History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean
Part of a series on |
Jews and Judaism |
---|
The history of the Jews in Latin America began with
However, throughout the 15th and 16th centuries a number of converso families migrated to the Netherlands, France and eventually Italy, from where they joined other expeditions to the Americas. Others migrated to England or France and accompanied their colonists as traders and merchants. By the late 16th century, fully functioning Jewish communities were founded in the Portuguese colony of Brazil, the Dutch
By the mid-17th century, the largest Jewish communities in the Western Hemisphere were located in
Argentina
Jews fleeing the Inquisition settled in Argentina, where they intermarried with native women. Portuguese traders and smugglers in the Virreinato del Río de la Plata were considered by many to be
Jewish individuals and families emigrated from Europe to Argentina before and after World War II, in an attempt to escape the Holocaust and later postwar antisemitism. Between 250,000 and 300,000 Jews now live in Argentina, the vast majority of whom reside in the cities of Buenos Aires, Rosario, Córdoba, Mendoza, La Plata and San Miguel de Tucumán. Argentina has the third-largest Jewish community in the Americas after the United States and Canada, and the sixth largest in the world. According to recent surveys, more than a million Argentines have at least one grandparent of Jewish ethnicity.[2] The Jewish Argentine community legally receives seven holidays per year, with both days of Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, and the first and last two days of Passover, according to the law 26,089.
Bolivia
Jewish presence in
The second wave of Conversos came to Santa Cruz de la Sierra after 1570, when the Spanish Inquisition began operating in Lima. Alleged marranos (that is, New Christians whom others rightly or wrongly suspected of crypto-Judaism), settled in Potosi, La Paz and La Plata. After they gained economic success in mining and commerce, they faced suspicion and persecution from the Inquisition and local authorities. Most of these marrano families moved to Santa Cruz de la Sierra, as it was an isolated urban settlement where the Inquisition did not bother the conversos.[4] Most of the converso settlers were men, and many intermarried with indigenous or mestizo women, founding mixed-race or mestizo families. Conversos also settled in adjacent towns of Vallegrande, Postrervalle, Portachuelo, Terevinto, Pucara, Cotoca and others.[5]
Many of Santa Cruz's oldest families are of partial Jewish heritage; Some traces of Jewish culture can still be found in family traditions, as well as local customs. For example, some families have family-heirloom seven-branched candle sticks or the custom of lighting candles on Friday at sunset. The typical local dishes can be all prepared with
From independence in 1825 to the end of the 19th century, some Jewish merchants and traders (both
During the 20th century, substantial Jewish settlement began in Bolivia. In 1905, a group of Russian Jews, followed by
By 2006, approximately 700 Jews remained in Bolivia. There are synagogues in the cities of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, La Paz, and Cochabamba. Most Bolivian Jews live in Santa Cruz de la Sierra.[6]
Brazil
Jews settled early in Brazil, especially in areas of Dutch rule. They set up a synagogue in Recife in 1636, which is considered the first synagogue in the Americas. Most of these Jews were conversos who had fled Spain and Portugal to the religious freedom of the Netherlands when the Inquisition began in Portugal in 1536. In 1656, following the Portuguese reconquest of Brazil, Jews left for the Caribbean islands and New Amsterdam under Dutch rule; the latter was taken over by the English in 1664 and was renamed as New York City.
