Decolonization of the Americas
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The
Spain would lose all three of its remaining Caribbean colonies by the end of the 1800s.
Peaceful independence by the voluntary withdrawal of colonial powers then became the norm in the second half of the 20th century. However, there are still British and Dutch colonies in North America (mostly Caribbean islands). France has fully integrated most of its former colonies in the Americas (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, and Martinique) as fully constituent Departments of France.
Conditions before revolution
Undermining of metropolitan authority
During the 18th century, Spain recovered much of the strength it had lost in the 17th century but the country's resources were under strain because of the incessant warfare in Europe from 1793. This led to increased local participation in the financing of defense and increased participation in militias by the locally born. Such development was at odds with the ideals of the centralized absolute monarchy. The Spanish also made formal concessions to strengthen defense; In Chiloé, Spanish authorities promised freedom from the Encomienda for indigenous locals who settled near the new stronghold of Ancud (founded in 1768) and contributed to its defense. The increased local organization of the defenses would ultimately undermine the metropolitan authority and bolster the independence movement.[2]
Napoleonic Wars
The
at different times, from 1799 to 1815.In the case of Spain and its colonies, in May 1808, Napoleon captured
Spanish military presence in its colonies
The colonial army of the Spanish Empire in the Americas was made up of local American and European supporters of
Other factors
Independence movements in South America can be traced back to slave revolts in plantations in the northernmost part of the continent and the Caribbean. In 1791, a massive slave revolt sparked a general insurrection against the plantation system and French colonial power.[4] These events were followed by a violent uprising led by José Leonardo Chirino and José Caridad González that sprung up in 1795 Venezuela, allegedly inspired by the revolution in Haiti.
Toussaint L'Ouverture was born a slave in Saint-Domingue where he developed labor skills that would give him higher privileges than other slaves. He intellectually and physically advanced resulting in promotion, land of his own, and owning slaves. In 1791, slaves in Haiti formed a revolution to seek independence from their French owners. L'Ouverture joined the rebellion as a top military official to abolish slavery without complete independence. However, through a series of letters written by Toussaint, it became clear that he grew open to equal human rights for all that live in Haiti. Similar to how the United States Constitution was ratified, the enlightenment ideas of equality and representation of the people created an impact of change against the status quo that sparked the revolution. The letter details the great concerns he felt due to a conservative shift in France's legislature after the revolution in 1797. The greatest fear was that these conservative values could give ideas to the French Government to bring back slavery. The enlightenment has proven to forever change the way a captive society thinks after L'Ouverture refuses to let the French send him and his people back into slavery. "[W]hen finally the rule of law took the place of anarchy under which the unfortunate colony had too long suffered, what fatality can have led the greatest enemy of its prosperity and our happiness still to dare to threaten us with the return of slavery?" Ultimately, slavery was abolished from French colonies in 1794 and Haiti declared Independence from France in 1804.[5]
United States
The United States of America declared independence from Great Britain on July 4, 1776, thus becoming the first independent, foreign-recognized nation in the Americas and the first European colonial entity to break from its mother country. Britain formally acknowledged American independence in 1783 after its defeat in the American Revolutionary War. The U.S. victory encouraged independence movements in other parts of the Americas.
Although initially occupying only the land east of the
Haiti and the French Antilles
The
Spanish America
Except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, the Spanish colonies in the Americas won their independence during the first quarter of the 19th century.
During the
This experience of self-government, along with the influence of Liberalism and the ideas of the French and American Revolutions, brought about a struggle for independence, led by the Libertadores. The territories freed themselves, often with help from foreign mercenaries and privateers. The United States and Europe were neutral, yet aimed to achieve political influence and trade without the Spanish monopoly.
In South America, Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led the final phase of the independence struggle. Although Bolívar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the Paraguayan War and the War of the Pacific.
A related process took place in what is now Mexico, Central America, and parts of North America between 1810 and 1821 with the Mexican War of Independence. Independence was achieved in 1821 by a coalition uniting under Agustín de Iturbide and the Army of the Three Guarantees. Unity was maintained for a short period under the First Mexican Empire, but within a decade the region fought against the United States over the borderlands (losing the bordering lands of California and Texas). Most of the heat was during the official Mexican-American War from 1846 to 1848.[6]
In 1898, in the Greater Antilles, the United States won the Spanish–American War and occupied Cuba and Puerto Rico, ending Spanish territorial control in the Americas.
