Levantine Arabic
Levantine Arabic | |
---|---|
Syro-Palestinian Arabic | |
شامي (Shami) | |
Native to | |
Region | Levant[a][1][2] |
Ethnicity | Primarily Arabs
|
Speakers | L1: 51 million (2001–2023)[4] L2: 2.3 million (2022–2023)[4] Total: 54 million[4] |
Dialects |
|
| |
Levantine Arabic Sign Language | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | apc |
Glottolog | nort3139 |
Linguasphere | 12-AAC-eh "Syro-Palestinian" |
IETF | apc |
Modern distribution of Levantine | |
Levantine Arabic, also called Shami (
Levantine is not officially recognized in any state or territory. Although it is the majority language in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria, it is predominantly used as a spoken vernacular in daily communication, whereas most written and official documents and media in these countries use the official Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), a form of literary Arabic only acquired through formal education that does not function as a native language. In Israel and Turkey, Levantine is a minority language.
The Palestinian dialect is the closest vernacular Arabic variety to MSA, with about 50% of common words. Nevertheless, Levantine and MSA are not mutually intelligible. Levantine speakers therefore often call their language العامية al-ʿāmmiyya ⓘ, 'slang', 'dialect', or 'colloquial'. However, with the emergence of social media, attitudes toward Levantine have improved. The amount of written Levantine has significantly increased, especially online, where Levantine is written using Arabic, Latin, or Hebrew characters. Levantine pronunciation varies greatly along social, ethnic, and geographical lines. Its grammar is similar to that shared by most vernacular varieties of Arabic. Its lexicon is overwhelmingly Arabic, with a significant Aramaic influence.
The lack of written sources in Levantine makes it impossible to determine its history before the modern period. Aramaic was the dominant language in the Levant starting in the 1st millennium BCE; it coexisted with other languages, including many Arabic dialects spoken by various Arab tribes. With the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 7th century, new Arabic speakers from the Arabian Peninsula settled in the area, and a lengthy language shift from Aramaic to vernacular Arabic occurred.
Naming and classification
Scholars use "Levantine Arabic" to describe the
The term "Levantine Arabic" is not indigenous and, according to linguists Kristen Brustad and Emilie Zuniga, "it is likely that many speakers would resist the grouping on the basis that the rich phonological, morphological and lexical variation within the Levant carries important social meanings and distinctions."[25] Levantine speakers often call their language العامية al-ʿāmmiyya, 'slang', 'dialect', or 'colloquial' (lit. 'the language of common people'), to contrast it to Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and Classical Arabic (الفصحى al-fuṣḥā, lit. 'the eloquent').[c][27][28][29] They also call their spoken language عربي ʿarabiyy, 'Arabic'.[30] Alternatively, they identify their language by the name of their country.[4][31] شامي šāmi can refer to Damascus Arabic, Syrian Arabic, or Levantine as a whole.[32][4] Lebanese literary figure Said Akl led a movement to recognize the "Lebanese language" as a distinct prestigious language instead of MSA.[33]
Levantine is a variety of Arabic, a
Sedentary vernaculars (also called dialects) are traditionally classified into five groups according to shared features: Peninsular, Mesopotamian, Levantine, Egyptian, and Maghrebi.[43][23] The linguistic distance between these vernaculars is at least as large as between Germanic languages or Romance languages. It is, for instance, extremely difficult for Moroccans and Iraqis, each speaking their own variety, to understand each other.[44] Levantine and Egyptian are the two prestige varieties of spoken Arabic;[45][46][47] they are also the most widely understood dialects in the Arab world[25] and the most commonly taught to non-native speakers outside the Arab world.[46]
Geographical distribution and varieties
Dialects
Levantine is spoken in the fertile strip on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean: from the Turkish coastal provinces of Adana, Hatay, and Mersin in the north[48] to the Negev, passing through Lebanon, the coastal regions of Syria (Latakia and Tartus governorates) as well as around Aleppo and Damascus,[4] the Hauran in Syria and Jordan,[49][50] the rest of western Jordan,[51] Palestine and Israel.[4] Other Arabic varieties border it: Mesopotamian and North Mesopotamian Arabic to the north and north-east; Najdi Arabic to the east and south-east; and Northwest Arabian Arabic to the south and south-west.[51][52]
The similarity among Levantine dialects transcends geographical location and political boundaries. The urban dialects of the main cities (such as Damascus, Beirut, and Jerusalem) have much more in common with each other than they do with the rural dialects of their respective countries. The sociolects of two different social or religious groups within the same country may also show more dissimilarity with each other than when compared with their counterparts in another country.[1]
The process of linguistic homogenization within each country of the Levant makes a classification of dialects by country possible today.