After independence in the 19th century, Brazil attracted more Jews among its immigrants, and pressure in Europe convinced more Jews to leave. Jewish immigration rose throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, at a time of massive emigration from the Russian Empire (including Poland and Ukraine). Jewish immigration to Brazil was rather low between 1881 and 1900 although this was the height of other international immigration to Brazil; many were going to more industrialized countries. Between 1921 and 1942 worldwide immigration to Brazil fell by 21%, but Jewish immigration to Brazil increased by 57,000. This was in response to anti-immigration legislation and immigration quotas passed by the United States, Argentina, Canada and South Africa, persisting even after the crisis of Jews under the Third Reich became clear. The Brazilian government generally did not enforce its own immigration legislation. Lastly, the Jews in Brazil developed strong support structures and economic opportunities, which attracted Eastern European and Polish Jewish immigration.[7]
Brazil has the 9th largest
Chile
Although a relatively small community amounting to no more than 1% of the country's religious minorities, Jews in
Tomás Hirsch is leader of the radical Green-Communist coalition and former presidential candidate in 2005. State ministers Karen Poniachick (Minister for Mining) and Clarisa Hardy (Minister for Social Affairs) are also Jewish. In the field of sport, tennis player Nicolás Massú (gold medalist in Athens 2004 and former top-ten in the ATP rankings) has Jewish background.
Many of the country's most important companies, particularly in the retail and commercial field, have been set up by Jews. Examples are Calderon, Gendelman, Hites, and Pollak (commercial retailers) and Rosen (Mattress and Bed Industries).
Colombia
"New Christians", fled the Iberian peninsula to escape persecution and seek religious freedom during the 16th and 17th centuries. It is estimated that some reached northern areas of Colombia, which at the time was known as New Granada. Most if not all of these people assimilated into Colombian society. Some continue to practice traces of Sephardic Jewish rituals as family traditions.
In the 18th century, practicing Spanish and Portuguese Jews came from Jamaica and Curaçao, where they had flourished under English and Dutch rule. These Jews started practicing their religion openly in Colombia at the end of the 18th century, although it was not officially legal to do so, given the established Catholic Church. After independence, Judaism was recognized as a legal religion. The government granted the Jews land for a cemetery.
Many Jews who came during the 18th and 19th centuries achieved prominent positions in Colombian society. Some married local women and felt they had to abandon or diminish their Jewish identity. These included author
During the early part of the 20th century, numerous Sephardic Jewish immigrants came from Greece, Turkey, North Africa and Syria. Shortly after, Jewish immigrants began to arrive from Eastern Europe. A wave of immigrants came after the rise of Nazism in 1933 and the imposition of antisemitic laws and practices, including more than 7,000 German Jews. From 1939 until the end of World War II, immigration was put to a halt by anti-immigrant feelings in the country and restrictions on immigration from Germany.[10]
Colombia asked Germans who were on the U.S. blacklist to leave and allowed Jewish refugees in the country illegally to stay.[11] The Jewish population increased dramatically in the 1950s and 1960s, and institutions such as synagogues, schools and social clubs were established throughout the largest cities in the country.
The changing economy and wave of kidnappings during the last decade of the 20th century led many members of Colombia's Jewish community to emigrate. Most settled in Miami and other parts of the United States. Successes in the nation's Democratic security Policy has encouraged citizens to return; it has drastically reduced violence in the rural areas and criminality rates in urban areas, as well as in spurring the economy. The situation in Colombia has improved to the extent that many Venezuelan Jews are now seeking refuge in Colombia.
In the early 21st century, most of the Jews in Colombia are concentrated in Bogotá, with about 20,000 members, and Barranquilla, with about 7,000 members. Large communities are found in Cali and Medellín, but very few practicing Jews. Smaller communities are found in Cartagena and the island of San Andres. There are 14 official synagogues throughout the country. In Bogotá, Jews each run their own religious and cultural institutions. The Confederación de Asociaciones Judías de Colombia, located in Bogotá, is the central organization that coordinates Jews and Jewish institutions in Colombia.
In the new millennium, after years of study, a group of Colombians with Jewish ancestry formally converted to Judaism to be accepted as Jews according to the halakha.[12]
Costa Rica
The first Jews in Costa Rica were probably conversos, who arrived in the 16th and 17th centuries with Spanish expeditions. In the 19th century Sephardic merchants from Curaçao, Jamaica, Panama and the Caribbean followed. They lived mostly in Central Valley, married local women, and were soon assimilated into the country's general society. Most eventually gave up Judaism altogether.
