History of the Ottoman Empire
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The
As Sultan
The empire reached its apex under Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century, when it stretched from the Persian Gulf in the east to Algeria in the west, and from Yemen in the south to Hungary and parts of Ukraine in the north. According to the Ottoman decline thesis, Suleiman's reign was the zenith of the Ottoman classical period, during which Ottoman culture, arts, and political influence flourished. The empire reached its maximum territorial extent in 1683, on the eve of the Battle of Vienna.
The empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat in
Ottoman etiology
With the end of the
Formulable theses
Those about the emergence of the Ottoman Empire
- Ghaza thesis — it is formulated first, but it is the most criticized and politicized. The thesis most clearly advocates the ethnic pan-Turkic principle. It was developed by Paul Wittek;[2]
- Renegade thesis — represented in studies, articles and books by various authors. It is based on numerous eyewitness accounts. It is supplemented by the hypothesis of the geographical and to some extent civilizational succession of the Ottoman Empire (Eastern Roman Empire;
- Byzantine civil wars.
Those about the decline of the Ottoman Empire
- Classic thesis — as a result of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) with the subsequent Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. Previously marked by the beginning of the reign of Catherine the Great, the writing of "Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya" and the death of Koca Ragıp Pasha;
- Ottoman decline thesis — now-controversial thesis clearly formulated for the first time in 1958 by Bernard Lewis.[3] Aligns with Koçi Bey's risalets, but arguably ignores the Köprülü era and its reform of the Ottoman state, economy and navy heading into the 18th century;
- Neoclassical thesis — to some extent it unites the previous ones about the beginning of the Ottoman decline, which are divided even nearly two centuries in time. The beginning of the end was marked by the Edirne event and the reign of Ahmed III.
Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1453)
With the demise of the
During this period, a formal
In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. Osman's son, Orhan, captured the city of Bursa in 1326 and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. The fall of Bursa meant the loss of Byzantine control over Northwestern Anatolia.
After securing their flank in Asia Minor, the Ottomans then crossed into Europe from 1352 onwards; within a decade, almost all of Thrace had been conquered by the Ottomans, cutting off
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Sultan Mehmed I. Ottoman miniature, 1413-1421
Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad II defeated the Hungarian, Polish and Wallachian armies under Władysław III of Poland (also King of Hungary) and János Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna, which was the final battle of the Crusade of Varna.[5][6] Four years later, János Hunyadi prepared another army (of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to attack the Turks, but was again defeated by Murad II at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448.
The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing Constantinople on 29 May 1453, at the age of 21.
Classical Age (1453–1566)
The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. After taking Constantinople, Mehmed met with the Orthodox patriarch, Gennadios and worked out an arrangement in which the Eastern Orthodox Church, in exchange for being able to maintain its autonomy and land, accepted Ottoman authority.[7] Because of bad relations between the latter Byzantine Empire and the states of western Europe as epitomized by Loukas Notaras's famous remark "Better the Sultan's turban than the Cardinal's Hat", the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule.[7]
Upon making Constantinople (present-day
During this period in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a
The state also flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.[8]
The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective
Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing Belgrade in 1521, Suleiman conquered the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary (the western, northern and northeastern parts remained independent).[11][12]
After his victory in the
In 1532, he made another
After further advances by the Turks in 1543, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. During the reign of Suleiman, Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population totaled about 15,000,000 people.[18]
Under Selim and
The conquests of
As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the growing sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the
Transformation of the Ottoman Empire (1566–1700)
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European states initiated efforts at this time to curb Ottoman control of the traditional overland trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe, which started with the
The expansion of
In southern Europe, a coalition of Catholic powers, led by
By contrast, the
Changes in European military tactics and weaponry in the
However, the 17th century was not an era of stagnation and decline, but a key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. The
This period gave way to the highly significant
This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha in May 1683 led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king Jan[35] at the Battle of Vienna.
