Peter the Great
Peter I | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tsar of all Russia | |||||
Reign | 7 May 1682 – 2 November 1721 | ||||
Coronation | 25 June 1682 | ||||
Predecessor | Feodor III | ||||
Successor | Himself as Emperor of Russia | ||||
Co-monarch | Ivan V (1682–1696) | ||||
Regent | Sophia Alekseyevna (1682–1689) | ||||
Born | Moscow | 9 June 1672||||
Died | 8 February 1725 Saint Petersburg | (aged 52)||||
Burial | |||||
Spouses | |||||
Issue Detail |
| ||||
| |||||
House | Romanov | ||||
Father | Alexis of Russia | ||||
Mother | Natalya Naryshkina | ||||
Religion | Russian Orthodoxy | ||||
Signature | |||||
Military career | |||||
Battles/wars |
Peter I (Russian: Пётр I Алексеевич, romanized: Pyotr I Alekseyevich,[note 1] IPA: [ˈpʲɵtr ɐlʲɪˈksʲejɪvʲɪtɕ]; 9 June [O.S. 30 May] 1672 – 8 February [
Most of Peter's reign was consumed by long wars against the Ottoman and Swedish Empires. Despite initial difficulties, the wars were ultimately successful and led to expansion to the Sea of Azov and the Baltic Sea, thus laying the groundwork for the Imperial Russian Navy. His victory in the Great Northern War ended Sweden's era as a great power and its domination of the Baltic region while elevating Russia's standing to the extent it came to be acknowledged as an empire. Peter led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political systems with ones that were modern, scientific, Westernized, and based on radical Enlightenment.[4][5]
In December 1699, he introduced the Julian calendar,[6] which replaced the Byzantine calendar that was long used in Russia,[7] but the Russian Orthodox Church was particularly resistant to this change.[8] In 1703, he introduced the first Russian newspaper, Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti, and ordered the civil script, a reform of Russian orthography largely designed by himself. On the shores of the Neva River, he founded Saint Petersburg, a city famously dubbed by Alexander Pushkin as the "window to the West". In 1714, Peter relocated the capital from Moscow, a status it retained until 1918.
Peter had a great interest in plants, animals and minerals, in malformed creatures or exceptions to the law of nature for his cabinet of curiosities. He encouraged research of deformities, all along trying to debunk the superstitious fear of monsters.[9] He promoted industrialization in the Russian Empire and higher education. The Russian Academy of Sciences and the Saint Petersburg State University were founded in 1724, and invited Christian Wolff and Willem 's Gravesande.
Peter is primarily credited with the modernization of the country, quickly transforming it into a major European power. His administrative reforms, creating a Governing Senate in 1711, the Collegium in 1717 and the Table of Ranks in 1722 had a lasting impact on Russia, and many institutions of the Russian government trace their origins to his reign.
Early life
Peter grew up at Izmaylovo Estate and was educated from an early age by several tutors commissioned by his father, most notably Nikita Zotov, Patrick Gordon, and Paul Menesius. When his father died in 1676, he left the sovereignty to Peter's elder half-brother, the crippled Feodor III.[10] Throughout this period, the government was largely run by Artamon Matveyev, an enlightened friend of Alexis, the political head of the Naryshkin family and one of Peter's greatest childhood benefactors.
This position changed when Feodor died in 1682. As Feodor did not leave any children, a dispute arose between the Miloslavsky family (Maria Miloslavskaya was the first wife of Alexis I) and Naryshkin family (Natalya Naryshkina was his second wife) over who should inherit the throne. He jointly ruled with his elder half-brother, Ivan V, until 1696. Ivan, was next in line but was weakminded and blind. Consequently, the Boyar Duma (a council of Russian nobles) chose the 10-year-old Peter to become tsar, with his mother as regent. A hole was cut in the back of the throne, so that she, literally behind the scenes, could whisper to the two boys.[citation needed]
The "Moscow Grand Discharge" started in 1677 and was completed in 1688; it affected noble families with high ranks in the administration; the ministries were also reduced in number. This provoked fierce reactions.
The streltsy made it possible for Sophia, the Miloslavskys (the clan of Ivan) and their allies to insist that Peter and Ivan be proclaimed joint tsars, with Ivan being acclaimed as the senior. Sophia then acted as regent during the minority of the sovereigns and exercised all power. For seven years, she ruled as an autocrat. A large hole was cut in the back of the dual-seated throne used by Ivan and Peter. Sophia would sit behind the throne and listen as Peter conversed with nobles, while feeding him information and giving him responses to questions and problems.
Peter lived at Preobrazhenskoye. At the age of 16, he discovered an English boat on the estate, had it restored and learned to sail. He received a sextant, but did not know how to use it. Therefore, he began a search for a foreign expert in the German Quarter. Peter befriended Andrew Vinius, a bibliophile, who taught him Dutch and two Dutch carpenters, Frans Timmerman and Karsten Brandt. Peter studied arithmetic, geometry, and military sciences (fortification). He was not interested in a musical education but liked fireworks and drumming.
Peter was not particularly concerned that others ruled in his name;
By the summer of 1689, Peter, planned to take power from his half-sister Sophia, whose position had been weakened by two unsuccessful Crimean campaigns against the Crimean Khanate in an attempt to stop devastating Crimean Tatar raids into Russia's southern lands. When she learned of his designs, Sophia conspired with some leaders of the Streltsy, who continually aroused disorder and dissent. Peter, warned by others from the Streltsy, escaped in the middle of the night to the impenetrable monastery of Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra; there he slowly gathered adherents who perceived he would win the power struggle. Sophia was eventually overthrown, with Peter I and Ivan V continuing to act as co-tsars. Peter forced Sophia to enter a convent, where she gave up her name and her position as a member of the royal family.[13]
Meanwhile, he was a frequent guest in German quarter, where he met Anna and Willem Mons. In 1693 he sailed to Solovetsky Monastery and accepted divine providence after surviving a storm.[14] Still, Peter could not acquire actual control over Russian affairs. Power was instead exercised by his mother. It was only when Natalya died in 1694 that Peter, then aged 22, became an independent sovereign.[15] Formally, Ivan V was a co-ruler with Peter, though being ineffective. Peter became the sole ruler when Ivan died in 1696 without male offspring, two years later.