Argentina
After the defeat of Spain in the
Following half a decade of battles and skirmishes with provincial royalist forces within the former Vice-royalty along with military expeditions across the Andes to
Bolivia
Following upheaval caused by the
Formally, it is considered that the fight for independence culminated in the Battle of Ayacucho, on 9 December 1824.[citation needed]
Colombia
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Chile
The Chilean Independence campaign was led by Liberator General Jose de San Martin with the support of Chilean exiles such as Bernardo O'Higgins. The local independence movement was composed of Chilean-born criollos, who sought political and economic independence from Spain. The independence movement was far from gaining unanimous support among Chileans, who became divided between independentists and royalists. What started as an elitist political movement against their colonial master, finally ended as a full-fledged civil war. Traditionally, the process is divided into three stages:
Ecuador
The first uprising against Spanish rule took place in 1809, and criollos in Ecuador set up a junta on 22 September 1810, to rule in the name of the Bourbon monarch; but as elsewhere, it allowed assertion of their power.[7] Only in 1822 did Ecuador fully gain independence and became part of Gran Colombia, from which it withdrew in 1830.[8] At the Battle of Pichincha, near present-day Quito, Ecuador on 24 May 1822, General Antonio José de Sucre's forces defeated a Spanish force defending Quito. The Spanish defeat guaranteed the liberation of Ecuador.
Guatemala
In 1821, the entire Kingdom of Guatemala was peacefully subject to Spanish rule. With the innovations produced by the constitutional system, the freedom of the press and the exaltation of the parties, which were born in the popular elections, opinion in favor of independence spread.
Those in favor of independence held meetings in Guatemala, but they did not have the resources to rise up against the government; They expected everything from the progress made in Mexico by the Plan of Iguala or Plan of Independence. Likewise, not all the independentists were in agreement with the system of government proclaimed by Iturbide, much less by the dynasty called to the Mexican throne, but then it was only about independence, each one reserving their opinion regarding the forms of government.
On September 13, the minutes of Ciudad Real de Chiapas and other towns of that State adhering to the Plan of Iguala were received in Guatemala; the advances that the army was making gave all their strength to the pronouncements of Chiapas, which by itself never had any political importance in that kingdom.
The trustee of the Guatemala City Council, Mr. Mariano Aycinena, requested an extraordinary session to present a petition in order to proclaim independence. pp. 85–90.</ref>[9]
Mexico
Independence in Mexico was a protracted struggle from 1808 until the fall of the royal government in 1821 and the establishment of independent Mexico. In the
Paraguay
Paraguay gained its independence on the night of May 14 and the morning of May 15, 1811, after a plan organized by various pro-independence nationalists including Fulgencio Yegros and José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia.
Peru
Spain initially had the support of the Lima oligarchs because of their opposition to the commercial interests of Buenos Aires and Chile. Therefore, the Viceroyalty of Peru became the last redoubt of the Spanish Monarchy in South America. Nevertheless, a Creole rebellion arose in 1812 in Huánuco and another in Cusco between 1814 and 1816. Both were suppressed. These rebellions were supported by the armies of Buenos Aires.
Peru finally succumbed after the decisive continental campaigns of José de San Martín (1820–1823) and Simón Bolívar (1824). While San Martín was in charge of the land campaign, a newly-built Chilean Navy led by Lord Cochrane transported the fighting troops and launched a sea campaign against the Spanish fleet in the Pacific. San Martín, who had displaced the royalists of Chile after the Battle of Maipú, and who had disembarked in Paracas in 1820, proclaimed the independence of Peru in Lima on 28 July 1821. Four years later, the Spanish Monarchy was defeated definitively at the Battle of Ayacucho in late 1824.
After independence, the conflicts of interests that faced different sectors of Creole Peruvian society and the particular ambitions of the
Uruguay
Following the events of the May Revolution, in 1811 José Gervasio Artigasled a successful revolt against the Spanish forces in the Provincia Oriental, now Uruguay, joining the independentist movement that was taking place in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata at the time. In 1821, the Provincia Oriental was invaded by Portugal, trying to annex it into Brazil under the name of Província Cisplatina.
The former Vice-royalty of the Río de la Plata,
Venezuela
According to the Encyclopedia Americana of 1865, General Francisco de Miranda, already a hero to the French, Prussians, English, and Americans had garnered a series of successes against the Spanish between 1808 and 1812. He had effectively negated their access to all the ports in the Caribbean, thus preventing them from receiving reinforcements and supplies, and was essentially conducting mopping-up operations throughout the country. At that point, he convinced Simon Bolívar to join the struggle and put him in charge of the fort at Puerto Cabello. This was all at once a supply and arms depot, a strategic port, and the central holding facility for Spanish prisoners. Through what amounts to a gross dereliction of duty, Simon Bolívar neglected to enforce the customary security dispositions before departing to a social event. During the night there was an uprising of the Spanish prisoners and they managed to subdue the Independentist garrison and gain control of the supplies, arms and ammunition, and the port. The Loyalist forces progressively regained control of the country and eventually, Monteverde's successes forced the newly formed congress of the republic to ask Miranda that he sign a capitulation at La Victoria in Aragua, on July 12, 1812, thus ending the first phase of the revolutionary war.