A third wave of Jewish immigrants came before World War I and especially in the 1930s, as Ashkenazi Jews fled a Europe threatened by Nazi Germany. Most of these immigrants came from the Polish town Żelechów. The term Polacos, which was originally a slur referring to these immigrants, has come to mean door-to-door salesman in colloquial Costa Rican Spanish.
The country's first synagogue, the Orthodox Shaarei Zion, was built in 1933 in the capital San José (it is located along 3rd Avenue and 6th Street). Along with a wave of nationalism, in the 1940s there was some antisemitism in Costa Rica, but generally there have been few problems.
Since the late 20th century there has been a fourth wave of Jewish immigration made up of American and Israeli expatriates who are retiring here or doing business in the country. The Jewish community is estimated to number 2,500 to 3,000 people, most of them living in the capital.[13]
The San José suburb of Rohrmoser has a strong Jewish influence due to its residents. A couple of synagogues are located here, as well as a kosher deli and restaurant. The Plaza Rohrmoser shopping center had the only
Cuba
Jews have lived on the island of
In the early 1990s, Operation Cigar was launched, and in the period of five years, more than 400 Cuban Jews secretly immigrated to Israel.
Curaçao
Dominican Republic
Converso Merchants of Sephardic origin arrived in southern
Ecuador
For some time, prior to the 20th century, many Jews in
Many Jewish people came from Germany in 1939, on a ship called the "Koenigstein". During the years 1933–43, there were a population of 2,700 Jewish immigrants. In 1939, the Jewish population, mostly
The rise of Jewish immigration to Ecuador was when the
From Sephardic ancestry were Leonidas Gilces and his younger brother Angel Theodore Gilces whom helped many immigrants such as Charles Liebman who reach the capital with his library, which became the most important of the capital. Simon Goldberg who had a library in Berlin, Goethe library of old books that contributed to the dissemination of reading. Vera Kohn was a psychologist and teacher, tasks that at mid-century were not of interest of Ecuadorian women who used to live in their homes given away, devoid of intellectual curiosity and only care about social life. They were not interested in politics, with the exception of Paul Beter, belonging to the second generation of Jews, who became Minister of Economy and Central Bank President.
El Salvador
Alsatian-born Bernardo Haas, who came to El Salvador in 1868, was believed to be the country's first Jewish immigrant. Another Jew, Leon Libes, was documented as the first German Jew in 1888. Sephardic families also arrived from countries such as Turkey, Egypt, Tunisia Spain and France. De Sola helped to found the first synagogue and became an invaluable member of the Jewish community. In 1936, World War II caused the Jewish community to help their ancestors escape from Europe. Some had their relatives in El Salvador. But some were forced to go into countries such as Brazil, Ecuador, Guatemala and Panama. On 30 July 1939, President Martinez barred an entry of fifty Jewish refugees going to El Salvador on the German ship Portland. On 11 September 1948, the community started and continues to support a school "Colegio Estado de Israel". According to the latest Census, there are currently about 100 Jews living in El Salvador, mostly in the capital city of San Salvador. Most of them have Sephardic roots. There is a small town called Armenia in rural El Salvador where people practice Orthodox Sephardic Judaism since the inquisition.[26]
French Guiana
Jews arrived in
Over the decades, the Leghorn Jews of Cayenne immigrated to Suriname. In 1667, the remaining Jewish community was captured by the occupying British forces and moved the population to either Suriname or Barbados to work in sugarcane production. Since the late 17th century, few Jews have lived in French Guiana. In 1992, 20 Jewish families from Suriname and North Africa attempted to re-establish the community in Cayenne. A Chabad organization exists in the country and maintains Jewish life within the community. Today, 800 Jews live in French Guiana, predominately in Cayenne.
Guatemala
The Jews in Guatemala are mainly descendants from immigrants from Germany, Eastern Europe and the Middle East that arrived in the second half of the 19th century and first half of the 20th.