Peter grew to be extremely tall, especially for the time period, reportedly standing 6 ft 8 in (2.03 m).[15] He was seen as a "second Goliath" or Samson.[16][17] Saint-Simon described him in 1717 as "tall, well-formed and slim... with a look both bewildered and fierce". Peter had noticeable facial tics, and he may have suffered from neck spasm.[18][19]
Ideology of Peter's reign
As a young man, Peter I adopted the Protestant model of existence in a pragmatic world of competition and personal success, which largely shaped the philosophy of his reformism. He perceived the Russian people as rude, unintelligent, stubborn in their sluggishness, a child, a lazy student. He highly appreciated the state's role in the life of society, saw it as an ideal instrument for achieving high goals, saw it as a universal institution for transforming people, with the help of violence and fear, into educated, conscious, law-abiding and useful to the whole society subjects.[1]
He introduced into the concept of the autocrat's power the notion of the monarch's duties. He considered it necessary to take care of his subjects, to protect them from enemies, to work for their benefit. Above all, he put the interests of Russia. He saw his mission in turning it into a power similar to Western countries, and subordinated his own life and the lives of his subjects to the realization of this idea. Gradually penetrated the idea that the task should be solved with the help of reforms, which will be carried out at the autocrat's will, who creates good and punishes evil. He considered the morality of a statesman separately from the morality of a private person and believed that the sovereign in the name of state interests can go to murder, violence, forgery and deceit.[1]
He went through the naval service, starting from the lowest ranks: bombardier (1695), captain (1696), colonel (1706), schout-bij-nacht (1709), vice-admiral (1714), admiral (1721). By hard daily work (according to the figurative expression of Peter the Great himself, he was simultaneously "forced to hold a sword and a quill in one right hand") and courageous behavior he demonstrated to his subjects his personal positive example, showed how to act, fully devoting himself to the fulfillment of duty and service to the fatherland.[1]
Reign
Peter reigned for around 43 years. he implemented sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing Russia.[20] Heavily influenced by his advisors, like Jacob Bruce, Peter reorganized the Russian army along modern lines and dreamed of making Russia a maritime power. He faced much opposition to these policies at home but brutally suppressed rebellions against his authority, including by the Streltsy, Bashkirs, Astrakhan, and the greatest civil uprising of his reign, the Bulavin Rebellion.
In his process to westernize Russia, he wanted members of his family to marry other European royalty. In the past, his ancestors had been snubbed at the idea, but now, it was proving fruitful. He negotiated with Frederick William, Duke of Courland to marry his niece, Anna Ivanovna. He used the wedding in order to launch his new capital, St Petersburg, where he had already ordered building projects of westernized palaces and buildings. Peter hired Italian and German architects to design it.[21] He attracted Domenico Trezzini, Carlo Bartolomeo Rastrelli, Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond and Andreas Schlüter.
To improve his nation's position on the seas, Peter sought more maritime outlets. His only outlet at the time was the
Peter attempted to acquire control of the Black Sea, which would require expelling the
Peter returned to Moscow in November 1695 and began building a large navy in Voronezh. He launched about thirty ships against the Ottomans in 1696, capturing Azov in July of that year. He appointed Alexander Gordon, who later would publish a biography on Peter.[22] Peter used to hold all his important meetings and numerous celebrations in Le Fort's palace.
Grand Embassy
Peter knew that Russia could not face the Ottoman Empire alone. In March 1697, he traveled "incognito" to Western Europe on an 18-month journey with a large Russian delegation–the so-called "Grand Embassy". Peter was the first tsar to leave Russia for more than 100 years.[23] He used a fake name, allowing him to escape social and diplomatic events, but since he was far taller than most others, he could not fool anyone. One goal was to seek the aid of European monarchs, but Peter's hopes were dashed. France was a traditional ally of the Ottoman Sultan, and Austria was eager to maintain peace in the east while conducting its own wars in the west. Peter, furthermore, had chosen an inopportune moment: the Europeans at the time were more concerned about the War of the Spanish Succession over who would succeed the childless King Charles II of Spain than about fighting the Ottoman Sultan.[12] Peter failed to expand the anti-Ottoman alliance.
In Riga, the local Swedish commander Erik Dahlbergh decided to pretend that he did not recognize Peter and did not allow him to inspect the fortifications.[24] (Three years later, Peter would cite the inhospitable reception as one of the reasons for starting the Great Northern War). He met Frederick Casimir Kettler, the Duke of Courland.[25] In Königsberg, the tsar was apprenticed for two months to an artillery engineer. (Decrees were issued on the construction of the first Ural blast furnace plants.) In July he met Sophia of Hanover at Coppenbrügge castle. She described him: "The tsar is a tall, handsome man, with an attractive face. He has a lively mind is very witty. Only, someone so well endowed by nature could be a little better mannered."[26] Peter rented a ship in Emmerich am Rhein and sailed to Zaandam, where he arrived on 18 August 1697.
Amsterdam
Peter studied
Peter and Witsen visited
Deptford
On 11 January 1698 (
At some time he visited
The Embassy next went to Leipzig, Dresden - three times he visited the Kunstsammlung - Königstein Fortress, Prague, Vienna and Rava-Ruska where he crossed the border. Peter spoke with Augustus II the Strong and Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor.[46] Peter's visit was cut short, when he was informed over the second Streltsy uprising in June. The rebellion was easily crushed by General Gordon before Peter returned home early September.[47] Peter nevertheless acted ruthlessly towards the mutineers; 4,600 rebels were sent to prison. Around 1,182 were tortured and executed, and Peter ordered that their bodies be publicly exhibited as a warning to future conspirators.[48] The Streltsy were disbanded, and Peter's half-sister Sophia which they sought to put on the throne was kept in strictest seclusion at Novodevichy Convent.