The
Ethnicity and religion
The Levant is characterized by
Levantine is primarily spoken by
Speakers by country
In addition to the Levant, where it is indigenous, Levantine is spoken among diaspora communities from the region, especially among the Palestinian,[68] Lebanese, and Syrian diasporas.[100] The language has fallen into disuse among subsequent diaspora generations, such as the 7 million Lebanese Brazilians.[101][4]
Country | Levantine speakers (L1+L2)[4] |
---|---|
Syria | 15 million |
Jordan |
10 million |
Lebanon | 5 million |
Palestine |
4 million |
Turkey | 4 million[g] |
Israel | 2 million |
Qatar |
1 million |
Saudi Arabia |
900,000 |
Germany | 900,000 |
Brazil | 700,000 |
United Arab Emirates |
700,000 |
United States |
700,000 |
Kuwait |
400,000 |
Indonesia | 300,000 |
Canada | 300,000 |
Egypt | 200,000 |
Australia | 200,000 |
Venezuela | 100,000 |
Sudan | 100,000 |
Senegal | 100,000 |
History
Pre-Islamic antiquity
Starting in the
Because there are no written sources, the history of Levantine before the
Muslim conquest of the Levant
The
Different Peninsular Arabic dialects competed for prestige, including the Hijazi vernacular of the
Medieval and early modern era
The Damascus Psalm Fragment, dated to the 9th century but possibly earlier, sheds light on the Damascus dialect of that period. Because its Arabic text is written in Greek characters, it reveals the pronunciation of the time;[124] it features many examples of imāla (the fronting and raising of /a/ toward /i/).[125] It also features a pre-grammarian standard of Arabic and the dialect from which it sprung, likely Old Hijazi.[126] Scholars disagree on the dates of phonological changes. The shift of interdental spirants to dental stops dates to the 9th to 10th centuries or earlier.[127] The shift from /q/ to a glottal stop is dated between the 11th and 15th centuries.[128] Imāla seems already important in pre-Islamic times.[125]
Swedish orientalist Carlo Landberg writes about the vulgarisms encountered in Damascene poet Usama ibn Munqidh's Memoirs: "All of them are found in today's spoken language of Syria and it is very interesting to note that that language is, on the whole, not very different from the language of ˀUsāma's days", in the 12th century.[123] Lucas Caballero's Compendio (1709) describes spoken Damascene Arabic in the early 1700s. It corresponds to modern Damascene in some respects, such as the allomorphic variation between -a/-e in the feminine suffix. On the contrary, the insertion and deletion of vowels differ from the modern dialect.[129]
From 1516 to 1918, the Ottoman Empire dominated the Levant. Many Western words entered Arabic through Ottoman Turkish as it was the main language for transmitting Western ideas into the Arab world.[130][131]
20th and 21st centuries
The
Although Levantine dialects have remained stable over the past two centuries, in cities such as Amman[66] and Damascus, language standardization occurs through variant reduction and linguistic homogenization among the various religious groups and neighborhoods. Urbanization and the increasing proportion of youth[h] constitute the causes of dialect change.[76][23] Urban forms are considered more prestigious,[141] and prestige dialects of the capitals are replacing the rural varieties.[49] With the emergence of social media, the amount of written Levantine has also significantly increased online.[142]
Status and usage
Diglossia and code-switching
Levantine is not recognized in any state or territory.[143][24] MSA is the sole official language in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria;[24] it has a "special status" in Israel under the Basic Law.[144] French is also recognized in Lebanon.[95] In Turkey, the only official language is Turkish.[60] Any variation from MSA is considered a "dialect" of Arabic.[145] As in the rest of the Arab world, this linguistic situation has been described as diglossia: MSA is nobody's first acquired language;[146] it is learned through formal instruction rather than transmission from parent to child.[146] This diglossia has been compared to the use of Latin as the sole written, official, liturgical, and literary language in Europe during the medieval period, while Romance languages were the spoken languages.[147][148] Levantine and MSA are mutually unintelligible.[149][150] They differ significantly in their phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax.[2][47][151]