The first Jewish families arrived from the town of Kempen, Posen, Prussia (today
In 2014, numerous members of the communities Lev Tahor and Toiras Jesed, who practice a particularly austere form of Orthodox Judaism, began settling in the village of San Juan La Laguna. Mainstream Jewish communities felt concerned about the reputation following this group, who had left both the US and Canada under allegations of child abuse, underage marriage and child neglect. Despite the tropical heat, the members of the community continued to wear the long black cloaks for men and full black chador for women.[27][28][29]
Haiti
When
In the late eighteenth century at the time of the French Revolution, the free people of color pressed for more rights in Saint-Domingue, and a slave revolt led by
Race, as defined in slavery years, and nationality became more important in Haiti in the 19th century than religion, and Jews were considered whites and nationals of their groups.
By the end of the 19th century, a small number of
As of 2010, the number of known Jews in Haiti is estimated at 25, residing in the relatively affluent suburb of Pétion-Ville, outside Port-au-Prince.[36]
Haiti and Israel maintain full diplomatic relations, but Israel's nearest permanent diplomat to the region is based in neighboring Dominican Republic.[citation needed]
Honduras
During the 20th century-1980s, Jewish immigrants came to
Jamaica
The history of the Jews in Jamaica predominantly dates back to the 1490s when many Jews from Portugal and Spain fled the persecution of the Holy Inquisition.[37] When the English captured the colony of Jamaica from Spain in 1655, Jews who were living as conversos began to practice Judaism openly.[38] In 1719, the synagogue Kahal Kadosh Neve Tsedek in Port Royal was built.[37] By the year 1720, 18 percent of the population the capital Kingston was Jewish.[38] For the most part, Jews practiced Orthodox rituals and customs.[38]
A recent study has now estimated that nearly 424,000 Jamaicans are descendants of Jewish (
Common Jewish surnames in Jamaica are Abrahams, Alexander, Isaacs, Levy, Marish, Lindo, Lyon, Sangster, Myers, Da Silva, De Souza, De Cohen, De Leon, DeMercado, Barrett, Babb, Magnus, Codner, Pimentel, DeCosta, Henriques and Rodriques.[citation needed]
In 2006 Jamaican Jewish Heritage Center opened to celebrate of 350 years of Jews living in Jamaica. [citation needed]
Mexico
New Christians arrived in Mexico as early as 1521. Due to the strong Catholic Church presence in Mexico, few conversos and even fewer Jews migrated there after the Spanish Conquest of Mexico.
Then, in the late 19th century, a number of German Jews settled in Mexico as a result of invitations from Maximilian I of Mexico, followed by a huge wave of Ashkenazic Jews fleeing pogroms in Russia and Eastern Europe. A second large wave of immigration occurred as the Ottoman Empire collapsed, leading many Sephardic Jews from Turkey, Morocco, and parts of France to flee. Finally, a wave of immigrants fled the increasing Nazi persecutions in Europe during World War II. According to the 2010 Census, there are 67,476[39] Jews in Mexico, making them the third largest Jewish community in Latin America.
Based in Cancún, they reached out to the whole Quintana Roo and Mexican Caribbean including Playa del Carmen, Cozumel, Isla Mujeres and Mérida.
In 2010 they opened a Chabad branch in Playa del Carmen to expand their activities. Rabbi Mendel Goldberg along with his wife Chaya and two daughters where assigned to direct the activities there and open a new center.
The State of Baja California has also had a Jewish presence for the last few hundred years. La Paz, Mexico was home to many Jewish traders who would dock at the port and do business. Many locals in La Paz descend from the prominent Schcolnik, Tuschman and Habiff families, although most are assimilated into Mexican life. In recent years, the tourist industry has picked up in Baja California Sur, which saw many American retirees purchase and live in properties around the Baja. In 2009, with a grassroots Jewish Community formulating and with the help of Tijuana-based businessman Jose Galicot, Chabad sent out Rabbi Benny Hershcovich and his family to run the operations of the Cabo Jewish Center, located in Los Cabos, Mexico, but providing Jewish services and assistance to Jews scattered throughout the Baja Sur region, including La Paz, Todos Santos and the East Cape.
