List of giant squid specimens and sightings

This list of giant squid specimens and sightings is a comprehensive timeline of recorded human encounters with members of the genus Architeuthis, popularly known as giant squid. It includes animals that were caught by fishermen, found washed ashore, recovered (in whole or in part) from sperm whales and other predatory species, as well as those reliably sighted at sea. The list also covers specimens incorrectly assigned to the genus Architeuthis in original descriptions or later publications.

Background

The giant squid's existence was established beyond doubt only in the 1870s, with the appearance of an extraordinary number of complete specimens—both dead and alive—in Newfoundland waters (beginning with #21).^[22] These were meticulously documented in a series of papers by Yale zoologist Addison Emery Verrill.^{[23][nb 3]} Two of these Newfoundland specimens, both from 1873, were particularly significant as they were among the earliest to be photographed: first a single severed tentacle—hacked off a live animal as it "attacked" a fishing boat (#29)^[24]—and weeks later an intact animal in two parts (#30).^{[nb 4]} The head and limbs of this latter specimen were famously shown draped over the sponge bath of Moses Harvey, a local clergyman, essayist, and amateur naturalist.^[29] Harvey secured and reported widely on both of these important specimens—as well as numerous others (most notably the Catalina specimen of 1877; #42)—and it was largely through his efforts that giant squid became known to North American and British zoologists.^{[30][nb 5]} Recognition of Architeuthis as a real animal led to the reappraisal of earlier reports of gigantic tentacled sea creatures, with some of these subsequently being accepted as records of giant squid, the earliest stretching back to at least the 17th century.^[32]

For a time in the late 19th century, almost every major specimen of which material was saved was described as a new species.[34] In all, some twenty species names were coined.^[35] However, there is no widely agreed basis for distinguishing between the named species, and both morphological and genetic data point to the existence of a single, globally distributed species, which according to the principle of priority must be known by the earliest available name: Architeuthis dux.^[36]

It is not known why giant squid become stranded on shore, but it may be because the distribution of deep, cold water where they live is temporarily altered. Marine biologist and Architeuthis specialist

The genus Architeuthis has a

According to Guerra et al. (2006), 592 confirmed giant squid specimens were known as of the end of 2004. Of these, 306 came from the Atlantic Ocean, 264 from the Pacific Ocean, 20 from the Indian Ocean, and 2 from the Mediterranean Sea. The figures for specimens collected in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans further broke down as follows: 148 in the northeastern Atlantic, 126 in the northwestern Atlantic, 26 in the southeastern Atlantic, 6 in the southwestern Atlantic, 43 in the northeastern Pacific, 28 in the northwestern Pacific, 10 in the southeastern Pacific, and 183 in the southwestern Pacific.^[59]

* Underestimates according to Guerra et al. (2011)

** Includes records from Durban, South Africa

A number of fragmentary giant squid remains were displayed as part of "In Search of Giant Squid", a Smithsonian travelling exhibition curated by Clyde Roper that visited a dozen US museums and other educational institutions between September 2004 and August 2009.^[71] The exhibition opened its national tour at Yale University's Peabody Museum of Natural History, which has maintained a strong association with the giant squid from the time of the Newfoundland strandings in the 1870s. Preparations for the Peabody exhibition, overseen by site curator Eric Lazo-Wasem, uncovered giant squid material in the museum's collections that was not previously known to be extant, including original specimens from Addison Emery Verrill's time.^[72]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Architeuthis models.

In the late 19th century, the giant squid's popular appeal and desirability to museums—but scarcity of preserved specimens—spawned a long tradition of "life-sized" models that continues to the present day.

O'Shea & Bolstad (2008) give a maximum mantle length (ML) of 225 cm (7.38 ft) based on the examination of more than 130 specimens, as well as beaks recovered from sperm whales (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens), though there are recent scientific records of specimens that slightly exceed this size (such as #371, a 240 cm (7.9 ft) ML female captured off Tasmania, Australia; see also #647, with an estimated 2.15–3.06 m ML). Remeslo (2011) and Yukhov (2014:248) give a maximum mantle length of 260 cm (8.5 ft) for females from southern waters. Questionable records of up to 500 cm (16 ft) ML can be found in older literature.^[96] Paxton (2016a) accepts a maximum recorded ML of 279 cm (9.15 ft), based on the Lyall Bay specimen (#47) reported by Kirk (1880:312), but this record has been called into question as the gladius of this specimen (which should approximate the mantle length) was said to be only 190 cm (6.2 ft) long.^[94]

Including the head and arms but excluding the tentacles (standard length), the species very rarely exceeds 5 m (16 ft) according to O'Shea & Bolstad (2008). Paxton (2016a) considers 9.45 m (31.0 ft) to be the greatest reliably measured SL, based on a specimen (#46) reported by Verrill (1880a:192), and considers specimens of 10 m (33 ft) SL or more to be "very probable", but these conclusions have been criticised by giant squid experts.^[94]

The taxonomy of the giant squid genus

Earlier efforts to compile a list of all known giant squid encounters throughout history include those of marine writer and artist Richard Ellis.^[109] Ellis's first list, published as an appendix to his 1994 work Monsters of the Sea, was probably the first such compilation to appear in print and was described in the book's table of contents as "the most complete and accurate list of the historical sightings and strandings of Architeuthis ever attempted".^[110] Ellis's much-expanded second list, an appendix to his 1998 book The Search for the Giant Squid, comprised 166 entries spanning four and a half centuries, from 1545 to 1996.^[111] Records which appear in Ellis's 1998 list but are not found in Sweeney & Roper's 2001 list have a citation to Ellis (1998a)—in the page range 257–265—in the 'Additional references' column of the main table.^{[nb 12]}

In addition to these global specimen lists, a number of regional compilations have been published, including

Purported sightings of giant squid lacking both

Specimens misassigned to the genus Architeuthis in print publications or news reports are included, but are clearly highlighted as misidentifications.