After the capitulation of 1812, Simón Bolívar turned over Francisco de Miranda to the Spanish authorities, secured a safe passage for himself and his closest officers, and fled to New Granada. He later returned with a new army, while the war had entered a tremendously violent phase. After much of the local aristocracy had abandoned the cause of independence, blacks and mulattoes carried on the struggle. Elites reacted with open distrust and opposition to the efforts of these common people. Bolívar's forces invaded Venezuela from New Granada in 1813, waging a campaign with a ferocity captured perfectly by their motto of "war to the death". Bolívar's forces defeated Domingo Monteverde's Spanish army in a series of battles, taking Caracas on August 6, 1813, and besieging Monteverde at Puerto Cabello in September 1813.
With loyalists displaying the same passion and violence, the rebels achieved only short-lived victories. The army led by the loyalist José Tomás Boves demonstrated the key military role that the Llaneros came to play in the region's struggle. Turning the tide against independence, these highly mobile, ferocious fighters made up a formidable military force that pushed Bolívar out of his home country once more. In 1814, heavily reinforced Spanish forces in Venezuela lost a series of battles to Bolívar's forces but then decisively defeated Bolivar at La Puerta on June 15, took Caracas on July 16, and again defeated his army at Aragua on August 18, for 2,000 Spanish casualties out of 10,000 soldiers as well as most of the 3,000 in the rebel army. Bolívar and other leaders then returned to New Granada. Later that year the largest expeditionary force ever sent by Spain to America arrived under the command of Pablo Morillo. This force effectively replaced the improvised llanero units, who were disbanded by Morillo.
Bolívar and other republican leaders returned to Venezuela in December 1816, leading a largely unsuccessful insurrection against Spain from 1816 to 1818 from bases in the Llanos and Ciudad Bolívar in the Orinoco River area.
In 1819 Bolívar successfully invaded New Granada, and returned to Venezuela in April 1821, leading an army of 7,000. At Carabobo on June 24, his forces decisively defeated Spanish and colonial forces, winning Venezuelan independence, although hostilities continued.
Brazil
Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide their colonial territory in the Americas. The captaincies they created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador which reported directly to the Crown in Lisbon. Therefore, it is not common to refer to "Portuguese America" (like Spanish America, Dutch America, etc.), but rather to Brazil, as a unified colony since its very beginnings.
As a result, Brazil did not split into several states by the time of independence (1822), as happened to its Spanish-speaking neighbors. The adoption of a monarchy instead of a federal republic in the first six decades of Brazilian political sovereignty also contributed to the nation's unity. [citation needed]
After several failed revolts in the Portuguese colony,
Canada
20th century
Other countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
From Spain:
From the United Kingdom:
- Jamaica: from the United Kingdom, in 1962
- Trinidad and Tobago: from the United Kingdom, in 1962
- Guyana (formerly British Guiana): from the United Kingdom, in 1966.
- Barbados: from the United Kingdom, in 1966
- Bahamas: Granted internal self-government in 1964 and, then achieved full independence from the United Kingdom in 1973.