Nicaragua
In the 20th century, Nicaragua's Jewish community consisted mostly of immigrants from Eastern Europe who arrived in Nicaragua after 1929.[40] The Jews in Nicaragua were a relatively small community, with most living in Managua. The Jews made significant contributions to Nicaragua's economic development while dedicating themselves to farming, manufacturing and retail sales.[41]
It was approximated that the highest number of Jews in Nicaragua reached a peak of 250 in 1972.
Beginning in 1983, the Reagan administration in the U.S. made a concerted effort to increase domestic support for funding the
After Daniel Ortega lost the 1990 presidential election, Nicaraguan Jews started returning to Nicaragua. Prior to 1979 the Jewish community had no rabbi or mohel (circumcision practitioner). In 2005, the Jewish community numbered about 50 people and included 3 mohalim, but had no ordained rabbi.[58] In 2017, there was a mass conversion of 114 Nicaraguans to Judaism.[59]
Panama
For nearly five hundred years Panama has been a transit station. Long before the construction of the Panama Canal in the early twentieth century, merchants, missionaries, adventurers, and bandits crossed the swamps of Panama to go from the Atlantic to the Pacific, or vice versa.
Although descendants of the "anusim," or forced converts, from the Iberian Peninsula have lived in Panama since the early sixteenth century, there was a Jewish community that openly practiced religion until it took centuries (?). Jews, mainly Sephardic from nearby islands such as Curaçao, St. Thomas and Jamaica, and Jewish immigrants from Central and Eastern Europe began arriving in Panama in large quantities until the mid-nineteenth century, attracted by economic incentives such as bi-oceanic railway construction and the California gold rush.[citation needed]
They were followed by other waves of immigration: during the First World War the Ottoman Empire from disintegrating, before and after the Second World War from Europe, from Arab countries because of the exodus caused in 1948 and more recently from South American countries suffering economic crises.
The center of Jewish life in Panama is
Panama is the only country in the world except for Israel that has had two Jewish presidents in the twentieth century. In the sixties Max Delvalle was first vice president, then president. His nephew, Eric Arturo Delvalle, was president between 1985 and 1988. The two were members of Kol Shearith Israel synagogue and were involved in Jewish life.
Paraguay
Toward the 19th century, Jewish immigrants arrived in
Peru
In
Puerto Rico
Suriname
Suriname was one of the most important centers of the Jewish population in the Western Hemisphere, and Jews there were planters and slaveholders.[63]
For a few years, when World War II arrived, many Jewish refugees from the Netherlands and other parts of Europe fled to Suriname. Today, 2,765 Jews live in Suriname.[citation needed]
Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago, a former British colony, is home to over 500 Jews.
Uruguay
The New Christian presence in Uruguay dates back to the 16th century, yet few documents relating to converso history during the Colonial period are extant. In 1726, the governor of Montevideo called upon the first settlers to be "persons of worth, of good habits, repute and family, so that they be not inferior nor of Moorish or Jewish race." The first record of open Jewish settlement is in the 1770s. With the end of the Inquisition in 1813, the political and social system of Uruguay evolved to a greater level of openness and tolerance. This openness provided the basis for continued Jewish residence beginning in the 19th century. In 1929, the Ashkenazi Jewish community set up an educational network. Jewish schools have been functioning in various parts of the country since the 1920s. In the 1930s, there were significant Fascist and liberal anti-immigration elements that opposed all foreign immigration, weighing heavily on Jewish immigration. Jews were singled out and many people opposed Jewish inclusion in Uruguayan society.