List of specimens

Records are listed chronologically in ascending order and numbered accordingly. This numbering is not meant to be definitive but rather to provide a convenient means of referring to individual records. Specimens incorrectly assigned to the genus Architeuthis are counted separately, their numbers enclosed in square brackets, and are highlighted in pink ( ). Records that cover multiple whole specimens, or remains necessarily originating from multiple individuals (e.g. two lower beaks), have the '

• Date – Date on which the specimen was first captured, found, or observed. Where this is unknown, the date on which the specimen was first reported is listed instead and noted as such. All times are local.
• Location – Area where the specimen was encountered, including coordinates and depth information where available. Given as it appears in the cited reference(s), except where additional information is provided in square brackets. The quadrant of a major ocean in which the specimen was found is given in curly brackets (e.g. {NEA}; see Oceanic sectors).
• Nature of encounter – Circumstances in which the specimen was recovered or observed. Given as they appear in the cited reference(s), although "washed ashore" encompasses all stranded animals.
• Identification – Species- or
  vernacular name
  has been applied to the specimen (e.g. "giant squid" or a non-English equivalent), this is given instead.
• Material cited – Original specimen material that was recovered or observed. "Entire" encompasses all more-or-less complete specimens. Names of anatomical features are retained from original sources (e.g. "jaws" may be given instead of the preferred "beak", or "body" instead of "mantle"). The specimen's state of preservation is also given, where known, and any missing parts enumerated (the tentacles, arm tips, reddish skin and eyes are the parts most often missing in stranded specimens, owing to their delicate nature and/or preferential targeting by scavengers).
• Material saved – Material that was kept after examination and not discarded (if any). Information may be derived from outdated sources; material may no longer be extant even if stated as such.
• Sex – Sex and sexual maturity of the specimen.
• Size and measurements – Data relating to measurements and counts. Abbreviations used are based on standardised acronyms in
  arithmetic precision and original units preserved (metric conversions are shown alongside imperial measurements), though some of the more extreme lengths and weights found in older literature have since been discredited
  .
• Repository – Institution in which the specimen material is deposited (based on cited sources; may not be current), including
  boldface
  . If an author has given a specimen a unique identifying number (e.g. Verrill specimen No. 28), this is included as well, whether or not the specimen is extant.
• Main references – The most important sources, typically ones that provide extensive data and/or analysis on a particular specimen (often primary sources). Presented in author–date parenthetical referencing style, with page numbers included where applicable (those in square brackets refer either to unpaginated works or English translations of originally non-English works; see Full citations). Only the first page of relevant coverage is given, except where this is discontinuous. Any relevant figures ("figs.") and plates ("pls.") are enumerated.
• Additional references – References of lesser importance or primacy, either because they provide less substantive information on a given record (often secondary sources), or else because they are not easily obtainable or possibly even extant (e.g. old newspaper articles, personal correspondence, and television broadcasts) but nonetheless mentioned in more readily accessible published works (see Full citations).
• Notes – Miscellaneous information, often including persons and vessels involved in the specimen's recovery and subsequent handling, and any dissections, preservation work or scientific analyses carried out on the specimen. Where animals have been recorded while alive this is also noted. Material not referable to the genus Architeuthis, as well as specimens on public display, are both highlighted in bold (as "Non-architeuthid" and "On public display", respectively), though the latter information may no longer be current.

The total number of giant squid records listed across this page and successive lists is 714, though the number of individual animals covered is greater (the additional number exceeding 250) as some records encompass multiple specimens (indicated in grey). Additionally, 13 records relate to specimens misidentified as giant squid (indicated in pink).

Type specimens

The following table lists the nominal species-level

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in the List of giant squid table.

Oceanic sectors

Oceanic sectors used in the main table follow Sweeney & Roper (2001): the Atlantic Ocean is divided into sectors at the equator and 30°W, the Pacific Ocean is divided at the equator and 180°, and the Indian Ocean is defined as the range 20°E to 115°E (the Arctic and Southern Oceans are not distinguished). An additional category has been created to accommodate the handful of specimens recorded from the Mediterranean Sea.

Measurements

Abbreviations used for measurements and counts follow Sweeney & Roper (2001) and are based on standardised acronyms in teuthology, primarily those defined by Roper & Voss (1983), with the exception of several found in older references. Following Sweeney & Roper (2001), the somewhat non-standard EL ("entire" length) and WL ("whole" length) are used in place of the more common TL (usually total length; here tentacle length) and SL (usually standard length; here spermatophore length), respectively.

Repositories

Institutional acronyms follow Sweeney & Roper (2001) and are primarily those defined by Leviton et al. (1985), Leviton & Gibbs (1988), and Sabaj (2016). Where the acronym is unknown, the full repository name is listed.

Specimen images

The following images relate to pre–20th century giant squid specimens and sightings. The number below each image corresponds to that given in the

For images of later specimens, see

List of giant squid specimens and sightings (21st century) § Specimen images

.

Notes

Pennsylvania Grit

of 13 December 1896

cetacean

in a state of arousal.