- Grenada: from the United Kingdom, in 1974
- Dominica: from the United Kingdom, in 1978
- Saint Lucia: from the United Kingdom, in 1979
- St. Vincent and the Grenadines: from the United Kingdom, in 1979
- Antigua and Barbuda: from the United Kingdom, in 1981
- Belize (formerly British Honduras): from the United Kingdom, in 1981
- Saint Kitts and Nevis: from the United Kingdom, in 1983
From the Netherlands:
- Suriname: from the Netherlands, in 1975
Current non-sovereign territories
Some parts of the Americas are still administered by European countries or the United States:
- Anguilla (United Kingdom)
- Aruba (Netherlands)
- Bermuda (United Kingdom)
- Bonaire (Netherlands)
- British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom)
- Cayman Islands (United Kingdom)
- Curacao(Netherlands)
- Falkland Islands (United Kingdom)
- French Guiana (France)
- Greenland (Kingdom of Denmark)
- Guadeloupe (France)
- Martinique (France)
- Montserrat (United Kingdom)
- Puerto Rico (United States)
- Saba (Netherlands)
- Saint Barthelemy(France)
- Saint Martin (France)
- Saint-Pierre and Miquelon(France)
- Sint Eustatius (Netherlands)
- Sint Maarten (Netherlands)
- South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands(United Kingdom)
- Turks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom)
- United States Virgin Islands (United States)
Some of the remaining non-sovereign territories of the Americas have retained this status by choice, and enjoy a significant degree of self-government. (Some have nevertheless been placed on the
Timeline
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Gained independence from Spain, United States
Country | Colonial name | Colonial power | Independence date | First head of state | War for independence |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cuba | Cuba | Spanish Empire; United States | 10 October 1868 December 10, 1898 May 20, 1902 6 February 1909 |
Tomás Estrada Palma | Spanish–American War |
Gained independence from the United States
1898-1965
Country | Event name | Colonial power | Independence date | First head of state | Part of war(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dominican Republic | Santo Domingo Affair | United States | February 11, 1904 | Juan Isidro Jiminez
|
Banana Wars |
Haiti | United States occupation of Haiti | United States | August 1, 1934 | Sténio Vincent | Banana Wars |
Dominican Republic | United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924) | United States | September 18, 1924 | Desiderio Arias | Banana Wars |
Dominican Republic | Dominican Civil War | United States | September 3, 1965 | Joaquín Balaguer | Cold War |
1907–1919 (miscellaneous)
Occupied territory | Years | Occupied state | Occupying state | Event | Part of war(s) | Subsequently annexed? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nicaragua | 1912–1933 | Nicaragua | United States | Occupation of Nicaragua | Banana Wars | No |
Veracruz | 1914 | Mexico | United States | Occupation of Veracruz | Mexican Revolution | No |
World War I and immediate aftermath
Occupied territory | Years | Occupied state | Occupying state | Event | Part of war(s) | Subsequently annexed? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Haiti | 1915–1934 | Haiti | United States | Occupation of Haiti | Banana Wars | No |
Dominican Republic | 1916–1924 | Dominican Republic | Occupation of the Dominican Republic | No | ||
Cuba | 1917–1922 | Cuba | Sugar Intervention | No |
1960–1979
Occupied territory | Years | Occupied state | Occupying state | Event | Part of war(s) | Subsequently annexed? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dominican Republic | 1965–1966 | Dominican Republic | United States | Invasion of the Dominican Republic
|
Dominican Civil War | No |
1980–1999
Occupied territory | Years | Occupied state | Occupying state | Event | Part of war(s) | Subsequently annexed? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Falkland Islands | 1982 | United Kingdom | Argentina | Occupation of the Falkland Islands | Falklands War | No |
Grenada | 1983 | Grenada | United States | Invasion of Grenada | Grenadian Revolution
|
No |
Panama | 1989–1990 | Panama | United States | Invasion of Panama | War on drugs | No |
Haiti | 1994–1995 | Haiti | Operation Uphold Democracy | 1991 Haitian coup d'état | No |
Gained independence from France, Spain
Country | Colonial name | Colonial power | Independence date | First head of state | War for independence |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Haiti | Saint-Domingue | First French Empire | January 1, 1804 | Jean-Jacques Dessalines | Haitian Revolution |
Dominican Republic as the Republic of Spanish Haiti | Captaincy General of Santo Domingo | Spanish Empire | November 20, 1821 | José Núñez de Cáceres | Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo |
Dominican Republic | Captaincy General of Santo Domingo | Haiti | February 27, 1844 | Juan Pablo Duarte | Dominican War of Independence |
Dominican Republic | Captaincy General of Santo Domingo | Spanish Empire | August 16, 1865 | José María Cabral | Dominican Restoration War |
Gained independence from the British Empire/United Kingdom
Gained independence from Portugal
Country | Colonial name | Colonial power | Independence date | First head of state | War for independence |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brazil | United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves | Portuguese Empire | September 7, 1822 | Pedro I | Brazilian War of Independence |
Uruguay | Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata;
Cisplatina Province
|
Spanish Empire;
Empire of Brazil in 1828 |
May 18, 1811;