Peter's visits to the West impressed upon him the notion that European customs were in several respects superior to Russian traditions. He commanded all of his courtiers and officials to wear European clothing (no
Reforms
In 1698, Peter sent a delegation to Malta, under boyar Boris Sheremetev, to observe the training and abilities of the Knights of Malta and their fleet. Sheremetev investigated the possibility of future joint ventures with the Knights, including action against the Turks and the possibility of a future Russian naval base.[53] On 12 September 1698, Peter officially founded the first Russian Navy base, Taganrog on the Sea of Azov.
In 1699, Peter changed the date of the celebration of the new year from 1 September to 1 January. Traditionally, the years were reckoned from the purported
succeeded him as Peter's prime favourite and confidant.In 1700 Peter I prevented the election of a new patriarch and deprived the Russian Church of the opportunity to regain a single spiritual leader. Reducing the number of monasteries, he converted all monasteries with less than 30 monks into schools or churches.[55] He encouraged the development of private entrepreneurship, but under strict state control. He initiated the construction of canals by John Perry and implemented a monetary reform, using the decimal principle as the basis of the monetary system (1698-1704).
Peter attracted many foreign specialists and opened an educational institution for surgery, led by Nicolaas Bidloo. In 1701, the Moscow School of Mathematics and Navigation was founded, led by Jacob Bruce; for fifteen years, not only naval officers, but also surveyors, engineers, and gunners were educated there.[56]
Peter replaced the
In 1701, 1705 and 1712, Peter I issued decrees establishing an Engineering School in Sukharev Tower, which was supposed to recruit up to 100 students, but had only 23.[65] Therefore he issued another decree in 1714 calling for compulsory education, which dictated that all Russian 10- to 15-year-old children of the nobility, government clerks, and lesser-ranked officials must learn basic arithmetic, trigonometry and geometry, and should be tested on the subjects at the end of their studies.[66]
As part of his reforms, Peter started an industrialization effort that was slow but eventually successful. Russian manufacturing and main exports were based on the mining and lumber industries. In 1719, the privileges of miners were enshrined in law with the Berg Privilege, which allowed representatives of all classes to search for
Great Northern War
Peter made a
Russia was ill-prepared to fight the Swedes, and their first attempt at seizing the Baltic coast ended in disaster at the Battle of Narva in 1700. In the conflict, the forces of Charles XII, rather than employ a slow methodical siege, attacked immediately using a blinding snowstorm to their advantage. After the battle, Charles XII decided to concentrate his forces against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which gave Peter time to reorganize the Russian army and conquered Nyenschantz in the Ingrian campaign. Bidloo had to organize a military hospital. Robert Bruce was appointed commander-in-chief of St. Petersburg. After the defeat at Narva, Peter I gave the order to melt the church bells into cannons and mortars. In 1701 Peter ordered the construction of Novodvinsk Fortress north of Archangelsk. Everybody was convinced they knew: his Majesty will wage war.[69] In the siege of Nöteborg Russian forces captured the Swedish fortress, renamed Shlisselburg.
While the Poles fought the Swedes, Peter founded the city of
Following several defeats, Polish King Augustus II the Strong abdicated in 1706. Swedish king Charles XII turned his attention to Russia, invading it in 1708. After crossing into Russia, Charles defeated Peter at Golovchin in July. In the Battle of Lesnaya, Charles suffered his first loss after Peter crushed a group of Swedish reinforcements marching from Riga. Deprived of this aid, Charles was forced to abandon his proposed march on Moscow.[71]
Charles XII refused to retreat to Poland or back to Sweden and instead invaded Ukraine. Peter withdrew his army southward, employing scorched earth, destroying along the way anything that could assist the Swedes. Deprived of local supplies, the Swedish army was forced to halt its advance in the winter of 1708–1709. In the summer of 1709, they resumed their efforts to capture Russian-ruled Ukraine, culminating in the Battle of Poltava on 27 June. The battle was a decisive defeat for the Swedish forces, ending Charles' campaign in Ukraine and forcing him south to seek refuge in the Ottoman Empire. Russia had defeated what was considered to be one of the world's best militaries, and the victory overturned the view that Russia was militarily incompetent. In Poland, Augustus II was restored as King.
Peter, overestimating the support he would receive from his Balkan allies, attacked the Ottoman Empire, initiating the
Peter's northern armies took the Swedish province of
Second Embassy
In January 1716, Tsar Peter traveled in the Baltic region to discuss peace negotiations and how to protect the sea trade route from the Swedes. He visited Riga, Königsberg and Danzig. There his niece married the quarrelsome Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin with which Peter wanted an alliance. He obtained the assistance of the Frederick William I of Prussia who sieged the strong Swedish fortress Wismar. In Altona he met with Danish diplomats, supporting Prussia. He sailed to Copenhagen heading an allied fleet. In Wittenberg he visited the monastery, where Luther lived.[74] In May he went on to Bad Pyrmont, and, because of his physical problems he stayed at this spa. There he met with the genius Leibniz.[75] Blumentrost and Areskine accompanied him.
In early December Peter arrived in Amsterdam and visited
The tsar's navy was powerful enough that the Russians could penetrate Sweden. Still, Charles XII refused to yield, and not until his death in battle in 1718 did peace become feasible. After the
Later years
In 1717, Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky led the first Russian military expedition into Central Asia against the Khanate of Khiva. The expedition ended in complete disaster when the entire expeditionary force was slaughtered.