1. ^ Verrill's marginal annotations read as follows: "Architeuthis monachus (No. 5) Logie Bay, N. Foundland about 1⁄8 natural size between 1⁄8 and 1⁄9. The tub is 38 1⁄2 inches [98 cm] in diameter and circular. Harvey (?) letter. Some of the suckers are broken off on the short arms. They alternate in two regular rows. On the club of the long arm there is a marginal row of small suckers on each side alternating with the large ones. One sucker gone on this long arm."^[2]
2. soup form on 3 March 1769, during James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific.^[17] In 1783, Banks presented at the Royal Society an important early paper on ambergris by the London-based German physician Franz Xavier Schwediawer, in which was recounted an observation made by fishermen some ten years earlier of a sperm whale that had in its mouth an incomplete cephalopod tentacle nearly 27 ft (8.2 m) long.^[18] To Schwediawer, this corroborated "the common saying of the fishermen, that the cuttle-fish is the largest fish of the ocean".^[18] Schwediawer's footnote would be cited "uncritically" in subsequent works, such as Thomas Beale's influential The Natural History of the Sperm Whale of 1839.^[17]
3. ^ Ellis (1998a:86) described Verrill as someone with "an almost limitless capacity for work", who "began publishing papers on these specimens almost as fast as they came in". The full list of Verrill's publications on the Newfoundland strandings of 1870–1881 is as follows: Verrill 1874a, b, 1875a, b, c, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1880a, b, 1881a, b, 1882a, c.
4. The Annals and Magazine of Natural History.^[27] The giant squid found beached on Île Saint-Paul on 2 November 1874 (#33) was another early specimen to be photographed.^[28] Perhaps the earliest of all was the beak of the October 1871 specimen (#22) from the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, whose photograph was taken some time after its discovery but already mentioned in February 1873 by Packard (1873:92)
   .
5. ^ According to Harvey's entry in the Dictionary of Canadian Biography, written by giant squid expert Frederick Aldrich, "[a]t least ten per cent of his essays deal with [the giant] squid".^[31]
6. ^ Unconfirmed mass appearances of giant squid include the claim by Frederick Aldrich that a "school of 60 has been sighted off the coast of Newfoundland"^[39] (cf. #38). Richard Ellis noted that Aldrich never repeated this claim in print, "so it is likely that he learned it was not accurately reported".^[40] However, Aldrich had earlier given more details in an interview with The Muse, where he stated that in autumn 1964 a Japanese trawler operating around 100 miles (160 km) off St. John's "went through a school of sixty or seventy of these animals frolicking on the surface of the water".^[41] Aldrich also told Clyde Roper that "Grand Banks fishermen have reported seeing hundreds of giant squid bodies floating on the surface".^[42]
7. ^
   Museum of Economic Fish Culture in South Kensington, London.^[76] Its appearance was based on official papers and photographs Buckland received through the Colonial Office in December 1873 relating to both the first Portugal Cove specimen (#29) and the Logy Bay specimen (#30).^[76] Buckland's cutout has been described as the "first attempt to show the public what a giant squid really looked like".^[77]
8. ^ See giant squid specimen #661, whose tank leaked around 1 tonne of formalin in February 2022, resulting in the month-long closure of the Ibaraki Nature Museum near Tokyo, Japan.
9. Portugal Cove specimen of 1873 (#29)^[87] and is close to that given for the total length of the Architeuthis longimanus holotype, which describer Thomas William Kirk variously cited as 55 ft 2 in (16.81 m) or 57 ft (17.4 m) and which the fisherman who found the specimen gave as 62 ft (18.9 m).^[88]
10. 524
    ).
11. ^ In particular, the commercially important Humboldt squid (Dosidicus gigas) is sometimes called 'giant squid' (or its Spanish equivalent calamar gigante) and this, together with its large size, has led to confusion with Architeuthis (e.g. misidentification #[2]). In February 2002, the Manhattan-based seafood restaurant Esca offered what was claimed to be Architeuthis, but the ammonia-free flesh turned out to be that of the Humboldt squid.^[107]
12. ^ One record given by Ellis is omitted from the present list: Ellis (1998a:259) lists a specimen supposedly collected "[n]orth of Bahamas" in 1898, citing Steenstrup (1898), but this appears to stem from confusion with the type specimen of Architeuthis dux (#14), collected off the Bahamas in 1855.
13. Portugal Cove, Newfoundland, said to have been spotted in 1817 by a local minister named Larveige and named after him.^[143]
    These records are likewise excluded due to a lack of substantiating evidence.
14. Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus of the same year (later reprinted by authors such as Gessner, Edward Topsell, Ulisse Aldrovandi, and John Jonston);^[154] and various mythological and folkloric creatures such as the Greek Scylla,^[155] the Japanese Akkorokamui^[156] and umibōzu,^[157] the Māori Te Wheke-a-Muturangi,^[158] and the Caribbean Lusca.^[156] Giant squid have even, on occasion, been proposed as an explanation for the Loch Ness Monster,^[159] with the obvious problem that all living cephalopods are exclusively marine.^[160] Some authors have cautioned against attributing "sea monster" sightings to giant squid and offered alternative explanations.^[161]
15. ^ Early sources variously give the date as 1545,^[170] 1546,^[171] December 1549,^[172] or 1550.^[173] Lycosthenes (1557) mentions three "sea monks" supposedly found in 1530, 1546, and 1549, the first in the Rhine and the latter two near Copenhagen (possibly referring to the same specimen). The earliest known source, a German woodcut of the creature dating from 1546^[174]—according to which the event happened the same year—places an upper bound on the date, and Paxton & Holland (2005) consider 1546 to be the most likely year.