MSA is the language of literature, official documents, and formal written media (newspapers, instruction leaflets, school books).[146] In spoken form, MSA is mostly used when reading from a scripted text (e.g., news bulletins) and for prayer and sermons in the mosque or church.[146] In Israel, Hebrew is the language used in the public sphere, except internally among the Arab communities.[144][152] Levantine is the usual medium of communication in all other domains.[146]
Traditionally in the Arab world, colloquial varieties, such as Levantine, have been regarded as corrupt forms of MSA, less eloquent and not fit for literature, and thus looked upon with disdain.[153][154] Because the French and the British emphasized vernaculars when they colonized the Arab world, dialects were also seen as a tool of colonialism and imperialism.[155][156] Writing in the vernacular has been controversial because pan-Arab nationalists consider that this might divide the Arab people into different nations.[157][143] On the other hand, Classical Arabic is seen as "the language of the Quran" and revered by Muslims who form the majority of the population.[157] It is believed to be pure and everlasting, and Islamic religious ideology considers vernaculars to be inferior.[158][159] Until recently, the use of Levantine in formal settings or written form was often ideologically motivated, for instance in opposition to pan-Arabism.[159] Language attitudes are shifting, and using Levantine became de-ideologized for most speakers by the late 2010s.[159] Levantine is now regarded in a more positive light, and its use in informal modes of writing is acknowledged, thanks to its recent widespread use online in both written and spoken forms.[160][161]
Education
In the Levant, MSA is the only variety authorized for use in schools,
In Israel, MSA is the only language of instruction in Arab schools. Hebrew is studied as a second language by all Palestinian students from at least the second grade and English from the third grade.[169][152] In Jewish schools, in 2012, 23,000 pupils were studying spoken Palestinian in 800 elementary schools. Palestinian Arabic is compulsory in Jewish elementary schools in the Northern District; otherwise, Jewish schools teach MSA.[170] Junior high schools must teach all students MSA, but only two-thirds meet this obligation.[171] At all stages in 2012, 141,000 Jewish students were learning Arabic.[172] In 2020, 3.7% of Jewish students took the Bagrut exam in MSA.[171]
Films and music
Most films and songs are in vernacular Arabic.
As of 2009[update], most Arabic satellite television networks use colloquial varieties in their programs, except news bulletins in MSA. The use of vernacular in broadcasting started in Lebanon during the Lebanese Civil War and expanded to the rest of the Arab world. In 2009, Al Jazeera used MSA only and Al Arabiya and Al-Manar used MSA or a hybrid between MSA and colloquial for talk shows.[163] On the popular Lebanese satellite channel Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation International (LBCI), Arab and international news bulletins are only in MSA, while the Lebanese national news broadcast is in a mix of MSA and Lebanese Arabic.[177]
Written media
Levantine is seldom written, except for some novels, plays, and humorous writings.[178][179] Most Arab critics do not acknowledge the literary dignity of prose in dialect.[180] Prose written in Lebanese goes back to at least 1892 when Tannus al-Hurr published Riwāyat aš-šābb as-sikkīr ʾay Qiṣṣat Naṣṣūr as-Sikrī, 'The tale of the drunken youth, or The story of Nassur the Drunkard'.[179] In the 1960s, Said Akl led a movement in Lebanon to replace MSA as the national and literary language, and a handful of writers wrote in Lebanese.[181][182][179] Foreign works, such as La Fontaine's Fables, were translated into Lebanese using Akl's alphabet.[183] The Gospel of Mark was published in Palestinian in 1940,[184] followed by the Gospel of Matthew and the Letter of James in 1946.[185][186] The four gospels were translated in Lebanese using Akl's alphabet in 1996 by Gilbert Khalifé. Muris 'Awwad translated the four gospels and The Little Prince in 2001 in Lebanese in Arabic script.[187][179] The Little Prince was also translated into Palestinian and published in two biscriptal editions (one Arabic/Hebrew script, one Arabic/Latin script).[188][189][190]
Newspapers usually use MSA and reserve Levantine for sarcastic commentaries and caricatures.