Venezuela
The history of Venezuelan New Christians most likely began in the middle of the 17th century, when some records suggest that groups of conversos lived in Caracas and Maracaibo. At the turn of the 19th century, Venezuela and Colombia were fighting against their Spanish colonizers in wars of independence. Simón Bolívar, Venezuela's liberator and his sister, found refuge and material support for his army in the homes of Jews from Curaçao. After independence, in 1826 practicing Jews came from Curaçao to Santa Ana Coro, where they had flourished under Dutch rule. Judaism was recognized as a legal religion. The government granted the Jews land for a cemetery.
According to a national census taken at the end of the 19th century, 247 Jews lived in Venezuela as citizens in 1891. In 1907, the Israelite Beneficial Society, which became the Israelite Society of Venezuela in 1919, was created as an organization to bring all the Jews who were scattered through various cities and towns throughout the country together.
By 1943, nearly 600 German Jews had entered the country, with several hundred more becoming citizens after World War II. By 1950, the community had grown to around 6,000 people, even in the face of immigration restrictions.
During the first decades of the 21st century, many Venezuelan Jews decided to emigrate due to the growth of antisemitism and to the political crisis and instability. Currently, there are around 10,000 Jews living in Venezuela, with more than half living in the capital Caracas.[64] Venezuelan Jewry is split equally between Sephardim and Ashkenazim. All but one of the country's 15 synagogues are Orthodox. The majority of Venezuela's Jews are members of the middle class.
The current president of Venezuela,
Reported Jewish populations in the Americas and the Caribbean in 2014
Rank (Worldwide) |
Country | Jewish Population |
% of Country |
---|---|---|---|
7 | Argentina | 180,500 | 0.42% |
10 | Brazil | 93,800 | 0.05% |
14 | Mexico | 40,000 | 0.03% |
24 | Uruguay | 16,900 | 0.36% |
24 | Chile | 18,300 | 0.1% |
26 | Panama | 10,000 | 0.28% |
31 | Venezuela | 7,600 | 0.2% |
39 | Colombia | 7,500 | <0.01% |
47 | Costa Rica | 4,800 | 0.80% |
51 | Peru | 1,900 | <0.01% |
54 | Puerto Rico | 1,500 | <0.04% |
60 | Paraguay | 900 | <0.01% |
61 | Guatemala | 900 | 0.02% |
63 | Ecuador | 600 | <0.01% |
67 | Cayman Islands | 600 | 1.00% |
68 | Cuba | 500 | 0.00% |
69 | United States Virgin Islands | 500 | 0.48% |
74 | Bahamas
|
300 | 0.09% |
80 | Jamaica | 300 | 0.09% |
81 | Netherlands Antilles | 200 | 0.07% |
82 | Suriname | 200 | 0.03% |
88 | Dominican Republic | 100 | 0.003% |
89 | El Salvador | 100 | <0.01% |
90 | Honduras | 100 | 0.00% |
107 | Aruba | 85 | 0.08% |
N/A | French Guiana | 880?[66] | 0.02% |
N/A | Barbados | 970?[citation needed] | 0.00% |
N/A | Haiti | 25?[67] | 0.00% |
N/A | Bermuda | 20?[citation needed] | 0.00% |
1 CIA World Factbook, with most estimates current as of July 2014; Jewish Virtual Library: Vital Statistics: Jewish Population of the World (1882 – Present).
See also
- List of Caribbean Jews
- Jewish immigration to Puerto Rico
- B'nai B'rith Latin America
- Latin American Muslims
- Charles Palache
- Pallache family
References
- ^ "The Jews who Sailed with Columbus".