16. ^ Mentioned by Steenstrup (1855a:78), presumably referring to Jónsson's encyclopedic Annálar Björns á Skarðsá, covering the history of Iceland from 1400 to 1645, which was eventually published as a dual Icelandic–Latin work in 1774–1775.^[178]
17. Cyclopterus lumpus]. No trace was seen of the head, except the one aperture, or two, which were found behind the tails or at a short distance from them. This very creature was observed by many trustworthy men, and one of the tails of the sea monster was brought home to Thingørekloster for examination."^[184]
18. ^ In a 2013 article about the giant squid, Mark Dery wrote: "contemporary teuthologists dismiss the "attack" as the death throes of a moribund animal, pointing out that virtually all giant squid encountered on the ocean's surface are dead or dying. "There is not a single corroborated story of a [giant] squid attacking a man, a boat, or a submersible", asserts Ellis."^[222]
19. ^ As part of his research for The Kraken, Reed travelled to Newfoundland and spoke to Picot's descendants and to Margueritte Aldrich, widow of giant squid expert Frederick Aldrich.^[230]
20. Thimble Tickle specimen" is sometimes mistakenly cited as 57 ft (17.4 m).^[116] Over time, various other superlative measurements have been attributed to the specimen, including a mass of 2 tonnes^[247] or exactly 4,480 lb (2,030 kg);^[248] an eye diameter of 40 cm,^[247] 18 in (46 cm),^[249] or 9 in (23 cm);^[250] and suckers 4 in (10 cm) across.^[249] Wildly excessive mass estimates for the specimen have included:^[251] 29.25 or 30 short tons (26.5 or 27.2 tonnes);^[252] near 24 tonnes;^[253] less than 8 tonnes;^[254] and 2.8 or "more realistic[ally]" 2 tonnes.^[255]
21. ^ The identity of the two other fishermen in the boat is not given in Moses Harvey's original account,^[246] but later sources identify Joseph Martin, the founder of Thimble Tickle (now known as Glovers Harbour), as one of the fishermen involved in the squid's capture.^[256] George Marsh and Henry Rowsell—the founders of the nearby settlements of Winter House Cove and Lock's Harbour (Lockesporte), respectively—have also been suggested as participants.^[257] The fishermen may have learned of Moses Harvey's interest in the giant squid when the latter visited Notre Dame Bay only a couple of months earlier, in August 1878, as part of a geological survey.^[258] A CBC News report broadcast in 2004 features Maurice Martin, great-great-grandson of Joseph Martin, recounting the story of the squid's capture as told to him by his grandfather.^[259]
22. Newfoundland Banks may have a body length of 8 feet [2.4 m] and measure up to 40 feet [12 m] overall."^[262]
23. ^ Paxton countered that this was possibly attributable to shrinkage of the gladius prior to measurement, or to it having been severed in several places beforehand,^[94] but Kirk wrote that it was measured "when first extracted" and only later "shr[a]nk considerably".^[269]
24. ^ ^{a b c} Kirk (1888:38) provides a table with a detailed breakdown of the specimen's various measurements. There is, however, a discrepancy between the total length of 684 in (17.37 m, or exactly 57 ft) given in the table—which agrees with the individual values of 71 in (1.80 m) for the mantle, 22 in (0.56 m) for the head, and 591 in (15.01 m) for the tentacles—and the total length of 55 ft 2 in (16.81 m) given by Kirk in the body of the article. Wood (1982:191) suggested that, due to the tentacles' highly retractile nature, the total length of 62 feet (18.9 m) originally reported by the fisherman "may have been correct at the time he found the squid", and that "[t]his probably also explains the discrepancy in Kirk's figures". Owing to its small mantle size, Wood (1982:191) estimated that "this specimen probably weighed less than 300 lb [140 kg]". O'Shea & Bolstad (2008) opined that the reported total length of 55 ft 2 in (16.81 m) "simply cannot be correct" and attributed it to either "imagination" or artificial lengthening of the tentacles. They added that a female giant squid with a mantle length of 71 in (180 cm) "measured post mortem and relaxed (by modern standards) today would have a total length of ≈32 feet [9.8 m]". Paxton (2016a:86) wrote that this specimen "clearly has the largest ratio of TL to ML [total length to mantle length] ever known in Architeuthis [...] which led [O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008] to suggest that the length was paced out and/or there was extensive post-mortem stretching. However, a re-reading of the original paper suggests that the specimen, although initially paced out, was actually measured, nevertheless the TL is at the edge of the 99.9% prediction interval range [...] and so it was certainly an unusual specimen."
25. folklorist Herbert Halpert).^[137] Aldrich restated this belief in "Monsters of the Deep", the second episode of the 1980 television series Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World: "I believe that the giant squid reach an approximate maximum size of something like a hundred and fifty feet [46 m]".^[291] Richard Ellis, apparently unaware of Aldrich's similar statements in print, commented: "It is difficult to imagine why Aldrich would have made such an irresponsible statement, unless it had to do with being on camera".^[272] Arthur C. Clarke himself wrote in 1992 that "the evidence suggests, they [giant squid] grow up to 150 feet in length".^[292] The published literature includes many other such extreme size estimates based only on supposed giant squid suckers or scars thereof
    .