August 27, 1828 [17] |
José Gervasio Artigas; | Battle of Las Piedras ;
|
Gained independence from Mexico
Gained independence from the Netherlands
Country[22] | Colonial name | Colonial power[23] | Independence date[24] | First head of state[25] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Suriname | Suriname | Netherlands | November 25, 1975 | Johan Ferrier |
Gained independence from Spain
No | Country | Modern state | Pre-independence name
(if different) |
Date | year | note |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Saint-Domingue | Haiti | Captaincy General of Santo Domingo | ? | 1795 | Peace of Basel, ceded eastern portion to France |
2 | First Republic of Paraguay | Paraguay | Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata | 14 May | 1811 | May Revolution part of Spanish American wars of independence |
3 | First Republic of Venezuela | Venezuela | Captaincy General of Venezuela | 5 July | 1811 | Venezuelan wars of independence |
4 | Uruguay | Uruguay | Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata | ? | 1811 | Uruguay gained independence from Spain, was annexed by the Empire of Brazil, then regained independence in 1825. |
5 | United Provinces of the Río de la Plata | Argentina | Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata | 9 July | 1816 | Argentine wars of independence |
6 | State of Chile | Chile | Captaincy General of Chile | 12 February | 1818 | Chilean wars of independence |
7 | Gran Colombia | Colombia | Viceroyalty of New Granada | 17 December | 1819 | Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada |
8 | Protectorate of Peru | Peru | Viceroyalty of Peru | 28 July | 1821 | Peruvian War of Independence |
9 | First Mexican Empire | Mexico | New Spain | 15 September | 1821 | Mexican War of Independence |
10 | Costa Rica | 15 September | 1821 | Costa Rica part of 1st Mexican Empire. Then later got independence and creation of Federal Republic of Central America in 1823. Then later dissolved in 1841 creation of Costra Rica. | ||
11 | El Salvador | 15 September | 1821 | El Salvador part of 1st Mexican Empire. Then later got independence and creation of Federal Republic of Central America in 1823. Then later dissolved in 1841 creation of El Salvador. | ||
12 | Guatemala | 15 September | 1821 | Guatemala part of 1st Mexican Empire. Then later got independence and creation of Federal Republic of Central America in 1823. Then later dissolved in 1841 creation of Guatemala. late British annexed north-east Guatemala and made colony of British Honduras | ||
13 | Honduras | 15 September | 1821 | Honduras part of 1st Mexican Empire. Then later got independence and creation of Federal Republic of Central America in 1823. Then later dissolved in 1841 creation of Honduras. | ||
14 | Nicaragua | 15 September | 1821 | Nicaragua part of 1st Mexican Empire. Then later got independence and creation of Federal Republic of Central America in 1823. Then later dissolved in 1841 creation of Nicaragua. | ||
15 | Panama | Panama | Viceroyalty of New Granada | November 28 | 1821 | Independence of Panama (Bloodless revolution) |
16 | Ecuador | Ecuador | Viceroyalty of New Granada | 24 May | 1822 | Ecuadorian War of Independence |
17 | Bolivian Republic | Bolivia | Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata | 6 August | 1825 | Bolivia war of independence |
18 | Second Dominican Republic | Dominican Republic | Captaincy General of Santo Domingo | 15 July | 1865 | Spain ceded the island to France in the Peace of Basel. Spain recaptured the eastern portion of Santo Domingo 1809-1821 (the España Boba period). The Republic of Spanish Haiti gained independence from Spain in 1821, was occupied by Haiti, then gained independence as the First Dominican Republic; reoccupied by Spain 1861-1865, the Second Dominican Republic gained independence but was occupied by the United States 1916-1924. The Third Dominican Republic followed the U.S. occupation. |
19 | Cuba | Cuba | Captaincy General of Cuba | 10 October | 1868 | Cuba got independence from Spain. But United States occupied Cuban (USA and Spain has sigin deal of Treaty of Paris (1898). Spain give Cuba to USA to end Spanish American war) . Then later Cuba got independence from USA in 1902 and established First Cuba Republic. |
20 | 11 April | 1899 | Treaty of Paris (1898) |
North America
This is a list of all present
South America
This is a list of all present
World reaction
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United States and Great Britain
Great Britain and the United States were rivals for influence in the newly independent sovereign nations.[26] As a result of the successful revolutions which established so many newly independent nations, United States President James Monroe and the Secretary of State John Quincy Adams drafted the Monroe Doctrine.[citation needed] It stated that the United States would not tolerate any European interference in the Western Hemisphere. This measure ostensibly was taken to safeguard the newfound liberties of these new countries, but it was also taken as a precautionary measure against the intrusion of European states.[citation needed] Since the United States was a newly founded nation, it could not prevent other European powers from interfering, for that the United States looked for Britain's help and support to execute the Monroe Doctrine into action.
Great Britain's trade with Latin America greatly expanded during the revolutionary period, which until then was restricted due to Spanish mercantilist trade policies. British pressure was sufficient to prevent Spain from attempting any serious reassertion of its control over its lost colonies.