Most comedies are written in Levantine.[197] In Syria, plays became more common and popular in the 1980s by using Levantine instead of Classical Arabic. Saadallah Wannous, the most renowned Syrian playwright, used Syrian Arabic in his later plays.[198] Comic books, like the Syrian comic strip Kūktīl, are often written in Levantine instead of MSA.[199] In novels and short stories, most authors, such as Arab Israelis Riyad Baydas and Odeh Bisharat , write the dialogues in their Levantine dialect, while the rest of the text is in MSA.[200][201][202][178] Lebanese authors Elias Khoury (especially in his recent works) and Kahlil Gibran wrote the main narrative in Levantine.[203][204] Some collections of short stories and anthologies of Palestinian folktales (turāṯ, 'heritage literature') display full texts in dialect.[205] On the other hand, Palestinian children's literature is almost exclusively written in MSA.[206][27]
Internet users in the Arab world communicate with their dialect language (such as Levantine) more than MSA on social media (such as Twitter, Facebook, or in the comments of online newspapers). According to one study, between 12% and 23% of all dialectal Arabic content online was written in Levantine depending on the platform.[207]
Phonology
Labial | Dental | Denti-alveolar | Post-alv./ Palatal |
Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
plain | emphatic | |||||||||
Nasal
|
m | n
|
||||||||
Stop/
Affricate |
voiceless
|
(p)[i] | t
|
tˤ | k | q[j] | ʔ | |||
voiced
|
b | d
|
dˤ | d͡ʒ | (ɡ)[k] | |||||
Fricative | voiceless
|
f | θ | s | sˤ | ʃ | x ~ χ | ħ | h | |
voiced
|
(v)[i] | ð | z | ðˤ ~ zˤ | ɣ ~ ʁ | ʕ | ||||
Approximant | l
|
( ɫ )
|
j | w | ||||||
Trill | r
|
Levantine phonology is characterized by rich socio-phonetic variations along socio-cultural (gender; religion; urban, rural or Bedouin) and geographical lines.[210] For instance, in urban varieties, interdentals /θ/, /ð/, and /ðʕ/ tend to merge to stops or fricatives [t] ~ [s]; [d] ~ [z]; and [dʕ] ~ [zʕ] respectively.[211][208] The Classical Arabic voiceless uvular plosive /q/ is pronounced [q] (among Druze), [ʔ] (in most urban centers, especially Beirut, Damascus, and Jerusalem, and in Amman among women), [ɡ] (in Amman among men, in most other Jordanian dialects and in Gaza), [k] or even /kʕ/ (in rural Palestinian).[212][49][50][69]
Arabic letter | Modern Standard Arabic | Levantine (female/urban)[208] | Levantine (male/rural) |
---|---|---|---|
ث | /θ/ (th) | / t/ (t) or /s / (s) |
/θ/ (th) |
ج | /d͡ʒ/ (j) | /ʒ/ (j) | /d͡ʒ/ (j) |
ذ | /ð/ (dh) | / d/ (d) or /z / (z) |
/ð/ (dh) |
ض | /dˤ/ (ḍ) | /dˤ/ (ḍ) | /ðˤ/ (ẓ) |
ظ | /ðˤ/ (ẓ) | /dˤ/ (ḍ) or /zˤ/ | /ðˤ/ (ẓ) |
ق | /q/ (q) | /ʔ/ (ʾ) | /ɡ/ (g) |
In the north, stressed i and u merge. They usually become i, but might also be u near emphatic consonants. Syrians and Beirutis tend to pronounce both of them as schwa [ə].[59][216][56] The long vowel "ā" is pronounced similar to "ē" or even merges with "ē", when it is not near an emphatic or guttural consonant.[59][49]
Short | Long | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Front | Central | Back | Front | Back | |
Close/High | /i/ | — | /u/ | /iː/ | /uː/ |
Mid | /e/ | /ə/ | /o/ | /eː/ | /oː/ |
Open/Low | /a/ [i ~ ɛ ~ æ ~ a ~ ɑ] | /aː/ [ɛː ~ æː ~ aː ~ ɑː] | |||
Diphthongs | /aw/, /aj/ |
- Before the word, if this word starts with two consonants and is at the beginning of a sentence,
- Between two words, when a word ending in a consonant is followed by a word that starts with two consonants,
- Between two consonants in the same word, if this word ends with two consonants and either is followed by a consonant or is at the end of a sentence.[222][223]