References

Short citations

1. ^ Frank, 2014:246; Offord, 2016
2. ^ Aldrich, 1991:459
3. ^ ^{a b c d} Aldrich, 1978; Ellis, 1998a:79, 2005:143–144
4. ^ Rees, 1949; Salvador & Tomotani, 2014; Hogenboom, 2014
5. ^ Steenstrup, 1857:183; validated in Harting, 1860:11
6. ^ Kent, 1874c:116–117; Paxton, 2018:56
7. ^ Mitchill, 1813, 1815; see also response from Lee, 1819
8. ^ Smith, 1842a:73, b:85; Earle, 1977:20
9. ^ Steenstrup, 1849:952/[10]
10. ^ Schwediawer, 1783:236; Ellis, 1998a:5, 2005:148
11. ^ Ellis, 1998a:5, 133–134; King, 2019:142
12. ^ Ellis, 1998a:133
13. ^ see e.g. Earle, 1977:20–21
14. ^ Heuvelmans, 1968
15. ^ de Montfort, 1801; see Freeman, 2017:55
16. ^ Paxton, 2018:56–57
17. ^ ^{a b} Paxton, 2018:56
18. ^ ^{a b} Schwediawer, 1783:236–237; Paxton, 2018:56
19. ^ Steenstrup, 1857:184; validated in Harting, 1860:11
20. ^ Bouyer, 1861
21. ^ Harvey, 1874a
22. ^ Lee, 1875:111; Earle, 1977; Muntz, 1995; McConvey, 2015b
23. ^ Coe, 1929:36; G.E. Verrill, 1958:69
24. ^ Murray, 1874b:121
25. ^ ^{a b c} Offord, 2016; Keartes, 2016
26. ^ Aldrich, 1991:458
27. ^ Harvey, 1874a:68; Verrill, 1875a:34
28. ^ ^{a b c} Wright, 1878:329
29. ^ Aldrich, 1987:109; Frank, 2014
30. ^ Hatton & Harvey, 1883:238–243; Aldrich, 1987:115, 1994
31. ^ Aldrich, 1994
32. ^ Ellis, 1994a:379, 1998a:257; Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[27]
33. ^ ^{a b c} Lee, 1875:114
34. ^ Nesis, 2001
35. ^ ^{a b} Sweeney & Young, 2003
36. ^ Aldrich, 1991:474; Förch, 1998:93; Winkelmann et al., 2013; Guerra et al., 2013
37. ^ Downer, 1965:8; Aldrich, 1967a, 1968a
38. ^ Stevens, 1988:158–160
39. ^ Aldrich, 1967b
40. ^ Ellis, 1998a:241
41. ^ Downer, 1965:8
42. ^ ^{a b c} Roper & Shea, 2013:111
43. ^ Kubodera et al., 2016; see also Sakamoto, 2014
44. ^ Ellis, 1998a:211
45. ^ Oreskes, 2003:716, 2014:29
46. ^ Baird, 2002; Kubodera, 2010
47. ^ [NHK], 2013a, b; Dery, 2013
48. ^ Hann, 2006; Guerra et al., 2011:1990; Walker, 2011
49. ^ Okutani, 2015
50. ^ Nesis, 2003; Coro et al., 2015
51. ^ [NMNH], 2004
52. ^ Guerra et al., 2006; Fernández-Pello García, N.d.
53. ^ ^{a b} Kubodera et al., 2016
54. ^ O'Shea, 1997, 1999
55. ^ Roper & Shea, 2013:111; Roper, 2016
56. ^ Roper et al., 2015
57. ^ Roper & Jereb, 2010:121; Roper, 2016
58. ^ see map in Sivertsen, 1955:11
59. ^ Guerra et al., 2006
60. ^ Turner, 1963:23
61. ^ Ellis, 1994a:133
62. ^ Guerra et al., 2011:1991
63. ^ Ellis, 1998a:242; see Loates, 1989
64. ^ Ellis, 1998a:242–243
65. ^ Miller, 1983; Landman & Ellis, 1998; Landman et al., 1999; Roper & Jereb, 2010:123; Ablett, 2012
66. ^ [Anon.], 1988:4, 1989:7; Ellis, 1998a:46; Lien, 2000:278; Grann, 2004; see also [NTA], 1966 and identically worded magazine appeal in Aldrich, 1968b
67. ^ [Anon.], 1971
68. ^ Guerra & Segonzac, 2014:118
69. ^ [Anon.], 2014a, b
70. ^ Shimada et al., 2017:9
71. ^ [NMNH], 2004; [SITES], 2004
72. ^ [Anon.], 2004b; Miller, 2004
73. ^ Ellis, 1997a:52
74. ^ Emerton, 1883; Tratz, 1973; Ellis, 1997a, b, 1998a:214; Wechsler, 1999
75. ^ ^{a b} Ellis, 1997a:31, 48
76. ^ ^{a b} Buckland, 1875:211–216, 1886:400; Ellis, 1997a:31
77. ^ Ellis, 1997a:31
78. ^ ^{a b} Ellis, 1997a:34, 46
79. ^ ^{a b} Ellis, 1997a:35
80. ^ Emerton, 1883; Ellis, 1997a:35–36
81. ^ Ellis, 1997a:44–46
82. ^ [Anon.], 1966; Ellis, 1997a:34–35; [Anon.], 2004a
83. ^ [Anon.], 1969
84. ^ Drahl, 2008
85. ^ [Anon.], 2010
86. ^ Wood, 1982:188–193; Ellis, 1998a:6–7, b; Paxton, 2016a, b; Bittel, 2016; Romanov et al., 2017
87. ^ Murray, 1874a:161, 1874b:121
88. ^ Kirk, 1888:35, 38
89. ^ Wood, 1982:189, 191; Ellis, 1998a:6–7; O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008; Paxton, 2016a
90. ^ O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008; Dery, 2013; Roper & Shea, 2013:113; Hanlon & Messenger, 2018:267; see also Nesis, 2001
91. ^ Cerullo & Roper, 2012:22
92. ^ ^{a b} O'Shea, 2003b
93. ^ Paxton, 2016a, b; [Anon.], 2016
94. ^ ^{a b c d e} Greshko, 2016
95. ^ McClain et al., 2015:Table 3
96. ^ Roper & Jereb, 2010:121
97. ^ ^{a b} O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008
98. ^ ^{a b} Nilsson et al., 2012:683; Land & Nilsson, 2012:86
99. ^ Robson, 1933:681
100. ^ Ellis, 1998a:73; Norman, 2000:150; Roper & Jereb, 2010:121
101. ^ Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:62
102. ^ Roper & Jereb, 2010:123
103. ^ see Roeleveld, 2002
104. ^ [UCPH], 2013
105. ^ see Ellis, 1998a; Salcedo-Vargas, 1999; Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004