To the end of 1717, the preparatory phase of administrative reform in Russia was completed. After 1718, Peter established collegiums in place of the old central agencies of government, including foreign affairs, war, navy, expense, income, justice, and inspection. Later others were added, to regulate mining and industry. Each college consisted of a president, a vice-president, a number of councilors and assessors, and a procurator. Some foreigners were included in various colleges but not as president. Pavel Yaguzhinsky was entrusted with the observation of the "soonest possible establishment of colleges by their presidents". Peter did not have enough loyal, talented or educated persons to put in full charge of the various departments. Peter preferred to rely on groups of individuals who would keep check on one another.[83] Decisions depended on the majority vote.
In 1718, Peter investigated why the formerly Swedish province of Livonia was so orderly. He discovered that the Swedes spent as much administering Livonia (300 times smaller than his empire) as he spent on the entire Russian bureaucracy. He was forced to dismantle the province's government.[84] In June 1721 he had Gagarin, the governor of Siberia, executed.
Peter's last years were marked by further reform in Russia. On 2 November 1721 (
princes and many other states and lands western and eastern here and there and the successor and sovereign and ruler.
In 1722, Peter issued a Decree on the succession to the throne, in which he abolished the ancient custom of transferring the throne to direct descendants in the male line (as he had no son). The decree was so unusual for Russian society that it was necessary to explain it. Peter created a new
In 1722
Peter changed the system of
Illness and death
In the winter of 1723, Peter, whose overall health was never robust, began having problems with his
In early January 1725, Peter was struck once again with uremia or azotemia. Legend has it that before lapsing into unconsciousness Peter asked for a paper and pen and scrawled an unfinished note that read: "Leave all to ..." and then, exhausted by the effort, asked for his daughter Anna to be summoned.[note 3]
Peter died between four and five in the morning 8 February. An autopsy revealed his bladder to be infected with gangrene.[91] He was fifty-two years, seven months old when he died, having reigned forty-two years. He is interred in Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral.
After his death, students came to the Military College with a request to "leave science" under the pretext of "unconsciousness and incomprehensibility."[92]
Religion
Peter had a great interest in
Peter was brought up in the Russian Orthodox faith, but he had low regard for the Church hierarchy, which he kept under tight governmental control. The traditional leader of the Church was the
In 1721, Peter followed the advice of Prokopovich in designing the Holy Synod as a council of ten clergymen. For leadership in the Church, Peter turned increasingly to Ukrainians, who were more open to reform, but were not well loved by the Russian clergy. Peter implemented a law that stipulated that no Russian man could join a monastery before the age of fifty. He felt that too many able Russian men were being wasted on clerical work when they could be joining his new and improved army.[97][98]
Marriages and family
Peter the Great had two wives, with whom he had fifteen children, three of whom survived to adulthood. Peter's mother selected his first wife,
Menshikov introduced him to
In 1718 his son
In 1724, Peter had his second wife, Catherine, crowned as Empress, although he remained Russia's actual ruler.
Issue
By his two wives, he had fifteen children: three by Eudoxia and twelve by Catherine. These included four sons named Pavel and three sons named Peter, all of whom died in infancy. Only three of his children survived to adulthood. He also had three grandchildren: Tsar
Name | Birth | Death | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
By Eudoxia Lopukhina | |||
Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia | 18 February 1690 | 26 June 1718, age 28 | Married 1711, Charlotte Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; issue Peter II of Russia |
Alexander Petrovich | 13 October 1691 | 14 May 1692, age 7 months | |
Pavel Petrovich | 1693 | 1693 | |
By Catherine I | |||
Peter Petrovich | Winter 1704[106] | 1707[106] | Born and died before the official marriage of his parents |
Paul Petrovich | October 1705[106] | 1707[106] | Born and died before the official marriage of his parents |
Catherine Petrovna | 7 February 1707[106] | 7 August 1708[106] | Born and died before the official marriage of her parents |
Anna Petrovna |
27 January 1708 | 15 May 1728 | Married 1725, Karl Friedrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp; issue Peter III of Russia. |
Yelisaveta Petrovna, later Empress Elizabeth |
29 December 1709 | 5 January 1762 | Reputedly married 1742, Alexei Razumovsky; no issue |
Maria Natalia Petrovna | 20 March 1713 | 17 May 1715 | born in Riga |
Margarita Petrovna | 19 September 1714 | 7 June 1715 | |
Peter Petrovich |
9 November 1715 ( N.S. ) |
6 May 1719 | |
Pavel Petrovich | 13 January 1717 | 14 January 1717 | in Wesel |
Natalia Petrovna |
31 August 1718 | 15 March 1725 | |
Peter Petrovich | 7 October 1723 | 7 October 1723 | |
Pavel Petrovich | 1724 | 1724 |
Mistresses and illegitimate children
- Anna Mons, from 1691 (or 1692) until 1704.[99]
- Letitia Cross in 1698
- Lady Mary Hamilton[108][109]
- Miscarriage (1715)
- Unnamed child (1717 - 1718?)
- Princess Maria Dmitrievna Cantemirovna of Moldavia, daughter of Dimitrie Cantemir
- Unnamed son (1722 - 1723?)[110]
Legacy
Peter's legacy has always been a major concern of Russian intellectuals. Peter is a more complex character than he is sometimes given credit for. Some believe Peter's reforms divided the country socially and weakened it spiritually.
