List of cults of personality
This is a list of regimes of countries as well as a list of individual leaders around the world which have been described as having created a cult of personality by the media or academia. A cult of personality uses various techniques, including mass media, propaganda, the arts, patriotism, and government-organized demonstrations and rallies to create a heroic image of a leader, often inviting worshipful behavior through uncritical flattery and praise.[1]
Afghanistan
Nur Muhammad Taraki of the ruling People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan served as President of Afghanistan from 1978 to 1979, when he told people to refer to him with titles such as the "Great Leader" and hung his portrait all across the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.[2] In the 1990s, Uzbek warlord general Abdul Rashid Dostum, who controlled most of northern Afghanistan, created a similar cult of personality in the region.[3]
Albania
The long time ruler of
Argentina
Juan Perón, elected three times as President of Argentina, and his second wife, Eva "Evita" Perón, were immensely popular among many of the Argentine people, and to this day they are still considered icons by the leading Justicialist Party. Followers of Perón praised his effort in creating a monolithic labour movement, while their detractors considered him a demagogue and a dictator that ferociously persecuted dissents and swiftly eroded the republican principles of the country as a way to stay in power. Following his election a personality cult developed around both Perón and Evita.[7]
Azerbaijan
In Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev is presented as the "Father of the Azeri nation",[11] often compared to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.[12]
Brazil
During the Vargas Era, the Brazilian Department of Information and Propaganda (DIP) promoted a Messiah-style image of Brazilian dictator Getúlio Vargas by broadcasting propaganda every day and by showing him as "saviour of the Brazilian people".
In recent years there has been a growing cult of personality in modern Brazil around the Brazilian presidents Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, promoted by the leftist Workers' Party, and Jair Bolsonaro, promoted by right-wing militants.[13]
Cambodia
During its first three years in power, the
Chile
General Augusto Pinochet, who took power in a military coup in 1973 to 1990, has been affectionally called 'Tata' or grandfather by his supporters[15] and in 1981 was bestowed the honorary military rank of "captain general", a title originally used by the Spanish colonial governors of Chile [16] In 1989, indigenous Mapuche groups representing the "Consejos Regionales" bestowed Pinochet the title Ulmen Füta Lonko or Great Authority.[17][18] In addition, multiple songs have been made to commemorate his existence.
China
Republic of China
A personality cult in the
People's Republic of China
The
The cult of personality continued for a time after Mao's death. His successor Chairman
The rise and consolidation of power under
Colombia
Former president Álvaro Uribe became the center of a Cult of Personality in Colombia in the later years of the country's armed conflict. Supporters refer to him as "The Great Colombian" in spite of his family's ties to the Medellín Cartel and the numerous human rights scandals that marred his presidency. In 2013, after Uribe failed to amend the constitution that would allow him to stay in power for a third term in 2010, he founded a political party – the Democratic Center, that uses the former president's silhouette as logo. The party's attempts to be named after its "only leader" were thwarted in 2012.[22]
Cuba
Although one of Fidel Castro's alleged dying wishes was not to have buildings or streets named after him or statues of him erected, in order to avoid a cult of personality, it is generally believed[citation needed] that such a cult had already developed by the time of his death.[23][24][25]
A posthumous cult for Che Guevara is also observed both in Cuba and abroad; statues and murals depicting him are as ubiquitous as Fidel's.[citation needed]
Dominican Republic
Dominican President
Egypt
The Egyptian state practiced a Cult of Personality around Gamal Abdel Nasser during his rule. It has been alleged that the Egyptian media has created a personality cult around the current President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.[26][27][28]
Equatorial Guinea
The first president of
This tradition has been continued by Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo who has been accused of building his own personality cult. As evidence of this, in July 2003, the state-operated radio declared that Obiang was "the country's god" and that he had "all power over men and things." It added that the president was "in permanent contact with the Almighty" and that he "can decide to kill without anyone calling him to account and without going to hell." He personally made similar comments in 1993. Macías had also proclaimed himself a god.[32]
Obiang has encouraged his cult of personality by ensuring that public speeches end with well-wishing for himself rather than end with well-wishing for the republic. Many important buildings have a presidential lodge, many towns and cities have streets commemorating Obiang's coup against Macías, and many people wear clothes with his face printed on them.[33][34]
Like his predecessor and other African dictators such as Idi Amin and Mobutu Sese Seko, Obiang has assigned to himself several creative titles. Among them are "gentleman of the great island of Bioko, Annobón and Río Muni."[35] He also refers to himself as El Jefe (the boss).[36]
France
During World War II, after the
In French Indochina, Cambodian schoolchildren in the early 1940s began their school-day with prayers to Marshal Philippe Pétain of Vichy France, opening with the words, "Our father, which art our Leader, glorious be thy name... deliver us from evil",[38] echoing the Lord's Prayer.
