunk in the pits. They protruded from the bottom of the pit to a height of four fingers. Earth was pressed hard to a height of one foot from the bottom of the pit to make the stakes firm. The rest of the pit was covered with twigs and broken-off tree branches to hide the trap. Eight rows of this kind were placed three pedes (0.9 m, 2.9 ft). In front of these, one pes (0.3 m, 0.97 ft) stakes with iron hooks were sunk into the ground and scattered close to each other all over the field.[18]
To prepare for the arrival of the Gallic relief forces, Caesar constructed an outer fortification (a
The food supply of the population of Alesia and the 80,000 soldiers it hosted could not last long. Vercingetorix ordered all the grain to be brought to him and rationed it.[20] The Gauls held a council, and it was decided that the old and the sick should leave the town. The inhabitants of the town also sent out their wives and children to save food for the fighters, hoping that Caesar would take them as captives and feed them. However, Caesar forbade their being admitted to his fortification,[21] and Vercingetorix left his people out between the fortifications to starve to death.
Battle
Meanwhile, the Gallic relief force arrived and encamped on a hill one mile from the Roman fortification. The next day the Gauls encamped near the town. They then attacked the outer Roman fortification. The besieged Gauls simultaneously attacked the inner Roman fortification. However, this combined attack was unsuccessful. The next day the Gauls attacked at night.
The Gauls spotted a weakness in the Roman fortification. The north side of a hill could not be included in the Roman works and they placed a camp with two legions on steep and disadvantageous ground (this is indicated by a circle in the figure). Thus, the Gauls selected 60,000 men and appointed
After multiple attacks, the Gauls realized that they could not overcome the truly impressive Roman siege works. At this point, it became clear that the Romans would be able to outlast the defenders, and that the revolt was doomed. The relieving army melted away.
The next day Vercingetorix convened the Gallic council and proposed that he should be killed or surrendered alive to appease the Romans. Caesar ordered the Gauls to surrender their weapons and deliver their chieftains. The chieftains were brought before him and Vercingetorix was surrendered.[12][26] Captives were given to the Roman soldiers as part of the spoils of war apart from the Aedui and Arverni, whom he hoped to win over.[27]
Aftermath
With the revolt crushed, Caesar set his legions to winter across the lands of the defeated tribes to prevent further rebellion. Troops were also sent to the Remi, who had been steadfast allies to the Romans throughout the campaign. But resistance was not entirely over: southwest Gaul had not yet been pacified.[12]
Alesia proved to be the end of generalized and organized resistance against Caesar's invasion of Gaul and effectively marked the end of the Gallic Wars. In the next year (50 BC) there were mopping-up operations. During the Roman civil wars Gallia was essentially left on its own. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa became its first governor in 39–38 BC. In 39 BC he settled the Ubians on the west bank of the River Rhine and in 38 BC he suppressed a rebellion in Aquitania. He built a radial network of roads centred on the Gallic capital, Lugdunum (Lyon). Gallia was divided into three Roman provinces; Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Lugdununensis and Gallia Belgica. Only the Arverni kept their independence thanks to their victory against Caesar at the Battle of Gergovia.
For Caesar, Alesia was an enormous personal success, both militarily and politically. The Senate declared 20 days of thanksgiving for this victory but, due to political reasons, refused Caesar the honour of celebrating a
The Gallic Wars lack a clear end date. The legions continued to be active in Gaul through 50 BC, when Aulus Hirtius took over the writing of Caesar's reports on the war. The campaigns may well have continued, if not for the impending Roman civil war. The legions in Gaul were eventually pulled out in 50 BC as the civil war drew near, for Caesar would need them to defeat his enemies in Rome. The Gauls had not been entirely subjugated, and were not yet a formal part of the empire. But that task was not Caesar's, and he left that to his successors. Gaul would not formally be made into Roman provinces until the reign of Augustus in 27 BC, and there may have been unrest in the region as late as AD 70.[30]
Importance
Paul K. Davis writes that "Caesar's victory over the combined Gallic forces established Roman dominance in Gaul for the next 500 years. Caesar's victory also created a rivalry with the Roman government, leading to his invasion of the Italian peninsula."[31]
Identification of the site
For many years, the actual location of the battle was unknown. Competing theories focused first on two towns, Alaise in the
Uncertainty has nevertheless persisted, with questions being raised about the validity of Alise-Sainte-Reine's claim. For example, the site is said to be too small to accommodate even revised estimates of 80,000 men with the Gallic infantry, along with cavalry and additional personnel. It is also alleged that the topography of the area does not fit with Caesar's description. In the 1960s, a French archaeologist, André Berthier, argued that the hill top was too low to have required a siege, and that the "rivers" were actually small streams.[32]
Berthier proposed that the location of the battle was at
Numbers involved
Precise figures for the size of the armies involved, and the number of casualties suffered, are difficult to know. Such figures have always been a powerful propaganda weapon, and are thus suspect. Caesar, in his De Bello Gallico, refers to a Gallic relief force of a quarter of a million, probably an exaggeration to enhance his victory. Unfortunately, the only records of the events are Roman and therefore presumably biased. Modern historians usually believe that a number between fifty thousand and one hundred thousand men is more credible.[7][34]
Notes
References
- ^ a b Dodge, Theodore Ayrault (1989–1997). Caesar. New York. pp. 276–295.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ISBN 9780415151504.)