The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna and, thus, fifteen (15) years of see-sawing warfare, culminated in the epochal Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.[36] For the first time, the Ottoman Empire surrendered control of significant European territories (many permanently), including Ottoman Hungary.[37] The Empire had reached the end of its ability to effectively conduct an assertive, expansionist policy against its European rivals and it was to be forced from this point to adopt an essentially defensive strategy within this theatre.
Only two Sultans in this period personally exercised strong political and military control of the Empire: the vigorous
Stagnation and reform (1700–1827)
During this period threats to the Ottoman Empire were presented by the traditional foe—the Austrian Empire—as well as by a new foe—the rising Russian Empire. Certain areas of the Empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and later came under the influence of Britain and France. Later, in the 18th century, centralized authority within the Ottoman Empire gave way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders.
However, Russian expansion presented a large and growing threat.[39] Accordingly, King Charles XII of Sweden was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 (part of the Great Northern War of 1700–1721.)[39] Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia, which resulted in the Ottoman victory at the Pruth River Campaign of 1710–1711.[40] Following the Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718), the subsequent Treaty of Passarowitz signed on 21 July 1718, brought a period of peace between wars. However, the Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.[41]
During the
Upon the death of Peter the Great in 1725, Catherine, Peter's wife succeeded to the throne of the Russian Empire as Czarina Catherine I. Together with Austria, Russia, under Empress Anne, Catherine I's niece, engaged in a war against the Ottoman Empire from 1735 until 1739. The Treaty of Belgrade signed on 18 September 1739, ended this war and resulted in Ottoman recovery of Belgrade and other territories from Austria, but the loss of the port of Azov to the Russians. However following the Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of the Prussians under King Frederick the Great.[43]
This long period of Ottoman peace and, indeed, stagnation is typically characterized by historians as an era of failed reforms.[
Other tentative reforms were also enacted:
Following the period of peace, which had lasted since 1739, Russia began to assert its expansionistic desires again in 1768. Under the pretext of pursuing fugitive Polish revolutionaries, Russian troops entered Balta an Ottoman-controlled city on the border of Bessarabia and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground.[48] This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the First Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the First Russo-Turkish War and allowed that the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled Rumanian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia would be allowed freedom to worship.[49] Russia was made the guarantor of their right to Christian worship.
A series of
The
Decline and modernization (1828–1908)
During this period, the empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. The empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, Britain and Russia. As an example, in the 1853 Crimean War, the Ottomans united with Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia against Russia.
Modernization
During the
Overall, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included
The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840.
The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-u Esâsî (meaning "
The Christian
Railways
New railways were built during this period, including the first in the Ottoman Empire.
Crimean War
The
Most of the fighting took place when the allies landed on Russia's
The Ottoman Empire took its first foreign loans on 4 August 1854,[65] shortly after the beginning of the Crimean War.[66]
The war caused an exodus of the
Ethnic nationalism
The
In 1804 the
Balkans
The Tanzimat reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the
Congress of Berlin
The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the leading statesmen of Europe's Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In the wake of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) that ended with a decisive victory for Russia and her Orthodox Christian allies (subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the war) in the Balkan Peninsula, the urgent need was to stabilise and reorganise the Balkans, and set up new nations. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who led the Congress, undertook to adjust boundaries to minimise the risks of major war, while recognising the reduced power of the Ottomans, and balance the distinct interests of the great powers.
As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, but was not allowed to keep all its previous territory. Bulgaria lost Eastern Rumelia, which was restored to the Turks under a special administration; and Macedonia, which was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform. Romania achieved full independence, but had to turn over part of Bessarabia to Russia. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories.