In the Damascus dialect, word stress falls on the last superheavy syllable (CVːC or CVCC). In the absence of a superheavy syllable:
- if the word is bisyllabic, stress falls on the penultimate,
- if the word contains three or more syllables and none of them is superheavy, then stress falls:
- on the penultimate, if it is heavy (CVː or CVC),
- on the antepenult, if the penultimate is light (CV).[217]
Orthography and writing systems
Until recently, Levantine was rarely written. Brustad and Zuniga report that in 1988, they did not find anything published in Levantine in Syria. By the late 2010s, written Levantine was used in many public venues and on the internet,
Written communication takes place using a variety of orthographies and writing systems, including
A 2012 study found that on the Jordanian forum Mahjoob about one-third of messages were written in Levantine in the Arabic script, one-third in Arabizi, and one-third in English.[7] Another 2012 study found that on Facebook, the Arabic script was dominant in Syria, while the Latin script dominated in Lebanon. Both scripts were used in Palestine, Israel, and Jordan. Several factors affect script choice: formality (the Arabic script is more formal), ethnicity and religion (Muslims use the Arabic script more while Israeli Druze and Bedouins prefer Hebrew characters), age (young use Latin more), education (educated people write more in Latin), and script congruence (the tendency to reply to a post in the same script).[11] Levantine speakers in Turkey use the Latin-based Turkish alphabet.[9]
The Arabic alphabet is always
Letter(s) | Romanization | IPA | Pronunciation notes[232][233] | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cowell[234] | Al-Masri[235] | Aldrich[230] | Elihay[233] | Liddicoat[231] | Assimil[236] | Stowasser[232] | Arabizi[6][11] | |||
أ إ ؤ ئ ء | ʔ | ʔ | ʔ | ʼ | ʻ | ʼ | ʔ | 2 or not written | [ʔ] | glottal stop like in uh-oh |
ق |
q | g | ʔ q |
q q̈ |
q |
ʼ | q q̈ |
2 or not written 9 or q or k |
[ʔ] or [g] [q] |
– glottal stop (urban accent) or "hard g" as in get (Jordanian, Bedouin, Gaza[69]) - guttural "k", pronounced further back in the throat (formal MSA words) |
ع |
ε | 3 | 3 | c | ع |
c | ε | 3 | [ʕ] | voiced throat sound similar to "a" as in father, but with more friction |
ب
|
b | [b] | as in English | |||||||
د
|
d | [ d ] |
as in English | |||||||
ض |
ḍ | D | ɖ | ḍ | ḍ | d | ḍ | d or D | [dˤ] | emphatic "d" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark) |
ف
|
f | [f] | as in English | |||||||
غ |
ġ | gh | ɣ | ġ | gh | gh | ġ | 3' or 8 or gh | [ɣ] | like Spanish "g" between vowels, similar to French "r" |
ه
|
h | [h] | as in English | |||||||
ح |
ḥ | H | ɧ | ḥ | ḥ | h | ḥ | 7 or h | [ħ] | "whispered h", has more friction in the throat than "h" |
خ |
x | x | x | ꜧ̄ | kh | kh | x | 7' or 5 or kh | [x] | "ch" as in Scottish loch, like German "ch" or Spanish "j" |
ج
|
ž | j | ž | j or g | [dʒ] or [ʒ] | "j" as in jump or "s" as in pleasure | ||||
ك
|
k | [k] | as in English | |||||||
ل
|
l | [ ɫ ] |
– light "l" as in English love - dark "l" as call, used in Allah and derived words | |||||||
م
|
m | [m] | as in English | |||||||
ن
|
n | [ n ] |
as in English | |||||||
ر
|
r | [ r ] |
– "rolled r" as in Spanish or Italian, usually emphatic - not emphatic before vowel "e" or "i" or after long vowel "i" | |||||||
س
|
s | [s] | as in English | |||||||
ث |
θ | th | s | s ṯ |
th | t | s t |
t or s or not written | [s] [θ] |
– "s" as in English (urban) - voiceless "th" as in think (rural, formal MSA words) |
ص |
ṣ | S | ʂ | ṣ | ṣ | s | ṣ | s | [sˤ] | emphatic "s" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark) |
ش |
š | sh | š | š | sh | ch | š | sh or ch or $ | [ʃ] | "sh" as in sheep |
ت
|
t | [ t ] |
as in English but with the tongue touching the back of the upper teeth | |||||||