Western writers and political analysts recounted "The Testimony" or secret will of Peter the Great. It supposedly revealed his grand evil plot for Russia to control the world via conquest of Constantinople, Afghanistan and India. It was a forgery made in Paris at Napoleon's command when he started the invasion of Russia in 1812. Nevertheless, it is still quoted in foreign policy circles.[117]
The Communists executed the last Romanovs, and their historians such as Mikhail Pokrovsky presented strongly negative views of the entire dynasty. Stalin however admired how Peter strengthened the state, and wartime, diplomacy, industry, higher education, and government administration. Stalin wrote in 1928, "when Peter the Great, who had to deal with more developed countries in the West, feverishly built works in factories for supplying the army and strengthening the country's defenses, this was an original attempt to leap out of the framework of backwardness."[118] As a result, Soviet historiography emphasizes both the positive achievement and the negative factor of oppressing the common people.[119]
After the fall of Communism in 1991, scholars and the general public in Russia and the West gave fresh attention to Peter and his role in Russian history. His reign is now seen as the decisive formative event in the Russian imperial past. Many new ideas have merged, such as whether he strengthened the autocratic state or whether the tsarist regime was not statist enough given its small bureaucracy.[120] Modernization models have become contested ground.[121]
He initiated a wide range of economic, social, political, administrative, educational and military reforms which ended the dominance of traditionalism and religion in Russia and initiated its westernization. His efforts included secularization of education, organization of administration for effective governance, enhanced use of technology, establishing an industrial economy, modernization of the army and establishment of a strong navy.[122]
Historian Y. Vodarsky said in 1993 that Peter, "did not lead the country on the path of accelerated economic, political and social development, did not force it to 'achieve a leap' through several stages.... On the contrary, these actions to the greatest degree put a brake on Russia's progress and created conditions for holding it back for one and a half centuries!" [123] The autocratic powers that Stalin admired appeared as a liability to Evgeny Anisimov, who complained that Peter was, "the creator of the administrative command system and the true ancestor of Stalin."[124]
According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, "He did not completely bridge the gulf between Russia and the Western countries, but he achieved considerable progress in development of the national economy and trade, education, science and culture, and foreign policy. Russia became a great power, without whose concurrence no important European problem could thenceforth be settled. His internal reforms achieved progress to an extent that no earlier innovator could have envisaged."[125]
While the cultural turn in historiography has downplayed diplomatic, economic and constitutional issues, new cultural roles have been found for Peter, for example in architecture (Petrine Baroque) and dress. James Cracraft argues:
- The Petrine revolution in Russia—subsuming in this phrase the many military, naval, governmental, educational, architectural, linguistic, and other internal reforms enacted by Peter's regime to promote Russia's rise as a major European power—was essentially a cultural revolution, one that profoundly impacted both the basic constitution of the Russian Empire and, perforce, its subsequent development.[126]
The iconic representations of dead saints typical for centuries of Russian visual culture suddenly give way to naturalistic portraiture.[127]
In popular culture
Peter has been featured in many histories, novels, plays, films, monuments and paintings.
- The 1922 German silent film Peter the Great directed by Dimitri Buchowetzki and starring Emil Jannings as Peter
- In 1929 A.N. Tolstoy's play was true to the party line, depicting Peter as a tyrant who "suppressed everyone and everything as if he had been possessed by demons, sowed fear, and put both his son and his country on the rack."[131]
- The 1937–1938 Soviet film Peter the Great
- The 1976 film Aleksey Petrenko as Peter, and Vladimir Vysotsky as Abram Petrovich Gannibal, shows Peter's attempt to build the Baltic Fleet.
- Peter was played by Peter the Great.
- The 2007 film The Sovereign's Servant depicts the unsavoury brutal side of Peter during the campaign.
- A character based on Peter plays a major role in The Age of Unreason, a series of four alternate history novels written by American science fiction and fantasy author Gregory Keyes.
- Peter is one of many supporting characters in Baroque Cycle– mainly featuring in the third novel, The System of the World.
- Peter was portrayed on BBC Radio 4 by Isaac Rouse as a boy, Will Howard as a young adult and Elliot Cowan as an adult in the radio plays Peter the Great: The Gamblers[132] and Peter the Great: The Queen of Spades,[133] written by Mike Walker and which were the last two plays in the first series of Tsar. The plays were broadcast on 25 September and 2 October 2016.
- A verse in the "Engineers' Drinking Song" references Peter the Great:
There was a man named Peter the Great who was a Russian Tzar;
When remodeling his the castle put the throne behind the bar;
He lined the walls with vodka, rum, and 40 kinds of beers;
And advanced the Russian culture by 120 years!
- Peter was played by Jason Isaacs in the 2020 'antihistory' Hulu series The Great.[134]
- Peter is featured as the leader of the Russian civilization in the computer game Sid Meier's Civilization VI.[135]
- Peter was played by Ivan Kolesnikov in the 2022 Russian historical documentary film Peter I: The Last Tsar and the First Emperor.[136]
See also
- Government reform of Peter the Great
- History of Russia (1721–96)
- History of the administrative division of Russia
- Military history of the Russian Empire § Peter the Great, on the modernization of the Russian military under Peter the Great
- Peter the Great Statue
- Censorship in the Russian Empire § Peter I's Reforms
- Russian battlecruiser Pyotr Velikiy, a Russian Navy battle cruiser named after Peter the Great
Notes
- ^ Peter is also known by the following nicknames:
- ^ Russian: Пётр Великий, romanized: Pyotr Velikiy, IPA: [pʲɵtr vʲɪˈlʲikʲɪj]
- ^ The 'Leave all ..." story first appears in H-F de Bassewitz Russkii arkhiv 3 (1865). Russian historian E.V. Anisimov contends that Bassewitz's aim was to convince readers that Anna, not Empress Catherine, was Peter's intended heir.
References
- ^ a b c d Anisimov, Y. V. (16 June 2023) [13 December 2022]. "Пётр I". Great Russian Encyclopedia.
- ^ Kollmann N. (2012) Peter the Great and spectacles of suffering. In: Crime and Punishment in Early Modern Russia. New Studies in European History, pp. 403-415. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Kostetskaya E. V., Suslova L. N., Aksenova V. A. Investigation in the case of Prince M. P. Gagarin in the context of the development of the state control system in the first quarter of the XVIII century. Scientific dialogue. 2023;12(7):346-373. https://doi.org/10.24224/2227-1295-2023-12-7-346-373
- ^ Cracraft 2003.
- ^ Driessen, p. 264
- ^ https://www.prlib.ru/en/news/1284185
- ^ Cracraft 2003, p. 124.
- ^ https://brewminate.com/peter-the-great-and-the-new-year-in-russia/
- ISBN 978-90-6550-927-7.
- ^ Massie, 25–26.