Germany
East Germany's first leader, Walter Ulbricht, was also subjected to a personality cult. People were arrested for mocking Ulbricht's goatee, which was seen by the East German government as a shorthand for him.[39]
Haiti
Dictator
Hungary
Hungarian Communist leader Mátyás Rákosi was surrounded by a cult of personality similar to that of Stalin.[41] This peaked on his 60th birthday in 1952, which was commemorated with a series of nationwide celebrations.[42][43] Many things were named after him, including:
- the Manfréd Weiss Steel and Metal Works
- the University of Miskolc
- a village founded in 1952 (Mátyásdomb, i.e. Mátyás-Hill)
- Rákosi scholarship for college and university students
- National Rákosi Competition (for high school students, today: Országos Középiskolai Tanulmányi Verseny)
- Rákosi Medal for winners of the above-mentioned competition
After de-Stalinization, his name was dropped from all institutions in 1956.
India
It has been alleged that a personality cult had developed around India's first
Current Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi is often criticised for creating a personality cult around him.[49][50] Many of the leaders and supporters of Modi's political party Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) often praised him and tried to build a god-like persona over him. Shivraj Singh Chouhan, the chief minister of the country's second largest state, said in 2022, "He is superhuman and has traces of god in him."[51] It is observed by media critics that despite bad governance and several political setbacks,[52][53][54] Modi's charisma and popularity was a key factor that helped the BJP return to power in the 2019 Parliament elections.[55] Opposition and critics often accused Modi for spreading propaganda using popular media such as movies, television and web series,.[56][57][58][59] Modi is often accused of having narcissist traits.[60][61] In 2015, Modi wore a suit which has his name on it.[62]
Indonesia
There were extensive cults of personality surrounding Indonesia's first two presidents, Sukarno and Suharto.
Sukarno (Guided Democracy)
During the Guided Democracy era, Sukarno developed a cult of personality. He was made "president for life" by the MPRS in 1963. His ideological writings on the 1959 Political Manifesto (Manipol-USDEK) and NASAKOM ("Nationalism, Religion and Communism") became mandatory subjects in Indonesian schools and universities, while his speeches were to be memorized and discussed by all students. All newspapers, the only radio station (RRI, government-run), and the only television station (TVRI, also government-run) were made into "tools of the revolution" and functioned to spread Sukarno's messages. Sukarno's cult extends to the capital of newly acquired West Irian renamed to Sukarnopura and the highest peak in the country was renamed from Carstensz Pyramid to Puntjak Sukarno (Sukarno Peak). The 1962 Asian Games Sports Complex was also renamed after him, as he was also the architect involved. He was featured in the obverse of some of the banknotes issued during his time in office.
Sukarno was popularly referred to as bung ("comrade"), and he painted himself as a man of the people who carried the aspirations of Indonesia and dared to take on the West.[63] Also, some other titles were given to him, like "Great Leader of the Revolution". When General Suharto gradually rose to power on 11 March 1966, Sukarno's cult, roles, and services were eradicated in a de-Sukarnoization policy.
Suharto (New Order)
The New Order government created a propaganda in which Suharto is depicted as the "hero" during the 1949 General Offensive, as well as during the 30 September coup attempt and its subsequent mass killings and unrests. He was also granted the title of bapak pembangunan ("father of development") in 1983.[64] Several books praising him and his works were published during his 30 years of power, such as the 6-book series of "Jejak Langkah Pak Harto" (Mr. Harto's Footsteps) by Nazaruddin Sjamsuddin (1991), "The Smiling General: President Soeharto of Indonesia" by an unknown German named Otto Gustav Roeder (1969) – who was thought to be a former Schutzstaffel member and spy stationed in Indonesia named Rudolf Oebsger-Röder – and his autobiography entitled "Pikiran, Ucapan, dan Tindakan Saya" (My Thoughts, Remarks, and Actions, 1989).
In 1993, its central bank,
In September 1998, four months after the Suharto's resignation, Information Minister Yunus Yosfiah – who was formerly his closest ally – declared that the Treachery of G30S/PKI film would no longer be compulsory viewing material, reasoning that it was an attempt to manipulate history and create a cult within Suharto as the protagonist. In addition, the aforementioned sports complex name was restored in 2001.