ط |
ṭ | T | ƭ | ṭ | ṭ | t | ṭ | t or T or 6 | [tˤ] | emphatic "t" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark) |
و
|
w | [w] | as in English | |||||||
ي
|
y | [j] | as in English | |||||||
ذ |
𝛿 | dh | z | z ḏ |
d | d or z | z d |
d or z or th | [z] [ð] |
– "z" as in English (urban) - voiced "th" as in this (rural, formal MSA words) |
ز
|
z | [z] | as in English | |||||||
ظ |
ẓ | DH | ʐ | ẓ | ẓ | z | ḍ ẓ |
th or z or d | [zˤ] | emphatic "z" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark) |
Letter(s) | Aldrich[230] | Elihay[233] | Liddicoat[231] | Assimil[236] | Arabizi[6]
|
Environment | IPA | Pronunciation notes[232][233] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ـَ |
ɑ | α | a | a | a | near emphatic consonant | [ɑ] | as in got (American pronunciation) |
a | elsewhere | [a~æ] | as in cat | |||||
ـِ |
i | e / i | e / i / é | i / é | e | before/after ح ḥ or ع ʕ | [ɛ] | as in get |
elsewhere | [e] or [ɪ] | as in kit | ||||||
ـُ |
u | o / u | o / u | o / ou | u | any | [o] or [ʊ] | as in full |
ـَا |
ɑ̄ | ᾱ | aa | ā | a | near emphatic consonant | [ɑː] | as in father |
ā | elsewhere | [aː~æː] | as in can | |||||
ē | ē | Imāla in the north | [ɛː~eː] | as in face, but plain vowel | ||||
ـَي |
ē | ee | e | any | [eː] | |||
ɑy | in open syllable in Lebanese | /aj/ | as in price or in face | |||||
ـِي |
ī | ii | ī | any | [iː] | as in see | ||
ـَو |
ō | ō | oo | ō | o | any | [oː] | as in boat, but plain vowel |
ɑw | in open syllable in Lebanese | /aw/ | as in mouth or in boat | |||||
ـُو |
ū | uu | oū | any | [uː] | as in food | ||
ـَا ـَة |
ɑ | α | a | a | a | near emphatic consonant | [ɑ] | as in got (American pronunciation) |
a | elsewhere | [a~æ] | as in cat | |||||
ـَا ـَى | i (respelled to ي) | — | é | é/i/e | Imāla in the north | [ɛ~e] | as in get, but closed vowel | |
ـِة | i | e | e | any | [e] | |||
ـِي | i | i | any | [i] [e] (Lebanese) |
as in see, but shorter merged to "e" in Lebanese | |||
ـُه | u (respelled to و) | o | — | o | o/u | any | [o] | as in lot, but closed vowel |
ـُو | u | any | [u] [o] (Lebanese) |
as in food, but shorter merged to "o" in Lebanese |
Grammar
Nouns and noun phrases
Nouns are either masculine or feminine and singular, dual or plural.[241][242] The dual is formed with the suffix ين- -ēn.[243][242] Most feminine singular nouns end with ـة tāʼ marbūṭah, pronounced as –a or -e depending on the preceding consonant: -a after guttural (ح خ ع غ ق ه ء) and emphatic consonants (ر ص ض ط ظ), -e after other consonants.[72] Unlike Classical Arabic, Levantine has no case marking.[242]
Levantine has a
For nouns referring to humans, the regular (also called sound) masculine plural is formed with the suffix -īn. The regular feminine plural is formed with -āt.[72][246] The masculine plural is used to refer to a group with both genders.[247] There are many broken plurals (also called internal plurals), in which the consonantal root of the singular is changed.[242] These plural patterns are shared with other varieties of Arabic and may also be applied to foreign borrowings.[242] Several patterns of broken plurals exist, and it is impossible to predict them exactly.[248] One common pattern is for instance CvCvC => CuCaCa (e.g.: singular: مدير mudīr, 'manager'; plural: مدرا mudara, 'managers').[248] Inanimate objects take feminine singular agreement in the plural, for verbs, attached pronouns, and adjectives.[249]