- ^ Riasanovsky 2000, p. 214.
- ^ a b Riasanovsky 2000, p. 218.
- ^ Massie, (1980) pp 96–106.
- ^ The Petrine Instauration: Religion, Esotericism and Science at the Court of Peter the Great, 1689-1725 by Robert Collis, p. 362
- ^ a b Riasanovsky 2000, p. 216.
- ^ Collis, p. 365
- ^ Prokopovich's Funeral Sermon on Peter I
- ^ J. von Stählin, p. 92-94
- ^ A. Gordon (1755), p. 318
- ^ Evgenii V. Anisimov, The Reforms of Peter the Great: Progress Through Violence in Russia (Routledge, 2015)
- ^ Montefiore p. 187.
- ^ The History of Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia: To which is Prefixed a Short General History of the Country from the Rise of that Monarchy: and an Account of the Author's Life. Vol. I
- ^ Peter the Great: How did England help Russia to establish its navy in the early 18th century?
- ^ https://vogueindustry.com/17270077-briefly-about-the-great-embassy-of-peter-1
- ^ https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2327/the-grand-embassy-of-peter-the-great/
- ^ Wilson, D. (2006) Peter the Great, p. 45
- ^ Peter the Great: Part 1 of 3 (The Carpenter Czar) Archived 28 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Radio Netherlands Archives. 8 June 1996. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ^ https://onh.nl/verhaal/tsaar-peter-de-grote-bezoekt-zaandam
- ^ Massie 1980, pp. 183–188.
- ^ Driessen, J. (1996) Tsaar Peter de Grote en zijn Amsterdamse vrienden, p. 8.
- ^ https://oud-utrecht.nl/nieuws/1275-tsaar-peter-de-grote-in-utrecht-in-1697-en-1717
- ^ https://onh.nl/verhaal/11-dingen-die-je-nog-niet-wist-over-tsaar-peter-de-grote
- ^ "Visited by Tsar Peter the Great of Russia | Lens on Leeuwenhoek".
- ^ Tsar Peter the Great was on extremely bad terms with the Dutch regents
- ^ Anthony Cross, Peter the Great Through British Eyes: Perceptions and Representations of the Tsar Since 1698, Cambridge University Press: 2000, p. 37
- ^ Anthony Cross, Peter the Great Through British Eyes: Perceptions and Representations of the Tsar Since 1698, Cambridge University Press: 2000, p. 24
- ^ Boss, Valentin, (2002) Newton and Russia : the early influence, 1698-1796
- ^ Did Peter the Great Meet Newton?
- ^ https://www.royalmintmuseum.org.uk/journal/people/peter-the-great/
- ^ Moriarty, Gerald Patrick (1896). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 45. pp. 35–36. .
- ^ https://halleyslog.wordpress.com/2013/06/20/halley-and-peter-the-great/
- ^ https://www.shadyoldlady.com/location.php?loc=1249
- ^ Thomas Pym Cope, Passages from the Life and Writings of William Penn, 1882, p. 436
- ^ Anthony Cross, Peter the Great Through British Eyes: Perceptions and Representations of the Tsar Since 1698, Cambridge University Press: 2000, p. 35
- ^ https://itboat.com/news/1255-peter-the-great-s-favourite-yacht-found-in-the-baltic-sea
- ^ Massie 1980, p. 191.
- ^ A. Gordon (1755), p. 307
- ^ Riasanovsky 2000, p. 220.
- ^ O.L. D'Or. "Russia as an Empire". The Moscow News weekly. pp. Russian. Archived from the original (PHP) on 3 June 2006. Retrieved 21 March 2008.
- ^ Riasanovsky 2000, p. 221.
- ^ Abbott, Peter (1902). Peter the Great. Project Gutenberg online edition.
- ^ Dmytryshyn 1974, p. 21.
- ^ "Russian Grand Priory – Timeline". 2004. Archived from the original on 8 February 2008. Retrieved 9 February 2008.
- ^ Oudard 1929, p. 197.
- ^ https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2304/the-reforms-of-peter-the-great/
- ^ "Глава вторая. ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ. Кутузов. Лидия Леонидовна Ивченко".
- ^ https://bigenc.ru/c/piotr-i-ed3825
- ^ Verblijf van tsaar Peter de Grote en tsarina Catharina 1 op hofstede Hout en Duynzigt/Vredenhof – Petersburg in Nederhorst
- ^ Driessen, p. 60-61
- ^ https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2304/the-reforms-of-peter-the-great/
- ^ Kostetskaya E. V., Suslova L. N., Aksenova V. A. Investigation in the case of Prince M. P. Gagarin in the context of the development of the state control system in the first quarter of the XVIII century. Scientific dialogue. 2023;12(7):346-373. https://doi.org/10.24224/2227-1295-2023-12-7-346-373
- ^ https://www.dbnl.org/tekst/bruy004reiz01_01/bruy004reiz01_01_0004.php
- ^ "10 Major Accomplishments of Peter the Great | Learnodo Newtonic". 21 February 2023.
- ^ Palmer & Colton 1992, pp. 242–43.
- ^ "Глава вторая. ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ. Кутузов. Лидия Леонидовна Ивченко".
- ^ Dmytryshyn 1974, pp. 10–11.
- ^ https://petersburg24.ru/eng/place/glavnaya-pridvornaya-apteka
- ^ https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/20/reviews/980920.20cracrat.html
- ^ PETER I & SOLOVKI
- ^ E.V. Anisimov, 2002, p. 56.
- ^ Massie 1980, p. 453.
- ^ a b Riasanovsky 2000, p. 224.
- OCLC 1314897094.