In the present day, Suharto is still venerated and revered among the country's older demographic and conservative politicians. Furthermore, there were demands by some citizens and politicians to re-establish his policies as part of the "New Order revivalism", whom many considers beneficial.[65]
Iran
Following the
The
There is a personality cult built around
Iraq
As a sign of his consolidation of power as
An
After the fall of his regime, made visible by the toppling of his statue on Firdous Square in Baghdad on April 9, 2003, all statues of Saddam were destroyed.[81] All other aspects of his cult were dismantled, following the US invasion of Iraq.[82]
Italy
The personality cult of
With the entry of media
Kazakhstan
The former first President Nursultan Nazarbayev is the subject of a state sponsored personality cult in Kazakhstan, where he has assumed the title "Leader of the Nation".[89][90] After the president's resignation, the Parliament of Kazakhstan has voted to renamed their capital, Astana, into Nur-sultan as a 'tribute'.[91][92] The city's previous name was restored in September 2022.
Republic of Korea
After taking power in a coup in 1961, President Park Chung Hee developed a personality cult of a type identical to his northern counterpart, with his image on posters and paintings that were displayed dynamically at marches and stadium gatherings.[93] Many themes of Park's propaganda were very similar to those of North Korea, one example is being seen planting trees in a planting ceremony.
Democratic People's Republic of Korea
The
Laos
A cult of personality is centered around the founders of the
Libya
A cult of personality devoted to Colonel
Gaddafi claimed that he disliked the personality cult surrounding him, but he tolerated it because the Libyan people adored him.[96] Biographers Blundy and Lycett believed that he was "a populist at heart".[96] Throughout Libya, crowds of supporters would turn up to public events at which he appeared; described as "spontaneous demonstrations" by the government, there are recorded instances of groups being coerced or paid to attend.[97]
He was typically late to public events, and he would sometimes not show up at all.[98] Although Bianco thought that he had a "gift for oratory",[99] he was considered a poor orator by biographers Blundy and Lycett.[100] Biographer Daniel Kawczynski noted that Gaddafi was famous for his "lengthy, wandering" speeches,[101] which typically involved criticizing Israel and the U.S.[98]
Philippines
In the Philippines, many local politicians engage in some sort of cult of personality. The most famous are those of President Ferdinand Marcos, who was dictator from 1972 to 1986 and the Aquino family. They are often branded as "epalitiko" by the media, which is a contraction of the words epal (slang for "attention-grabber"), and pulítiko ("politician"). They put their images and their names on billboards of government projects. They also print tarpaulins, usually with their images in order to establish a sense of connection with their constituents.[102][103][104] Senate Bill No. 1967 or Anti-Signage of Public Works Act, colloquially known as the Anti-Epal Bill, was filed by Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago in November 2011, and refiled again in July 2013 in an effort to stop the practice.[105]
The 16th president, Rodrigo Duterte, is accused of creating a cult of personality on himself, with some supporters believing "he was appointed by God".[106][107]
Poland
A cult of personality developed in
In modern Poland, Piłsudski is recognized as an important and largely positive figure in
Pope John Paul II is also the namesake of numerous statues, museums, streets, universities,[108] etc. while at least one reporter was prosecuted for offending his persona in print.[109]
Portugal
During the
Some infrastructures inaugurated or restructured during the regime were named or renamed after the dictator, such as the
Romania
In 1986
Another Romanian communist ruler, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej,[117] and a King of Romania, Carol II, also had a cult of personality during their rule.[118]
Russia
Tsarist and Soviet eras
.Since the Russian Empire era, Russia has a very long history of personality cults among the country's leaders, as the Tsars were glorified as wise and gracious leaders, some historians take the line that the succeeding Soviet Union adapted this tradition.[119] Under Joseph Stalin, the Soviet state fostered an extreme cult of personality around him, which was known as Stalinism.
Comrades, the cult of the individual acquired such monstrous size chiefly because Stalin himself, using all conceivable methods, supported the glorification of his own person.... One of the most characteristic examples of Stalin's self-glorification and of his lack of even elementary modesty is the edition of his Short Biography, which was published in 1948.
This book is an expression of the most dissolute flattery, an example of making a man into a godhead, of transforming him into an infallible sage, "the greatest leader", "sublime strategist of all times and nations". Finally no other words could be found with which to lift Stalin up to the heavens.