Attempts at hemispheric unity
The notion of closer Spanish American cooperation and unity was first put forward by the Liberator
Sixty-three years later the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics was established. It was renamed the International Commercial Bureau at the Second International Conference of 1901–1902. These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent the point of inception of today's Organization of American States.
See also
- Colonialism
- Decolonization
- Wars of national liberation
- Predecessors of sovereign states in South America
- Creole nationalism
- Spanish Empire
- Libertadores
- Spanish reconquest of Mexico
- Spanish American Royalists
- Wars of national liberation
- History of Central America
- History of South America
- History of Cuba
- History of the Dominican Republic
- History of Puerto Rico
- Age of Revolution
- Territorial evolution of the Caribbean
- Spanish American wars of independence
Notes
- ^ Timeline list arranged according to current countries. Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonization was achieved jointly or where the current state is formed by a merger of previously decolonized states. For simplicity's sake, the numerous U.S. military occupations that occurred during the Banana Wars are not listed here despite accusations of American imperialism.
- ^ Some territories changed hands multiple times, so the list is mentioned as the last colonial power.
- list of sovereign states by formation date. Any discrepancies between dates listed here and public holidays celebrating the country's independence (and whether the date listed is celebrated as a holiday at all) are noted, as well as the national day if the country does not have an independence day. Date when a commonwealth realm abolished its monarchy is noted. Note that a large number of states (i.e. those formed in the aftermath of the Spanish American wars of independence) would not be recognized by their colonial power as independent until decades later.
- ^ For countries that became independent either as a Commonwealth realm or as a parliamentary republic the head of government is listed instead.
- incorporation in 1959, but some of the territories remain unincorporated.
- September 5, 1774 until Washington's inauguration the United States was nominally headed by the President of the Continental Congress. Elias Boudinotheld the office on the date of independence.
- ^ Not recognized by France until April 17, 1825.
- ^ Jean-Pierre Boyer was President on the date of France's recognition.
- ^ Not recognized by Spain until April 29, 1857.
- ^ Justo José de Urquiza was President on the date of Spain's recognition.
- ^ Composed of the following leaders: Vicente Ignacio Iturbe Domínguez; Juan Valeriano de Zevallos; Fulgencio Yegros; Pedro Juan Caballero and José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia
- ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. The date September 18, 1810 (when the Government Junta was formed) is celebrated as Chile's date of independence. Chile would not be recognized by Spain until April 25, 1844.
- ^ Assumed office four days after independence as Supreme Director. Manuel Bulnes was President on the date of Spain's recognition.
- ^ Celebrated as Battle of Boyacá Day. The date July 20, 1810 (when Viceroy Antonio José Amar y Borbón formally declared New Granada's independence) is celebrated as Colombia's date of independence.
- ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. After declaring independence from Spain on July 5, 1811 with the enactment of the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence, the territory of present-day Venezuela continued to struggle for its independence until June 24, 1821 when the decisive victory of Simón Bolívar and Venezuelan forces over the Spanish at the Battle of Carabobo led to the independence of the country from Spain and the establishment of the Republic of Gran Colombia, from which Venezuela gained independence on January 13, 1830. Venezuela celebrates July 5, 1811 as its independence day.
- ^ a b c d e After gaining independence from Spain, the Federal Republic of Central America was annexed by the Mexican Empire on January 25, 1822. The Federal Republic would regain independence on July 1, 1823.
- ^ On November 15, 1838, Costa Rica formally withdrew from the Federal Republic of Central America and then declared itself as an independent republic on September 28, 1848
- ^ Vicente Filisola.
- ^ Braulio Carrillo Colina was Head of State when Costa Rica withdrew from the Federal Republic of Central America. José María Castro Madriz was President when Costa Rica declared its sovereignty.
- ^ Sometime around 1840 Guatemala formally withdrew from the Federal Republic of Central America and became an independent republic on March 21, 1847.
- ^ Mariano Rivera Paz was Head of State around the time of Guatemala's withdrawal from the Federal Republic of Central America. Rafael Carrera became President upon the declaration of Guatemala's sovereignty.
- ^ On November 15, 1838, Honduras formally withdrew from the Federal Republic of Central America and became an independent state.
- ^ Francisco Zelaya y Ayes was sworn in as Acting President on September 21, 1839. From November 12, 1838, from the Federal Republic to Zelaya y Ayes' inauguration, Honduras was headed by a provisional President. José Lino Matute held office on the date of independence.
- ^ On February 18, 1841, El Salvador (by then the only member remaining in the Federal Republic of Central America), formally withdrew and became an independent state.
- ^ Juan Lindo was President when El Salvador withdrew from the Federal Republic.