- ^ J. von Stählin, p. 119
- ^ E.J. Ayton (1985) Leibniz, a biography, p. 308
- ^ Collis, p. 367
- ^ Jake V.Th. Knoppers (1969) The visits of Peter the Great to the United Provinces in 1697-1698 and 1716-1717
- ^ https://oud-utrecht.nl/nieuws/1275-tsaar-peter-de-grote-in-utrecht-in-1697-en-1717
- ^ The 1717 Convention of Amsterdam, a treaty marking the alliance and reciprocal guarantees between France, Russia and Prussia (Amsterdam, 15 August 1717)
- ^ Jozien J. Driessen-Van het Reve (2006) De Kunstkamera van Peter de Grote. De Hollandse inbreng, gereconstrueerd uit brieven van Albert Seba en Johann Daniel Schumacher uit de jaren 1711-1752.
- ^ Verblijf van tsaar Peter de Grote en tsarina Catharina 1 op hofstede Hout en Duynzigt/Vredenhof – Petersburg in Nederhorst
- ^ Cracraft 2003, p. 37.
- ^ Palmer & Colton 1992, p. 245.
- ^ Pipes 1974, p. 281.
- ^ Лакиер А. Б. §66. Надписи вокруг печати. Соответствие их с государевым титулом. // Русская геральдика. – СПб., 1855.
- ^ Lee 2013, p. 31.
- ^ (in Russian) E.V. Anisimov (1985) Податная реформа Петра I. The tax reform of Peter I: Introduction of the poll tax in Russia (1718-1728)
- ^ Verblijf van tsaar Peter de Grote en tsarina Catharina 1 op hofstede Hout en Duynzigt/Vredenhof – Petersburg in Nederhorst
- ^ Bain 1905.
- ^ Originalanekdoten Peters des Großen (1785), p. 333
- ^ Hughes 2007, pp. 179–82.
- ^ "Глава вторая. ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ. Кутузов. Лидия Леонидовна Ивченко".
- ISBN 0-345-29806-3.
- JSTOR 130080.
- ^ Collis, p. 352
- ^ Collis, p. 340
- ^ Dmytryshyn 1974, p. 18.
- ^ James Cracraft, The church reform of Peter the Great (1971).
- ^ a b c Hughes 2004, p. 134.
- ^ Hughes 2004, p. 133.
- ^ Hughes 2004, pp. 131, 134.
- ^ Hughes 2004, p. 131.
- ^ Hughes 2004, p. 136.
- ^ Collis, p. 368
- ^ Massie 1980, pp. 76, 377, 707.
- ^ a b c d e f Hughes 2004, p. 135.
- ^ "Peter the Great with a Black Page Mardefelt, Gustaff B. Mardefeld, Gustav von (Baron) V&A Explore The Collections". Victoria and Albert Museum: Explore the Collections. 7 August 2023.
- ISBN 1-7239-6063-2
- ^ A. Gordon (1755), p. 308-309
- ^ Petre P. Panaitescu, Dimitrie Cantemir. Viața și opera, col. Biblioteca Istorică, vol. III, Ed. Academiei RPR, București, 1958, p. 141.
- ^ Riasanovsky 2000.
- ^ Collis, p. 359, 364, 379
- ^ Prokopovich's Funeral Sermon on Peter I
- ^ Nicholas Riasanovsky, The Image of Peter the Great in Russian History and Thought (1985) pp. 57, 84, 279, 283.
- ^ A. Lenton, "Voltaire and Peter the Great" History Today (1968) 18#10 online Archived 13 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Kathleen Scollins, "Cursing at the Whirlwind: The Old Testament Landscape of The Bronze Horseman." Pushkin Review 16.1 (2014): 205–231 online Archived 26 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Albert Resis, "Russophobia and the 'Testament' of Peter the Great, 1812–1980" Slavic Review 44#4 (1985), pp. 681–693 online[dead link]
- ^ Lindsey Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great (1998) p 464.
- ^ Riasanovsky, p. 305.
- ^ Zitser, 2005.
- ^ Waugh, 2001
- ^ "10 Major Accomplishments of Peter the Great". learnodo-newtonic.com. 21 February 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.[unreliable source?]
- ^ Hughes, p. 464
- ^ Hughes, p. 465.
- Encyclopaedia Britannica. 29 June 2023.
- ^ James Cracraft, "The Russian Empire as Cultural Construct", Journal of the Historical Society (2010) 10#2 pp. 167–188, quoting p. 170.
- ^ https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/98/09/20/reviews/980920.20cracrat.html
- ^ Aivazovsky, I.K. "Peter I at Krasnaya Gorka Lighting a Fire on the Shore to Signal to his Sinking Ships". The Virtual Russian Museum. Retrieved 7 January 2024.
- ^ Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, The Image of Peter the Great in Russian History and Thought (1985).
- ^ Lindsey Hughes, "'What manner of man did we lose?': Death-bed images of Peter the Great". Russian History 35.1-2 (2008): 45-61.
- ^ Gorchakov, Nikolai A. (1957). The Theatre in Soviet Russia. London: Oxford U.P. pp. 315–17.
- ^ BBC Radio 4 – Drama, Tsar, Peter the Great: The Gamblers Archived 25 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine. BBC. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ^ BBC Radio 4 – Drama, Tsar, Peter the Great: Queen of Spades Archived 29 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine. BBC. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- ^ "The Great (2020)". IMDB. Retrieved 25 September 2022.
- ^ Civilization 6 Leader and Civilization Breakdown - Montezuma to Shaka Archived 18 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine. GameRant. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
- ^ "Последний царь: о чём забыли создатели документального фильма о Петре I". Forbes.ru (in Russian). 3 November 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
Sources
- Anisimov, Evgenii V. (2015) The Reforms of Peter the Great: Progress Through Violence in Russia (Routledge)
- Bain, R. Nisbet (1905). Peter the Great and his pupils. Cambridge UP. Archived from the original on 26 May 2007.
- Bushkovitch, Paul (2003). Peter the Great. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8476-9639-0. online
- Cracraft, James (2003). The Revolution of Peter the Great. Harvard UP. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
- Dmytryshyn, Basil (1974). Modernization of Russia Under Peter I and Catherine II. Wiley.