106. ^ Robson, 1933:681; see e.g. Robson, 1929 by the same author
107. ^ Ellis, 2005:198
108. ^ ^{a b} Sweeney & Roper, 2001
109. ^ Ellis, 1994a:379–384, 1998a:257–265
110. ^ Ellis, 1994a:ix
111. ^ [Anon.], 1999:109; Roper et al., 2015:78
112. ^ e.g. Leite et al., 2016; Funaki, 2017; Romanov et al., 2017; Shimada et al., 2017; Guerra et al., 2018
113. ^ Starkey, 1963; Welfare & Fairley, 1980:74; Bright, 1989:148; Ellis, 1998a:204; Paxton, 2016a:83; dramatised in Packham, 1998
114. ^ Ellis, 1998a:245; Paxton, 2016a:83
115. ^ Cousteau & Diolé, 1973:205; Ellis, 1998a:208, 2005:145
116. ^ ^{a b} Paxton, 2016a:83
117. ^ McDowall, 1998; Ellis, 1998a:248
118. ^ Revkin, 2013
119. ^ Hajicek, 2007, 2008; Cassell, 2007
120. ^ Taylor, 1932:1; [Anon.], 1938a:21; originally reported in East Anglian Daily Times, 31 October 1896; see also Herrington, 1932:60
121. ^ [Anon.], 1938a:21; [Anon.], 1938b:83; originally reported in East Anglian Daily Times, 22–25 October 1938
122. ^ see Ellis, 1999
123. ^ Heuvelmans, 1968:68; Berger, 2009:275
124. ^ Hoff, 2003:84, 96
125. ^ Aldrich, 1979:67; Welfare & Fairley, 1980:72, 74; Fitzgerald, 2018
126. ^ ^{a b} Aldrich, 1979:67
127. ^ Bullen, 1898:139; Ellis, 1998a:136–137, 180–181
128. ^ Aldrich, 1977
129. ^ [Anon.], 1988:4; Aldrich, 1990c
130. ^ Lane, 1957:196; Gantès, 1979:38; Flynn & Weigall, 1980; Welfare & Fairley, 1980:71; Goss, 1985:39; Heuvelmans, 2003:252; Berger, 2009:261, 276; Dyer, 2021
131. ^ LeBlond & Sibert, 1973:11, 32; Bright, 1989:140; Ellis, 1998a:202
132. ^ ^{a b} Verrill, 1897:79; repeated by Bartsch, 1937:403
133. ^ Pierce et al., 1995
134. Chilean Blob); Evon, 2017
135. ^ Ley, 1959:210
136. ^ Dozier, 1976:72; Ellis, 1998a:7
137. ^ ^{a b c} Aldrich, 1980:59
138. ^ de Montfort, 1801
139. ^ Freeman, 2017:55
140. ^ ^{a b} [Anon.], 1933
141. ^ Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:64
142. ^ e.g. Labails, 2009:24
143. ^ Bonnell, 1963:6
144. ^ Gould, 1886; Gibson, 1887; Aldrich, 1983; Ellis, 1994a, 1998a:10–30
145. ^ Lee, 1875, 1883; Buel, 1887:81; Bullen, 1898:139; Allan, 1955a, b; Heuvelmans, 1958; Aldrich & Sullivan, 1978; Garcin & Raynal, 2011; Salvador & Tomotani, 2014; Walker, 2016; Naish, 2017
146. ^ Buckland, 1886:399; Oudemans, 1892; Bartsch, 1917:364, 1931:347, 1937:403; Aldrich & Sullivan, 1978; Aldrich, 1979:67; Ellis, 1994b
147. ^ Lee, 1883:64; Ellis, 1998a:15; but see Paxton et al., 2005
148. ^ [Anon.], 1849:264; Myklebust, 1946; Ellis, 1998a:20
149. ^ Lee, 1883:79; Ellis, 1998a:20; Switek, 2011; but see Galbreath, 2015:42
150. ^ Carrington, 1957:35
151. ^ Carrington, 1957:36; Paxton, 2021:314–315
152. ^ Stead, 1933; Ellis, 1998a:28; Dalton, 2021
153. ^ Ellis, 1998a:13–14
154. ^ Ellis, 1998a:12, 14–15
155. ^ Ley, 1941; Aldrich & Sullivan, 1978; Aldrich, 1990b; Ellis, 1998a:10–11; Lotzof, 2021; Guerra, 2022
156. ^ ^{a b} Lotzof, 2021
157. ^ Greener, 2010
158. ^ Kirk, 1880:310; Lotzof, 2021
159. ^ e.g. [Anon.], 1934
160. ^ Paxton & Shine, 2016:27, 32
161. ^ Paxton, 2003; France, 2016a, b, 2017
162. ^ Lee, 2014; Mikkelson, 2014; Evon, 2016b; see also Ellis, 1994a:163, and April Fools' Day joke of Carstens, 2016, taken seriously by [Anon.], 2020
163. ^ e.g. Evon, 2016a, 2017; Howard, 2017
164. ^ Gerhardt, 1966:171; Muntz, 1995; Ellis, 1998a:11–12; Guerra, 2022; see Aristotle, c. 350 BC; Pliny, AD 77–79
165. ^ [Anon.], 2000
166. ^ Roper et al., 2015:78
167. ^ Ellis, 1994a:379
168. ^ Ellis, 1998a:5, 257; Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[27]; Guerra et al., 2004a:428; but see Paxton & Holland, 2005
169. ^ Gudger, 1953:199; Lane, 1957:129; Ellis, 1994a:144
170. ^ Vedel, 1575
171. ^ Hamer, 1546; Rondelet, 1554; Gessner, 1558
172. ^ Holberg, 1733
173. ^ Huitfeldt, [1595]; Stephanius, [c. 1650]
174. ^ Hamer, 1546
175. ^ Muus, 1959:170
176. ^ Carrington, 1957:63
177. ^ Paxton & Holland, 2005:39
178. ^ Jónsson, [c. 1645]; see Paxton & Holland, 2005:40
179. ^ Roeleveld, N.d.
180. ^ Barber & Riches, 1971:26; Aldrich, 1980:57
181. ^ Carrington, 1957:63; Russell & Russell, 1975:97
182. ^ Steenstrup, 1849:950–951/[9]
183. ^ Packard, 1873:87
184. ^ Steenstrup, 1849:950–952/[9–10]; for the original Icelandic text, see there and Jónsson, [c. 1645]:238
185. ^ Steenstrup, 1849:952/[10–11]
186. ^ Verrill, 1875c:214
187. ^ ^{a b c} Tryon, 1879b:185
188. ^ Hooke et al., c. 1674
189. ^ see More, 1875a
190. ^ [Anon.], c. 1673
191. ^ see Sueur-Hermel, 2017
192. ^ ^{a b c} Kristensen & Knudsen, 1983:222
193. ^ Robson, 1933:690