- ^ as the Republic of Spanish Haiti
- annexed by Haiti on February 9, 1822. On November 6, 1844, after months of fighting starting from February 27 of that year, the Dominican Republic regained sovereignty upon the ratification of the Constitution of the Dominican Republic. The February 27 date is celebrated as the Dominican Republic's date of independence.
- ^ Pedro Santana was the President of the Central Government Junta on the date of ratification of the Dominican Constitution.
- ^ Celebrated as Battle of Pichincha Day. The date August 10, 1909 (when the city of Quito formally declared Ecuador's independence) is celebrated as Ecuador's date of independence. On May 13, 1830, Ecuador formally seceded from Gran Colombia.
- ^ Juan José Flores was Jéfe Supremo when Ecuador seceded from Gran Colombia.
- ^ Not recognized by Spain until July 21, 1847.
- ^ Assumed office six days after independence as President. José Ballivián was President on the date of Spain's recognition.
- ^ As the Empire of Brazil.
- ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. Brazil’s independence from Portugal was officially recognized on August 29, 1825 by the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro. The date September 7, 1822 (when then-Prince Regent Dom Pedro formally declared Brazil's independence) is celebrated as Brazil's date of independence.
- ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. After its decisive victory over Spanish forces at the Battle of Las Piedras, Uruguay continued to struggle for its independence against Spain. From 1816 to 1820, the territory of present-day Uruguay was invaded and conquered by the Portuguese Empire during the Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental. Uruguay was formally annexed firstly by the Portuguese Empire in 1821 and secondly by the Empire of Brazil in 1822 as a Brazilian province under the name Cisplatina. Uruguay declared independence from the Empire of Brazil on August 25, 1825, but its independence was officially recognized on August 27, 1828 by the Preliminary Peace Convention. Uruguay celebrates August 25, 1825 as its independence day.
- ^ On March 18, 1861, the Dominican Republic under Pedro Santana formally rejoined the Spanish Empire as a colony. This proved to be very unpopular among the Dominican people, and on August 16, 1865, the Dominican Republic became independent once again.
- ^ Celebrated as Restoration Day.
- ^ Celebrated as Canada Day. The Dominion of Canada was constituted through the Constitution Act, 1867 entering into force on July 1, 1867. On December 11, 1931, it got increased self-governance powers through the Statute of Westminster, followed by complete sovereignty on April 17, 1982, after the passage of the Canada Act 1982. Because of these decades-long steps, Canada Day is not considered to be a celebration of Canada's independence (although it is usually celebrated as such).
- ^ R. B. Bennett and Pierre Trudeau were respectively the Prime Minister on the date of passage of the Statute of Westminster and the Canada Act.
- Rebellions of 1837were a pair of Canadian armed uprisings that occurred in 1837 and 1838 in response to frustrations in political reform.
- ^ De jure. De facto the United States.
- another period of occupation. This dominance would last until the end of the Cuban Revolution on January 1, 1959. As a result, Cuba celebrates the date October 10, 1868, as its date of independence, when Carlos Manuel de Céspedes formally declared Cuba's independence and launched the Ten Years' War.
- ^ Assumed office on May 20, 1902 as President. Although Fidel Castro was the de facto leader of Cuba in the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution, he would not assume office until February 16, 1959, as Prime Minister. Manuel Urrutia Lleó was sworn in as President two days after the end of the Cuban Revolution.
- ^ The Ten Years' War was an earlier armed uprising that failed to gain independence from Spain.
- ^ See Independence of Jamaica.
- ^ Abolished its commonwealth monarchy on August 1, 1976.
- ^ Abolished its commonwealth monarchy on February 23, 1970.
- ^ Remained Prime Minister when Guyana abolished its monarchy. Arthur Chung was sworn in as President on March 17, 1970. From the abolition of Guyana's monarchy and Chung's inauguration Edward Luckhoo served as Acting President.
- ^ Abolished its commonwealth monarchy on November 30, 2021.
References
- ^ "Pedro I | emperor of Brazil | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on February 10, 2023. Retrieved February 10, 2023.
- ^ Ossa Santa Cruz, Juan Luis (2010). "La criollización de un ejército periférico, Chile, 1768 to 1810". Historia (in Spanish). 42 (II): 413–448. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016. Retrieved January 27, 2016.
- ^ Chambers, Sarah C., and John Charles Chasteen. Latin American Independence: An Anthology of Sources. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub., 2010.
- ^ "Timeline: Haiti". BBC News. April 29, 2009. Archived from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved April 30, 2009.