We need not give here examples of the loathsome adulation filling this book. All we need to add is that they all were approved and edited by Stalin personally and some of them were added in his own handwriting to the draft text of the book.[120]
Some authors (e.g.,
Modern Russia
Some journalists and Russian oppositionists argue that there is now a cult of personality around
The
Serbia
Some observers have described that Aleksandar Vučić built a cult of personality during his authoritarian rule as prime minister and as president.[130][131][132][133][134][135][136] After Vučić's inauguration as the president of Serbia, he appointed Ana Brnabić as his successor as prime minister. Shortly afterwards, Brnabić suggested that the portraits of the president Vućić be placed in all state institutions “to strengthen the cult of the state”, which was supported by some ministers.[134][136][137] According to investigative journalism portal Crime and Corruption Reporting Network, more than 700 fake news were published on the front pages of pro-government tabloids during 2018.[138][139] Many of them were about alleged attacks on the Vučić and attempts of coups, as well as messages of support to him by Vladimir Putin.[139] In 2020, Twitter announced that they shut down the network of 8,500 spam accounts that wrote 43 million tweets – acted in concert to cheerlead for president Vučić and his party, boost Vučić-aligned content and attack his opponents.[140] Some athletes and sports officials praised Vučić for own success, even giving him their own medals.[134][141]
In the last days of the campaign before the
Spain
A cult of personality surrounded
For almost four decades, schoolchildren were taught that Franco had been sent by
Sri Lanka
Mahinda Rajapaksa has been accused of creating a cult of personality around himself, using the civil war victory and Sinhala chauvinism. He was referred as a "King" by some of his supporters, and he used the media to portray himself as a strong man.[157][158][159] During his time in power, his pictures were shown on buses, billboards, and all forms of media. Television ads where songs were sung by school children in his rallies would hail him as "our father" and "father of the country". Rajapaksa also printed his picture on currency and named the budget airline Mihin Lanka after himself.[160][161][162] Rajapaksa thought having his name in the sky would bring him good fortune.[160] By 2022 the popularity of the Rajapaksas had declined and during the 2022 Sri Lankan Protests protesters named him "Myna" as an insulting nickname and demanded his resignation alongside the entire Rajapaksa family.[163]
Syria
As one of his strategies to maintain power over Syria, Hafez al-Assad developed a state-sponsored cult of personality.[168][169][170][171][172][173][174] Portraits of him, often depicting him engaging in heroic activities, were placed in every public space. He named myriad numbers of places and institutions in Syria after himself and other members of his family, such as Lake Assad, an artificial reservoir filled during his time in office. In school, children were taught to sing songs of adulation for Assad. Teachers would begin each school day with the slogan "Our eternal leader, Hafez al-Assad".[175] The personality cult that he developed portrayed him as a wise, modest and just leader of the country. This strategy of creating a cult of personality was continued by Hafez's son and the current Syrian president, Bashar al-Assad.[176][177]
Thailand
All members of Thailand's
Togo
President of the Togolese Republic
Tunisia
From then on, he worked to set up a modern state. Among the priorities of its political action are the development of education, the reduction of inequalities between men and women, economic development and a balanced foreign policy, which makes it an exception among the Arab leaders.
Almost all the cities of Tunisia have a street or avenue bearing the name of Bourguiba since the independence of the country. The most famous of them is Avenue Habib Bourguiba located in Tunis. In 1965, it is even, during a trip to ten African countries, that an avenue bears his name in each of the capitals crossed.[185][186] There is a mausoleum of Bourgiba in Monastir.
Former president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali who ousted Bourgiba and ruled for more than 20 years before fleeing the country during the 2011 revolution, had established a personality cult of his own. Portraits of him could be seen on buildings and crossroads throughout the whole country.
Turkey
In Turkey, founder of the Turkish Republic
At the exact time of Atatürk's death, on every 10 November, at 09:05, most vehicles and people in the country's streets pause for one minute in remembrance.: Atatürk aleyhine işlenen suçlar). Turkish government as of 2011 has filters in place to block websites deemed to contain materials insulting to his memory.
The start of Atatürk's cult of personality is placed in the 1920s when the first statues started being built.[191] The idea of Atatürk as the "father of the Turks" is ingrained in Turkish politics and politicians in that country are evaluated in relation to his cult of personality.[192] The persistence of the phenomenon of Atatürk's personality cult has become an area of deep interest to scholars.[193]
Atatürk impersonators are also seen around Turkey much after Atatürk's death to preserve what is called the "world's longest-running personality cult".[194]
In recent years there has been a growing cult of personality in modern Turkey around current President of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.
The cults created for the sultans and Erdoğan are kept alive by devout Muslims who oppose secular lifestyle and secularist ideas.