194. ^ from unpublished manuscript by Steenstrup cited in Verrill, 1875b:84
195. ^ ^{a b c} [NHMD], 2019
196. ^ Steenstrup
197. ^ Verrill, 1875b:84 citing Harting, 1860
198. ^ Tambs-Lyche, 1946:288
199. ^ Harting, 1860
200. ^ ^{a b c d e} Tryon, 1879b:184
201. ^ ^{a b c d} Verrill, 1880a
202. ^ ^{a b} Dell, 1970:27
203. ^ ^{a b} Stephen, 1962:154
204. ^ Crosse & Fischer, 1862:138
205. ^ Dunning, 1998:428
206. ^ MacAlaster, 1977:14
207. ^ ^{a b c} Earle, 1977:53
208. ^ Verrill, 1874a:158
209. ^ ^{a b} Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[9]
210. ^ ^{a b} Verrill, 1874a
211. ^ Verrill, 1875b
212. ^ J.E. Gray cited in Lee, 1875:114; see also Kent, 1874a:179
213. ^ Kent, 1874a:178
214. ^ Verrill, 1881b:401
215. ^ Pfeffer, 1912:31
216. ^ Owen, 1881:163
217. ^ Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2000:276
218. ^ ^{a b} Verrill, 1875a:34
219. ^ Verrill, 1880a:181
220. ^ Verrill, 1875b:79
221. ^ Buckland, 1875:212–214
222. ^ ^{a b} Dery, 2013
223. ^ Buckland, 1875:213
224. ^ Maunder, 1991
225. ^ Hatton & Harvey, 1883:239
226. ^ Agassiz, 1874
227. ^ Packham, 1998
228. ^ ^{a b} Duncan, 1906:34; Ellis, 1998a:82
229. ^ Reed, 1995; Ellis, 1998a:82, 187
230. ^ Ellis, 1998a:187
231. ^ Ellis, 1998a:186
232. ^ [Anon.], 1966; Ellis, 1997a:35
233. ^ [Anon.], 2004a
234. ^ Frank, 2014
235. ^ Ellis, 1998a:201
236. ^ Aldrich, 1978; Aldrich, 1990a:5
237. ^ Reed, 1995; Ellis, 1998a:187
238. ^ Lu et al., 1995
239. ^ Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[12]
240. ^ O'Connor, 1875
241. ^ ^{a b} Nunn & Holmes, 2008
242. ^ ^{a b} Pfeffer, 1912:32
243. ^ ^{a b} Lau, 2021
244. ^ ^{a b} [OM], 2021
245. ^ Copedo, 2022
246. ^ ^{a b} Verrill, 1880a:191, b:285
247. ^ ^{a b} Ganeri, 1990:24; [Anon.], c. 2001
248. ^ ^{a b} McWhirter & McWhirter, 1971:88
249. ^ ^{a b} [Anon.], 1968
250. ^ McWhirter & McWhirter, 1968:59, 1971:88
251. ^ see Wood, 1982:190; Ellis, 1998a:107
252. ^ MacGinitie & MacGinitie, 1949
253. ^ Heuvelmans, 1958
254. ^ MacGinitie & MacGinitie, 1968
255. ^ Akimushkin, 1963; Wood, 1982:190
256. ^ [Anon.], c. 2001; Harvey, 2004; Martin & Benoit, 2013; Marsh, 2016
257. ^ Marsh, 2016
258. ^ [Anon.], c. 2001
259. ^ Harvey, 2004
260. ^ McWhirter & McWhirter, 1968:59
261. ^ e.g. Wood, 1982:189; Carwardine, 1995:240; Glenday, 2014:62; but see #121 for an exception
262. ^ McWhirter & Page, 1956:101
263. ^ Hickey, 2009
264. ^ Hickey, 2010; [Anon.], N.d.
265. ^ McConvey, 2015a
266. ^ Verrill, 1882d:477
267. ^ ^{a b c d} Marshall, 1996:45
268. ^ Stevens, 1980:213, 1988:149–150
269. ^ Kirk, 1880:312
270. ^ ^{a b c} Marshall, 1996:46
271. ^ see Dell, 1970:28
272. ^ ^{a b} Ellis, 1998a:7
273. ^ Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[87]
274. ^ Joubin, 1895:34
275. ^ [Anon.], 1890:190
276. ^ ^{a b} Pfeffer, 1912:27
277. ^ Martens, 1894
278. ^ Kilias, 1967:491
279. ^ Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004
280. ^ Kilias, 1993
281. ^ ^{a b} Voss, 1956:136
282. ^ ^{a b} Belloc, 1950:6; listed incorrectly therein as station 558, per Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[33]; Sweeney, 2017:[105]
283. ^ ^{a b} Eivindsen, 2011
284. ^ Roeleveld, 2002:727
285. ^ after Voss, 1998:104; Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[5]; Sweeney & Young, 2003; Roper et al., 2015:82; Sweeney, 2017
286. ^ Gervais, 1875:93
287. ^ Lipiński et al., 2000:106
288. ^ Nesis, 1987:218
289. ^ ^{a b} Pfeffer, 1912:2
290. ^ Owen, 1881:156
291. ^ Flynn & Weigall, 1980; Ellis, 1998a:6–7
292. ^ Clarke, 1992:72
293. ^ Verrill, 1880a:240
294. ^ per unpublished notes by S.S. Berry at NMNH, cited by Sweeney, 2017:[194]
295. ^ ^{a b c d} Förch, 1998:89
296. ^ ^{a b} Kristensen & Knudsen, 1983:223
297. ^ Lu et al., 1995:324
298. ^ Paxton & Holland, 2005:41
299. ^ see Barber & Riches, 1971:26; Aldrich, 1980:57
300. ^ O'Shea, 2003d
301. ^ Heuvelmans, 2003:fig. 100
302. ^ Packard, 1873:94
303. ^ Johnson & Scott, 1940; Ellis, 1998a:82
304. ^ Ellis, 1998a:89, fig.
305. ^ Förch, 1998:22–23
306. ^ ^{a b} Ellis, 1997a:36
307. ^ Snell & Tucker, 2003:43
308. ^ ^{a b} Ellis, 1997a:44
309. ^ Ellis, 1997a:44; see also Snell & Tucker, 2003:97
310. ^ Ellis, 1998c
311. ^ Ellis, 1997a:41
312. ^ Ellis, 1997a:42
313. ^ Harvey, 2004; [Anon.], N.d.
314. ^ Hickey, 2009, 2010
315. ^ see e.g. Wood, 1982:189; Carwardine, 1995:240; Glenday, 2014:62
316. ^ Eivindsen, 2011; Lervik, 2011
317. ^ Bullen, 1898:ill. facing p. 143
318. ^ Bartsch, 1917:364–366, 1931:347–349, 1937:403