- ^ a b Eli Birnbaum, History of the Jewish People
- ^ Farewell España, The World The Sephardim Remembered, written by Howard Sachar
- ^ a b Sherry Mangan, "Storm Clouds over the Bolivian Refuge"
- ^ Mario Rueda Peña, "Los Judíos de Vallegrande", El Deber, 23 November 1995
- ^ Luz, Marina Canelas A., "Esplendor Judío en la Llajta", Los Tiempos, 24 September 2006
- ^ Jeffrey Lesser, "The Immigration and Integration of Polish Jews in Brazil" Archived 13 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Emory University
- ^ 2010 Brazilian census Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. Retrieved 13 November 2013
- ^ U.S. Department of State. Brazil, Retrieved on 2013-12-18
- ^ Ignacio Klich & Jeff Lesser, Arab and Jewish Immigrants in Latin America: Images and Realities, Psychology Press, 1997, pages 76–78
- ^ Latin America during World War II by Thomas M. Leonard, John F. Bratzel, P.117
- ^ Florencia Arbiser, "Mass converts pose dilemma for Latin American Jews", JTA, 18 June 2009
- ^ Perman, Stacy: "The Jewish Traveler: Costa Rica" Archived 8 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Hadassah magazine, December 2006. Retrieved 29 December 2006.
- ^ "The Jewish Community of Costa Rica". Beit Hatfutsot Open Databases Project. The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot.
- ^ "Cuba Virtual Jewish History Tour".
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 16 September 2007.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "In Cuba, Finding a Tiny Corner of Jewish Life". The New York Times. 4 February 2007.
- ^ "The Exile of the Jews due to the Spanish Inquisition". Retrieved 15 May 2013.
- ^ "Jews migration in the 1700s". Retrieved 15 May 2013.
- ^ "Jews migration to the Dominican Republic to seek refuge from the Holocaust". Retrieved 15 May 2013.
- ^ "A partial, brief summary of Jews in the Dominican Republic". Archived from the original on 26 June 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
- ^ "Dominican Republic-Jews". Archived from the original on 1 October 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
- ^ The Lost Sephardic Tribes of Latin America
- ^ Shields, Jacqueline. "Ecuador: Virtual Jewish History Tour". Jewish Virtual Library.
- ^ "Los Caminos de Israel – A Non-Profit Jewish Organization". Archived from the original on 28 December 2018. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
- ^ "El Salvador Jewish Community Emerges from Centuries of Isolation and Assimilation". Kulanu. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
- ^ "Ancient Jewish Tradition of clothing". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
- ^ "Ultra-orthodox Lev Tahor settlement has spurred tension in Guatemalan village, CIJA says". 3 July 2014.
- ^ "More Lev Tahor sect members leaving Canada for Guatemala". 3 July 2014.
- ^ "September 24: Expelled from North America" Archived 16 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Jewish Currents, posted 23 September 2012. Retrieved 26 August 2015
- ^ Brenda Plummer, "Between Privilege and Opprobrium: The Arabs and Jews in Haiti", in Ignacio Klich, Jeff Lesser, Arab and Jewish Immigrants in Latin America: Images and Realities, Psychology Press, 1997, pp. 80–81
- ^ a b Plummer (1997), p.84
- ^ Reported in Jewish newspaper 'Ha-Melitz' on 12 July 1881
- ^ Plummer (1997), pp.86–88
- ^ Plummer (1997), p.88
- ^ http://forward.com/articles/123890/ , The Forward
- ^ OCLC 854586578.
- ^ OCLC 45701914.
- INEGI. p. 3. Archived from the original(PDF) on 21 October 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
- ^ a b "World Jewish Communities – Latin America – Nicaragua". World Jewish Congress. Retrieved 30 August 2007.
- ^ "Persecution and Restrictions of Religion in Nicaragua – transcript". US Department of State Bulletin. 1984. p. 2. Retrieved 30 August 2007.
- ^ a b Hunter. Israeli Foreign Policy. p. 170.
- ^ a b Escudė, Carlos (August 2013). "On the Wrong Side of History – Israel, Latin America and the United States under a Peripheral-Realist Perspective, 1949–2012," in Judaica Latinoamericana VII. Hebrew University Magnes Press, Ltd.
- ^ "Shows Small Nicaraguan Jewish Community Mistreated by Sandinistas". Associated Press.