Turkmenistan
Saparmurat Niyazov, who was President of Turkmenistan from 1985 to 2006,[195] is another oft-cited cultivator of a cult of personality.[196][197][198] Niyazov simultaneously cut funding to and partially disassembled the education system in the name of "reform", while injecting ideological indoctrination into it by requiring all schools to use his own book, the Ruhnama, as their primary text, and like Kim Il Sung, there was even a creation myth surrounding him.[197][199] During Niyazov's presidency, there was no freedom of the press or freedom of speech. This meant that opposition to Niyazov was strictly forbidden and major opposition figures were imprisoned, institutionalized, deported, or prompted to flee the country, and their family members were routinely harassed by the authorities.[196] Additionally, a silhouette of Niyazov was used as a logo on television broadcasts,[200] Krasnovodsk town was renamed "Turkmenbashi" after the then president, and schools, airports, and even a meteorite were also named after him and members of his family. Statues and pictures of him were also "erected everywhere".[201] For these and other reasons, the US government said that by the time he died, "Niyazov's personality cult … had reached the dimensions of a state-imposed religion."[202]
Human Rights Watch, in its World Report 2012, said there was a cult of personality of President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow and that it was strengthening.[203] Agence France-Presse reported a developing personality cult.[204] Reporters Without Borders said the president was promoting a cult of personality around himself and that his portraits had taken the place of those of the previous president.[205]
United Kingdom
The nature of the Westminster System used in the United Kingdom tends to create assertive figures that are revered in their party. Prime Ministers such as Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher sometimes develop a cult of personality due to their long tenure or their leadership through crisis.[206][207] Populist politicians, including former UKIP and Reform UK leader Nigel Farage, former Opposition Leader and Labour Party Leader Jeremy Corbyn, and Scottish First Minister and SNP leader Nicola Sturgeon, also enjoy large, cult-like backing from supporters of Brexit, Corbynmania, and Scottish Independence respectively.[208][209][210][211]
United States
A number of presidents in American history have been noted by various historians as being supported by the effects of a cult of personality,
Numerous commentators have referred to a personality cult which has been built up around Donald Trump by members of the Republican Party and other supporters of his "Make America Great Again" (MAGA) program.[223][224]
Venezuela
In Venezuela, a cult of personality has been created around the late President Hugo Chávez, in which his supporters venerate him.[225] Chávez largely received his support through his charisma and by spending Venezuela's oil funds on the poor.[226] Since his death, his followers, known as "Chavistas"[227][228] refer to his death as a "transition to immortality", commonly calling Chávez the "eternal commander".[229] Among his followers, Chávez has been compared to holy figures, especially by his successor Nicolás Maduro.[230][231][232][233][234]
According to
Vietnam
The
The former capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, was officially renamed Ho Chi Minh City on 1 May 1975, one day after its capture, which officially ended the Vietnam War.[236]
Yugoslavia
A cult of personality was developed around Josip Broz Tito, the leader of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1980. Emerging from his leading role in Yugoslav Partisans' liberation struggle in World War II, Tito's cult of personality went on to be solidified by the Tito–Stalin split of 1948, embarking Yugoslavia on a path towards a socialist system independent of the Soviet Union. Aside from priding Yugoslavia on an international scene, Tito's call for brotherhood and unity of Yugoslav nations and similar methods made his position in the Yugoslav political landscape an important unifying force that held Yugoslavia together.[237] His cult has been described as a combination of a "peasant chief, protector and the legendary hero".[238] During his lifetime, his cult of personality included, among other things, naming places after him (including four cities), celebrations of his birthday (including Relay of Youth), widespread use of his portraits, writing his name in landscapes so that they could be seen from the air, etc.[239][240]
Zaire
He used mass media communications to entrench his rule.[241]
Mobutu embarked on a campaign of
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- ^ There are multiple translations of the full name, including "the all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, will go from conquest to conquest leaving fire in his wake", "the earthy, the peppery, all-powerful warrior who, by his endurance and will to win, goes from contest to contest leaving fire in his wake" and "the man who flies from victory to victory and leaves nothing behind him"<http://www.plexoft.com/SBF/N04.html#Sese> and "the all-powerful warrior who goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his wake" (Wrong, p. 4)
Works cited
- Bianco, Mirella (1975). Gadafi: Voice from the Desert. Translated by Lyle, Margaret. London: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-78062-0.
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Further reading
- Hufbauer, Benjamin (2006) Presidential Temples: How Memorials and Libraries Shape Public Memory. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700614222
- Burckel, Nicholas (April 2007) "Presidential Temples: How Memorials and Libraries Shape Public Memory (review)" Portal: Libraries and the Academy v. 7, n. 2, pp. 250–252.