Full citations

A

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B

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• Brinkmann, A. (1916). Kjæmpeblækspruten (Architheutus [sic] dux Stp.) i Bergens Museum.
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• Buckland, F.T. (1886). Notes and Jottings from Animal Life. [second edition] Smith, Elder, & Co., London. x + 414 pp.
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• Buel, J.W. (1887). Horrible monsters of the deep. [pp. 68–84] In: Sea and Land. An illustrated history of the wonderful and curious things of nature existing before and since the deluge. Historical Publishing Company, Philadelphia. 800 pp.
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• Bustamante, P., K. Das, Á. Guerra, V. Lahaye, F. Rocha, Á.F. González & L. Laria (2006). The giant squid (Architeuthis): a very high level predator? [p. 72] In: Cephalopod International Advisory Council Symposium 2006 (CIAC ‘06), 6 – 10 February 2006, Hotel Grand Chancellor, Hobart, Tasmania: Program & Abstract Book. Cephalopod International Advisory Council. 120 pp.

C

• Cadenat, J. (1935). Note sur la première capture dans le golfe de Gascogne du céphalopode géant, Architeuthis nawaji. Compte-Rendu de l'Association Francaise pour l'Avancement des Sciences 59: 513. (in French)
• Carberry, N. (2001). Giant squid makes second landing in Glovers Harbour. Advertiser (Grand Falls) vol. 65, no. 63.
• Carrington, R. (1957). The Kraken and other sea monsters. [pp. 47–63] In: Mermaids and Mastodons: A Book of Natural & Unnatural History. Chatto and Windus, London. xvi + 251 pp.
  OCLC 559319752
• Carstens, C. (2016). Super squid spotted in Mossel Bay. Mossel Bay Advertiser, 1 April 2016.
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• Carus, J.V. (1880). Zool. Anz., 3:319. [emend. pro -thus Hilgendorf, 1880]
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• Clarke, A.C. (1992). Squid! A noble creature defended in an article by Arthur C. Clarke. Omni 14(4)[Jan.]: 70–72, 1 figure.
• Clarke, R. (1956). Sperm whales of the Azores.
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• Clarke, W.J. &
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• Coe, W.R. (1929). Biographical memoir of Addison Emery Verrill, 1839–1926.
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  14(2): 19–66.
• Collins, M.A. (1998). A female giant squid (Architeuthis) stranded on the Aberdeenshire coast.
  doi:10.1093/mollus/64.4.489
• Copedo, J. (2022). Of myth and monsters. Otago Daily Times, 14 March 2022.
• Coro, G., C. Magliozzi, A. Ellenbroek & P. Pagano (2015). Improving data quality to build a robust distribution model for Architeuthis dux.
  doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.03.011
• Cosgrove, J.A. & N. McDaniel (2009). Super Suckers: The Giant Pacific Octopus and Other Cephalopods of the Pacific Coast. Harbour Publishing, Madeira Park.
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• ISBN 0-385-06896-4
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• Crosse, H. & P. Fischer (1862). Nouveaux documents sur les céphalopodes gigantesques. Journal de Conchyliologie 10[Apr.]: 124–140. (in French)

D

• Dalton, A. (2021). The giant squid: a short history. Australian Geographic, 31 August 2021.
• de La Blanchère, H. (1874). Le calmar géant de Conception-Bay (Terre-Neuve). La Nature 2(39)[28 Feb.]: 196–199, 1 figure. (in French)
• Dell, R.K. (1952). The Recent Cephalopoda of New Zealand. Dominion Museum Bulletin 16: 1–157.
• Dell, R.K. (1970). A specimen of the giant squid Architeuthis from New Zealand. Records of the Dominion Museum 7(4): 25–36.
• doi:10.5962/bhl.title.51804
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• Dery, M. (2013). The Kraken Wakes: What Architeuthis is Trying to Tell Us. Boing Boing, 28 January 2013.
• Downer, D. (1965). Squid et al..... The Muse 16(4)[8 Oct.]: 6, 8. [See also correction in: Notice. The Muse 16(5)[15 Oct.]: 4.]
• Dozier, T.A. (1976). Dangerous Sea Creatures. Time-Life Films, New York. 128 pp.
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• Drahl, C. (2008). Seeking an eternal solution. Chemical & Engineering News 86(44)[3 Nov.]: 25–29.
• OCLC 1155992516
• Dunning, M.C. (1998). A review of the systematics, distribution, and biology of the arrow squid genera Ommastrephes Orbigny, 1835, Sthenoteuthis Verrill, 1880, and Ornithoteuthis Okada, 1927 (Cephalopoda: Ommastrephidae). [pp. 425–433] In: N.A. Voss,
  doi:10.5479/si.00810282.586.277
• Dyer, J. (2021). Big stories about big squids: the story of the Britannia and the birth of a wartime urban legend.
  doi:10.1177/0968344519877664

E

• Earle, A.J. (1973). The early debates on the existence and taxonomy of the genus Architeuthis. Unpublished manuscript submitted in History 689B, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's. 46 pp.
• Earle, A.J. (1977). From natural philosophy to natural science: a case-study of the giant squid.
  OCLC 15822302
• Eivindsen, T. (2011). Bakgrunn: Kjempene i karet. forskning.no, 21 January 2011. (in Norwegian)
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