In 1878,
In return for British Prime Minister
The results were first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilisation. However, most of the participants were not fully satisfied, and grievances regarding the results festered until they exploded into world war in 1914. Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece made gains, but far less than they thought they deserved. The Ottoman Empire, called at the time the "sick man of Europe", was humiliated and significantly weakened, rendering it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack. Although Russia had been victorious in the war that occasioned the conference, it was humiliated at Berlin, and resented its treatment. Austria gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bismarck became the target of hatred of Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists, and found that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria in the Balkans.[76]
In the long-run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The Congress succeeded in keeping Istanbul in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory. The Congress of Berlin returned to the Ottoman Empire territories that the previous treaty had given to the Principality of Bulgaria, most notably Macedonia, thus setting up a strong revanchist demand in Bulgaria that in 1912 led to the First Balkan War in which the Turks were defeated and lost nearly all of Europe. As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the empire's remaining territory in the Balkans or to the heartland in Anatolia.[77][78] Muslims had been the majority in some parts of the Ottoman Empire such as the Crimea, the Balkans and the Caucasus as well as a plurality in southern Russia and also in some parts of Romania. Most of these lands were lost with time by the Ottoman Empire between the 19th and 20th centuries. By 1923, only Anatolia and eastern Thrace remained Muslim land.[79]
Egypt
After gaining some amount of autonomy during the early 1800s, Egypt had entered into a period of political turmoil by the 1880s. In April 1882, British and French warships appeared in
Armenians
Although granted their own
Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)
The Ottoman Empire had long been the "sick man of Europe" and after a series of Balkan wars by 1914 had been driven out of nearly all of Europe and North Africa. It still controlled 28 million people, of whom 17 million were in modern-day Turkey, 3 million in Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, and 2.5 million in Iraq. Another 5.5 million people were under nominal Ottoman rule in the Arabian peninsula.[84]
The
Profiting from the civil strife,
World War I (1914–1918)
The Young Turk government had signed a secret treaty with Germany and established the
In 1915, as the
The
Under the terms of the
Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923)
The
Ottoman dynasty after dissolution
In 1974, descendants of the dynasty were granted the right to acquire Turkish citizenship by the
On 23 September 2009, Osman died at the age of 97 in Istanbul, and with his death the last of the line born under the Ottoman Empire was extinguished. In Turkey, Osman was known as "the last Ottoman".[101]
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The Blue MosqueSultan Ahmed Mosque(1616)
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Süleymaniye Mosque (Ottoman imperial mosque-1556)
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Topkapı Palace (1453)
-
Piri Reis map (1513)
Fall of the Empire
In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall were a result of tensions between the Empire's different ethnic groups and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. The introduction of increased
See also
- History of the Republic of Turkey (1923–present)
- Outline of the Ottoman Empire
- Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire
- Timeline of the Ottoman Empire
- Wikilala
References
- ^ McNeill, American, Britain and Russia (1953). p. 353.
- ^ Wittek, Paul (1938). The Rise of the Ottoman Empire. It was Wittek's formulation which became generally (though not unanimously) accepted among Western historians of the Ottoman Empire for much of the twentieth century. Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. p. 41.
- ^ Bernard Lewis, "Some Reflections on the Decline of the Ottoman Empire," Studia Islamica 1 (1958) 111–127.
- ^ a b c Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries (Morrow Quill Publishers: New York, 1977) p. 24.
- ^ Bodnar, Edward W. Ciriaco d'Ancona e la crociata di Varna, nuove prospettive. Il Veltro 27, nos. 1–2 (1983): 235–51
- ^ Halecki, Oscar, The Crusade of Varna. New York, 1943
- ^ a b Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 94
- ISBN 90-04-03945-7.. A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for Isabella I of Castile to fund Christopher Columbus's westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g. K. D. Madan, Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama (1998), 9; I. Stavans, Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877 (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade", English Historical Review, 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127) (1978), 335).
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- ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica". Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ Imber, 50.
- ^ Thompson (1996), p. 442
- ^ Ágoston and Alan Masters (2009), p. 583
- ^ a b Turnbull (2003), p. 51.
- ^ Vambery, p. 298
- ^ L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, p.206
- ^ Mansel, 61
- ^ Imber, 53.
- ISBN 0-226-38806-9, pp. 64–65.
- ^ Davies (2007). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe,1500–1700.. p.16.