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 7.71
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 7.76
- ^ Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Caesar, 27, 3.
- ^ Strabo, Geographica, IV, 2, 3
- ^ a b Delbrück 1990, p. 504.
- ^ "Caesar's Grand Siege at Alesia". Warfare History Network. Retrieved 2023-09-19.
- ^ ThoughtCo. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
- ^ "Alésia Mandubiorum l'Hypothèse jurassienne" (in French). Archived from the original on July 20, 2011. Retrieved May 9, 2011.
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 7.90
- ^ a b c d e f g Gilliver 2003, pp. 51–60.
- ^ Delestrée 2004.
- ^ Caesar, De Bello Gallico, VII, 67.
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bella Gallico 7.69
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, 7.70
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, 7.72
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, 7.73
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, 7.74
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, 7.71,
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, 7.78
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries of the Gallic Wars, Book VII.86
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries of the Gallic Wars, Book VII.87
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries of the Gallic Wars, Book VII.88.
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, Book VII.88
- ^ Fields, Nic (June 20, 2014). "Aftermath". Alesia 52 BC: The final struggle for Gaul (Campaign). Osprey Publishing.
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries of the Gallic Wars, Book VI.88
- ISBN 978-0-7538-2158-9.
- ^ Fields, Nic (June 20, 2014). "Aftermath". Alesia 52 BC: The final struggle for Gaul (Campaign). Osprey Publishing.
- ^ Gilliver 2003, pp. 83–88.
- ^ Paul K. Davis, 100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World’s Major Battles and How They Shaped History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 56.
- ^ Schofield, Hugh (27 August 2012). "France's ancient Alesia dispute rumbles on". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
- Wells, Colin M. "Alesia and Kalkriese compared and contrasted: local chauvinism, nationalistic fervor, and sober archaeology" (PDF). Journal of Roman Archaeology: 674–680. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2020-06-23. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
- ISBN 978-0-8032-9199-7.
Sources
Modern
- Delestrée, Louis-Pol (2004). Nouvel atlas des monnaies gauloises. Saint-Germain-en-Laye: Commios. OCLC 57682619.
- Gilliver, Catherine (2003). Caesar's Gallic wars, 58–50 BC. New York: Routledge. OCLC 57577646.
Ancient
- ISBN 978-0-674-99080-7. (Available online, e.g.: English translation by W. A. McDevitte and W. S. Bohn (1869))
Further reading
- Boucheron, Patrick, et al., eds. France in the World: A New Global History (2019) pp. 4248.
- ISBN 978-0-306-80422-9.
- Adrian Goldsworthy, (2002) Roman Warfare, New York: Collins/Smithsonian, 2005.
- Account of the battle and surrounding events (retrieved late November 2005)
- Livius.org account of the battle Archived 2015-11-08 at the Wayback Machine (retrieved late February 2009)
External links
- Official web site of Alesia
- Video: Exact location of Alesia at Alise-Sainte-Reine (german)
- Photo: Gaulish inscription, which shows the Gaulish spelling of Alésia: "ALISIIA", found at the "Forum" in Alise-Sainte-Reine, 1st century BC, 50 × 34 cm
- Julius Caesar: The siege of Alesia Archived 2015-11-08 at the Wayback Machine
- The Battle of Alesia