- Grey, Ian (1960). Peter the Great: Emperor of All Russia. Philadelphia, Lippincott.
- Hughes, John R. (2007). "The seizures of Peter Alexeevich". Epilepsy & Behavior. 10 (1): 179–82. S2CID 25504057.
- ISBN 978-0-300-08266-1. online
- ISBN 978-0-333-92009-1.
- ISBN 978-0-300-10300-7.
- Lee, Stephen J. (2013). Peter the Great. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-45325-0.
- ISBN 978-0-307-29145-5., a popular biography; online
- ISBN 978-0-521-81422-5.
- Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2016). The Romanovs: 1613–1918. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
- Oudard, Georges (1929). Peter the Great. Translated by Atkinson, Frederick. New York, NY: Payson and Clarke. OL 7431283W.
- Pipes, Richard (1974). Russia under the old regime.
- Raeff, Mafrc, ed. (1963). Peter the Great, Reformer or Revolutionary?. Archived from the original on 17 March 2008. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
- Riasanovsky, Nicholas (2000). A History of Russia (6th ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford UP.
- Tavernier, Roger (2006). Russia and the Low Countries: An International Bibliography, 1500–2000. Barkhuis. p. 349. ISBN 978-90-77089-04-0.
- Wes, Martinus A. (1992). Classics in Russia, 1700–1855: Between Two Bronze Horsemen. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09664-6.
- Palmer, R.R.; Colton, Joel (1992). A History of the Modern World.
- Historiography and memory
- Brown, Peter B. "Towards a Psychohistory of Peter the Great: Trauma, Modeling, and Coping in Peter's Personality". Russian History 35#1-2 (2008): 19–44.
- Brown, Peter B. "Gazing Anew at Poltava: Perspectives from the Military Revolution Controversy, Comparative History, and Decision-Making Doctrines". Harvard Ukrainian Studies 31.1/4 (2009): 107–133. online Archived 15 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Cracraft, James. "Kliuchevskii on Peter the Great". Canadian-American Slavic Studies 20.4 (1986): 367–381.
- Daqiu, Zhu. "Cultural Memory and the Image of Peter the Great in Russian Literature". Russian Literature & Arts 2 (2014): 19+.
- Gasiorowska, Xenia. The image of Peter the Great in Russian fiction (1979) online
- Platt, Kevin M. F. Terror and Greatness: Ivan and Peter as Russian Myths (2011)
- Raef, Mark, ed. Peter the Great, Reformer or Revolutionary? (1963) excerpts from scholars and primary sources online Archived 16 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- Resis, Albert. "Russophobia and the" Testament" of Peter the Great, 1812–1980". Slavic Review 44.4 (1985): 681-693 online[dead link].
- Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. The Image of Peter the Great in Russian History and Thought (1985).
- Waugh, Daniel Clarke. "We have never been modern: Approaches to the study of Russia in the age of Peter the Great". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas H. 3 (2001): 321-345 online in English Archived 19 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
- Zitser, Ernest A. (Spring 2005). "Post-Soviet Peter: New Histories of the Late Muscovite and Early Imperial Russian Court". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History. 6 (2): 375–92. S2CID 161390436.
- Zitser, Ernest A. "The Difference that Peter I Made". in The Oxford Handbook of Modern Russian History. ed. by Simon Dixon (2013) online[dead link]
Gallery
-
Diamond order of Peter the Great
-
Peter the Great by Maria Giovanna Clementi
-
Peter I in Russian dress duringGrand Embassy
-
Peter I by the favorite court painter Ivan Nikitin
-
Peter the Great Founding St. Petersburg, 1703 (byAlexander Kotzebue, 1862)
-
Peter I, copy by Andrey Matveyev after Carel de Moor (1724)
-
Peter by Aleksey Antropov
-
Dutch engraving, after Carel de Moor
-
Peter the Great by fr:François Jouvenet
-
Portrait of Peter by Pyotr Drozhdin (1795), Russian Museum
-
A posthumous portrait of Peter the Great by Paul Delaroche, c. 1838
Further reading
- Anderson, M.S. "Russia under Peter the Great and the changed relations of East and West". in J.S. Bromley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History: VI: 1688–1715 (1970) pp. 716–40.
- Anisimov, Evgenii V. The Reforms of Peter the Great: Progress through Coercion in Russia (1993) online
- Bain, Robert Nisbet (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 288–91.
- Bushkovitch, Paul. Peter the Great: The Struggle for Power, 1671–1725 (2001) online
- Cracraft, James. "Kliuchevskii on Peter the Great". Canadian-American Slavic Studies 20.4 (1986): 367–381.
- Cracraft, James. The Revolution of Peter the Great (2003) online
- Duffy, Christopher. Russia's Military Way to the West: Origins and Nature of Russian Military Power 1700–1800 (Routledge, 2015) pp 9–41
- Graham, Stephen. Peter The Great (1929) online
- Kamenskii, Aleksandr. The Russian Empire in the Eighteenth Century: Searching for a Place in the World(1997) pp 39–164.
- Kluchevsky, V.O. A history of Russia vol 4 (1926) online pp 1–230.
- Oliva, Lawrence Jay. ed. Russia in the era of Peter the Great (1969), excerpts from primary and secondary sources two week borrowing
- Pares, Bernard. A History Of Russia (1947) pp 193–225. online
- Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, David, and Bruce W. Menning, eds. Reforming the Tsar's Army – Military Innovation in Imperial Russia from Peter the Great to the Revolution (Cambridge UP, 2004) 361 pp. scholarly essays
- Sumner, B.H. Peter the Great and the emergence of Russia (1950), online
External links
- Romanovs. The third film. Peter I, Catherine I on YouTube– Historical reconstruction The Romanovs. StarMedia. Babich-Design (Russia, 2013)
- Peter the Great, a Tsar who Loved Science by Philippe Testard-Vaillant
- [https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hughes-peter.html Russia in the Age of Peter the Great by LINDSEY HUGHES
Yale University Press]