- ^ Subtelny, Orest (1988). "Ukraine: a history.". p 106
- ^ "The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves Archived 2011-05-01 at the Wayback Machine" (PDF). Eizo Matsuki, Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.
- ^ a b Kinross, 272.
- ^ Itzkowitz, p. 67.
- ^ Kunt & Woodhead (Ed.) Suleyman The Magnificent and his Age, The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World (Longman 1995) p. 53
- ^ Itzkowitz, p. 71
- ISBN 0-521-57455-2, p. 24.
- ^ L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p.281
- ^ Leslie P. Peirce, The imperial harem: women and sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire and Morality tales: law and gender in the Ottoman court of Aintab.
- ^ Itzkowitz, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Itzkowitz, pp. 77–81.
- ^ Itzkowitz, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Itzkowitz, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 357.
- ^ Itzkowitz, p. 84.
- ^ Itzkowitz, pp. 73, 83–84.
- ^ a b Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 371.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 372.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 376.
- ^ The Cambridge History of Turkey: The later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839, Ed. Suraiya Faroqhi, (Cambridge University Press, 2006), 443.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 393.
- ^ "History of the Istanbul Technical University". Itu.edu.tr. Archived from the original on 18 June 2012. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ a b c Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 97
- ^ a b Presentation of Katip Çelebi, Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi, at the Utrecht University Library Archived May 5, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ William J. Watson, "Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula", in Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 88, No. 3 (1968), p. 435.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 396.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 405.
- ^ "Liberation, Independence and Union". Njegos.org. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ Iván T. Berend, History derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the long nineteenth century, (University of California Press Ltd, 2003), 127.
- ^ http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf [bare URL PDF]
- ^ a b NTV Tarih Archived 2013-02-12 at the Wayback Machine history magazine, issue of July 2011. "Sultan Abdülmecid: İlklerin Padişahı", pages 46–50. (Turkish)
- ^ "Ottoman Bank Museum: History of the Ottoman Bank". Obarsiv.com. Archived from the original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ "Istanbul Stock Exchange: History of the Istanbul Stock Exchange". Imkb.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 25 February 2012. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ a b c d e PTT Chronology Archived September 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c "History of the Turkish Postal Service". Ptt.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 1 April 2013. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ Istanbul City Guide: Beylerbeyi Palace Archived October 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b NTV Tarih Archived 2013-02-12 at the Wayback Machine history magazine, issue of July 2011. "Sultan Abdülmecid: İlklerin Padişahı", page 49. (Turkish)
- ^ a b c "Türk Telekom: History". Archived from the original on September 28, 2007.
- ISBN 0-312-10168-6.
- ^ a b c d e f Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 95.
- ^ Orlando Figes, The Crimean War: A History (2012)
- ^ Royle. Preface.
- ^ "History of the Ottoman public debt". Gberis.e-monsite.com. Archived from the original on 25 November 2010. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ Douglas Arthur Howard: "The History of Turkey", page 71.
- ^ "Hijra and Forced Migration from Nineteenth-Century Russia to the Ottoman Empire", by Bryan Glynn Williams, Cahiers du Monde russe, 41/1, 2000, pp. 79–108. Archived June 11, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present and Future. Routledge. 2008.
- ^ By the early 19th century, as many as 45% of the islanders may have been Muslim.
- ^ Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–2000, Princeton, N.J: Darwin Press, c1995
- ^ English translation: Leopold Ranke, A History of Serbia and the Serbian Revolution. Translated from the German by Mrs Alexander Kerr (London: John Murray, 1847)
- ^ L. S. Stavrianos, The Balkans since 1453 (London: Hurst and Co., 2000), pp. 248–250.
- ^ "Treaty of San Stefano | Russia-Turkey [1878]". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-01-30.