- ^ "ADL Reports That Nicaragua's Jewish Community Has Been Forced into Exile by Sandinist Government". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
- ^ a b Muravchik, Joshua; Alberts, Susan; Korenstein, Antony (1 September 1986). "Sandinista Anti-Semitism and its Apologists". Commentary. 82 (3). Retrieved 7 December 2020.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
- ^ Hunter. Israeli Foreign Policy. p. 171.
- doi:10.1080/0449010X.1986.10703674 (inactive 31 January 2024). Retrieved 8 December 2020.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link - S2CID 157079721. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
- ^ Kruckewitt. The Death of Ben Linder. p. 84.
- ISBN 9780897580403. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
- ^ Tracy, Lawrence (20 March 1986). "The Post Is Wrong (III)". The Washington Post.
- ^ L, Melanie. "The Sandinista War on Human Rights". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
- ^ Berger, Joseph (20 April 1986). "Among Jews of Nicaragua, Much Debate". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
- ^ Cody, Edward (29 August 1983). "Managua's Jews Reject Anti-Semitism Charge". The Washington Post. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
- ^ Hunter. Israeli Foreign Policy. pp. 171–172.
- ^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2005". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 14 December 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2007.
- ^ "Tiny Nicaragua Jewish community doubles in size as 114 convert". The Times of Israel.
- ^ "Toiras Jesed de Puerto Rico". Archived from the original on 23 November 2007.
- ^ "Home". Archived from the original on 30 April 2008. Retrieved 10 January 2009.
- ^ El Vocero, Suplemento: 40 Aniversario del Estado de Israel, seccion: Judios de PR, 1988 pg.6
- ^ Encyclopedia of Latin America: Amerindians through The Age of Globalization (Prehistory to the Present). J. Michael Francis, Facts On File. New York, N.Y. 2010, p. 296,
- ^ Post-Chavez, Venezuelan Jews plant roots elsewhere – The Times of Israel.
- ^ a b Shmulovich, Michal (13 May 2013). "Venezuela's 'anti-Semitic' leader admits Jewish ancestry". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
- ^ The Virtual Jewish History Tour: French Guiana
- ^ Ethnic groups – Haiti, The Forward
Bibliography
- Mordechai Arbell, Dennis Channing Landis, Ann Phelps Barry Spanish and Portuguese Jews in the Caribbean and the Guianas: A Bibliography, Interamericas, 1999, ISBN 0-916617-52-1
- Mordechai Arbell The Portuguese Jews of Jamaica, Canoe Press, 2000, ISBN 976-8125-69-1
- ISBN 0-292-70667-7
- Alan Fredric Benjamin Jews of the Dutch Caribbean: Exploring Ethnic Identity on Curaçao, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-415-27439-7
- Judah M. Cohen Through the Sands of Time: A History of the Jewish Community of St. Thomas, UPNE, 2004, ISBN 1-58465-341-8
- Judith Laikin Elkin. The Jews of Latin America (rev) Holmes & Meier, 1998. ISBN 0-8419-1369-2
- Ariel Segal Frielich Jews of the Amazon: Self-Exile in Earthly Paradise, The Jewish Publication Society, 1999, ISBN 0-8276-0669-9
- Jeffrey Lesser & Raanan Rein. Rethinking Jewish-Latin Americans. University of New Mexico Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8263-4401-4
- Jeffrey Lesser, Welcoming the Undesirables: Brazil and the Jewish Question. University of California Press, 1995
- Ruggiero, Kristin The Jewish Diaspora In Latin America and the Caribbean: Fragments of Memory, Sussex Academic Press, 2005, ISBN 1-84519-061-0
- The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800, Berghahn Books, 2001, ISBN 1-57181-430-2
- Leo Spitzer. Hotel Bolivia. Hill and Wang, 1998. ISBN 0-8090-5545-7
External links
|
- Brazil's Jews face 60% intermarriage rate Includes history and current stats
- Latin American Jews contend with spike in anti-Semitism By Sara Miller Llana, The Christian Science Monitor 26 July 2009