- ^ Toussaint L'Ouverture, "Letter to the French Directory, 1797", in Nicola Foote, Sources for Latin America in the Modern World. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.
- ^ "Mexican-American War | Mexico-United States [1846-1848]". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on May 14, 2017. Retrieved May 6, 2017.
- ^ David Bushnell, "Wars of Independence: South America", in The Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 5, p. 447. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
- ^ Fuertes Medina, Aurelia. "History of Ecuador". A Guide to Andean Countries. Archived from the original on December 1, 1998.
- LCCN 18005317. Retrieved July 2, 2022.
- ISBN 0-631-23160-9.
- ^ Bakewell, 404
- ISBN 0-662-62062-3
- ISBN 9781118772485.
- ^ Faulconbridge, Guy; Ellsworth, Brian (November 30, 2021). "Barbados ditches Britain's Queen Elizabeth to become a republic". Reuters. Archived from the original on November 30, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2021.
- incorporation in 1959, but some of the territories remain unincorporated.
- Rebellions of 1837were a pair of Canadian armed uprisings that occurred in 1837 and 1838 in response to frustrations in political reform.
- ^ After gaining independence of Spain the territory of present-day Uruguay in 1817 was occupied and in 1921 annexed by Portugal to be administered as Brazilian province.
- ^ Timeline list arranged according to current countries. Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonization was achieved jointly or where the current state is formed by merger of previously decolonized states.
- ^ Some territories changed hands multiple times, so in the list is mentioned the last colonial power.
- list of sovereign states by formation date.
- ^ First head of state after independence. For current and former Commonwealth realms instead of first head of state is listed the first head of government.
- ^ Timeline list arranged according to current countries. Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonization was achieved jointly or where the current state is formed by merger of previously decolonized states.
- ^ Some territories changed hands multiple times, so in the list is mentioned the last colonial power.
- list of sovereign states by formation date.
- ^ First head of state after independence. For current and former Commonwealth realms instead of first head of state is listed the first head of government.
- ^ Fred Rippy, Rivalry of the U.S. and Great Britain over Latin America (1808–1830) New York, Octagon Press, 1964 [c1929].
Further reading
- Andrien, Kenneth J. and Lyman, L. Johnson. The Political Economy of Spanish America in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1850. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0-8263-1489-5
- Bethell, Leslie. From Independence to 1870. The Cambridge History of Latin America, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-521-34128-0
- Burns, Bradford E. The Poverty of Progress: Latin America in the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1980. ISBN 978-0-520-04160-8
- Brown, Matthew. Adventuring through Spanish Colonies: Simón Bolívar, Foreign Mercenaries and the Birth of New Nations. Liverpool University Press, 2006. ISBN 1-84631-044-X
- Bushnell, David, and Macaulay, Neill. The Emergence of Latin America in the Nineteenth Century (2nd edition). Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-19-508402-0
- Chasteen, John Charles. Americanos: Latin America's Struggle for Independence. Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-517881-4
- Costeloe, Michael P. . Response to Revolution: Imperial Spain and the Spanish American Revolutions, 1810–1840. Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0-521-32083-2
- Graham, Richard. Independence in Latin America: A Comparative Approach (2nd edition). McGraw-Hill, 1994. ISBN 0-07-024008-6
- Harvey, Robert. "Liberators: Latin America`s Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830". John Murray, London (2000). ISBN 0-7195-5566-3
- Hasbrouck, Alfred. Foreign Legionaries in the Liberation of Spanish South America. New York: Octagon Books, 1969.
- Higgins, James (editor). The Emancipation of Peru: British Eyewitness Accounts, 2014. Online at https://sites.google.com/site/jhemanperu
- Humphreys, R. A., and Lynch, John (editors). The Origins of the Latin American Revolutions, 1808–1826. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1965.
- Kaufman, William W.. British Policy and the Independence of Latin America, 1804–1828. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1951.
- Kinsbruner, Jay. Independence in Spanish America. 1994
- Lynch, John. The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808-1826, 2nd ed.. 1986
- Robertson, William Spence. France and Latin American Independence. New York, Octagon, [1939] 1967.
- Savelle, Max. Empires to Nations: Expansion in America, 1713–1824. Europe and the World in the Age of Expansion, Vol. 5. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1974. ISBN 978-0-8166-0709-9
- Uribe, Victor M. "The Enigma of Latin American Independence: Analyses of the Last Ten Years," Latin American Research Review (1997) 32#1 pp. 236–255 in JSTOR
- Whitaker, Arthur P. The United States and the Independence of Latin America, 1800–1830. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1941.
- Zea, Leopoldo. The Latin-American Mind. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.