- ^ "Map of Europe and the Ottoman Empire in the year 1900". Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918 (1954) pp 228–54
- ^ Jerome L. Blum, et al. The European World: A History (1970) p 841
- ^ Mann, Michael (2005), The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing, Cambridge University Press, p. 118
- ^ Todorova, Maria (2009), Imagining the Balkans, Oxford University Press, p. 175
- ^ editors: Matthew J. Gibney, Randall Hansen, Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present, Vol. 1, ABC-CLIO, 2005, p.437 Read quote: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, only Anatolia, eastern Thrace and a section of the south-eastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land."
- ^ Hovannisian, Richard G. "The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914". The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. II: 218.
- ^ Hovannisian, 217,222.
- ^ Hovannisian. "The Armenian Question", p. 217.
- ISBN 0-8050-7932-7.
- ^ Şevket Pamuk, "The Ottoman Economy in World War I" in Stephen Broadberry and Mark Harrison, eds. The Economics of World War I (2005) pp 112–36, esp. p 112
- Universiteit Leiden. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-07-16.)
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help - ^ Spencer Tucker, ed. Encyclopedia of World War I (2005) p 1080
- ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica: Armenian massacres (Turkish-Armenian history)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica.com. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ISBN 0-06-019840-0
- ^ Walker, Christopher J. "World War I and the Armenian Genocide". The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. II: 239–273.
- Akcam. A Shameful Act, pp. 109–204.
- ^ Toynbee, Arnold J., The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire 1915–16: Documents presented to Viscount Grey of Fallodon, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs By Viscount Bryce. New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, for His Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1916, p. 650.
- ^ Charny, Israel et al. A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars. International Association of Genocide Scholars. 13 June 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2009.
- ^ See Marashlian, Levon. Politics and Demography: Armenians, Turks, and Kurds in the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Zoryan Institute, 1991.
- ISBN 0-313-34642-9.
- ISBN 0-7735-1187-3, p. 101.
- ^ Schaefer, T (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, 2008, p. 90.
- ^ The criminal law of genocide: international, comparative and contextual aspects, by Ralph J. Henham, Paul Behrens, 2007, p. 17
- ^ Mustafa Kemal Pasha's speech on his arrival in Ankara in November 1919.[citation needed]
- ^ Bilefsky, Dan. "Weary of Modern Fictions, Turks Glory in Splendor of Ottoman Past", New York Times. 5 December 2009.
- ^ "Political Obituaries: Ertugrul Osman". The Daily Telegraph. London. 27 September 2009. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 26 October 2009.
- ^ Hardy, Roger (24 September 2009). "'Last Ottoman' dies in Istanbul". BBC. Retrieved 24 September 2009.
Further reading
General surveys
- The Cambridge History of Turkey
- Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009.
- Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012.
- Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006.
- Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008.
- Finkel, Caroline (2005). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
- Hathaway, Jane (2008). The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516-1800. Pearson Education Ltd. ISBN 978-0-582-41899-8.
- Imber, Colin (2009). The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-57451-9.
- İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert, eds. (1994). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57456-0. Two volumes.
- Kia, Mehrdad, ed. The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2017u)
- McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923. 1997[ISBN missing]
- Mikaberidze, Alexander. Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2011)
- Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. 2005. ISBN 0-521-54782-2.
The Early Ottomans
- Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20600-7.
- Lindner, Rudi P. (1983). Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-933070-12-8.
- Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany: SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-5636-6.
The Classical Age
- İnalcık; Cemal Kafadar, Halil, eds. (1993). Süleyman the Second [i.e. the First] and His Time. Istanbul: The Isis Press. ISBN 975-428-052-5.
- Şahin, Kaya (2013). Empire and Power in the reign of Süleyman: Narrating the Sixteenth-Century Ottoman World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-03442-6.
- Şahin, Kaya. “The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century,” Renaissance Quarterly 70#1 (Spring 2017): 220–234.
Military
- Ágoston, Gábor (2005). Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521843133.
- Aksan, Virginia (2007). Ottoman Wars, 1700-1860: An Empire Besieged. Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 978-0-582-30807-7.
- Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
- Rhoads, Murphey (1999). Ottoman Warfare, 1500-1700. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 1-85728-389-9.