The genitive is formed by putting the nouns next to each other[250] in a construct called iḍāfah, lit. 'addition'. The first noun is always indefinite. If an indefinite noun is added to a definite noun, it results in a new definite compound noun:[251][72][252] كتاب الإستاذ ktāb il-ʾistāz ⓘ, 'the book of the teacher'.[253] Besides possessiveness, the iḍāfah can also specify or define the first term.[251] Although there is no limit to the number of nouns in an iḍāfah, it is rare to have three or more.[250] The first term must be in the construct state: if it ends in the feminine marker (/-ah/, or /-ih/), it changes to (/-at/, /-it/) in pronunciation (i.e. ة pronounced as /t/): مدينة نيويورك madīnet nyū-yōrk ⓘ, 'New York City'.[251]
Adjectives typically have three forms: a masculine singular, a feminine singular, and a plural.[72] In most adjectives, the feminine is formed through the addition of -a/e.[254][212] Many adjectives have the pattern فعيل (fʕīl / CCīC or faʕīl / CaCīC), but other patterns exist.[72] Adjectives derived from nouns using the suffix ـي -i are called nisba adjectives. Their feminine form ends in ـية -iyye and their plural in ـيين -iyyīn.[255] Nouns in dual have adjectives in plural.[72] The plural of adjectives is either regular ending in ـين -īn or is an irregular "broken" plural. It is used with nouns referring to people. For non-human, inanimate, or abstract nouns, adjectives use either the plural or the singular feminine form regardless of gender.[72][256][249]
Adjectives follow the noun they modify and agree with it in definiteness. Adjectives without an article after a definite noun express a clause with the invisible copula "to be":[257]
- بيت كبير bēt kbīr ⓘ, 'a big house'
- البيت الكبير il-bēt le-kbīr ⓘ, 'the big house'
- البيت كبير il-bēt kbīr ⓘ, 'the house is big'
The elative is used for comparison, instead of separate comparative and superlative forms.[258] The elative is formed by adding a hamza at the beginning of the adjective and replacing the vowels by "a" (pattern: أفعل ʾafʕal / aCCaC, e.g.: كبير kbīr, 'big'; أكبر ʾakbar, 'bigger/biggest').[72] Adjective endings in ي (i) and و (u) are changed into ی (a). If the second and third consonant in the root are the same, they are geminated (pattern: أفلّ ʾafall / ʾaCaCC).[259] When an elative modifies a noun, it precedes the noun, and no definite article is used.[260]
Levantine does not distinguish between adverbs and adjectives in adverbial function. Almost any adjective can be used as an adverb: منيح mnīḥ, 'good' vs. نمتي منيح؟ nimti mnīḥ? ⓘ, 'Did you sleep well?'. MSA adverbs, with the suffix -an, are often used, e.g., أبدا ʾabadan, 'at all'.[239] Adverbs often appear after the verb or the adjective. كتير ktīr, 'very' can be positioned after or before the adjective.[239] Adverbs of manner can usually be formed using bi- followed by the nominal form: بسرعة b-sirʿa, 'fast, quickly', lit. 'with speed'.[59]
مش miš or in Syrian Arabic مو mū negate adjectives (including active participles), demonstratives, and nominal phrases:[261][262]
- أنا مش فلسطيني. ʾana miš falasṭīni. ⓘ, 'I'm not Palestinian.'
- مش عارفة. miš ʕārfe. ⓘ, 'She doesn't know.'
- هادا مش منيح. hāda miš mnīḥ. ⓘ / هاد مو منيح. hād mū mnīḥ., 'That's not good.'
Pronouns
Levantine has eight persons and eight pronouns. Contrary to MSA, dual pronouns do not exist in Levantine; the plural is used instead. Because conjugated verbs indicate the subject with a prefix or a suffix, independent subject pronouns are usually unnecessary and mainly used for emphasis.[263][264] Feminine plural forms modifying human females are found primarily in rural and Bedouin areas. They are not mentioned below.[265]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
1st person (m./f.) | أنا ʾana | احنا ʾiḥna (South) / نحنا niḥna (North) | |
2nd person | m. | انت ʾinta | انتو / انتوا ʾintu |
f. | انتي ʾinti | ||
3rd person | m. | هو huwwe | هم humme (South) / هن hinne (North) |
f. | هي hiyye |
Direct object pronouns are indicated by suffixes attached to the conjugated verb. Their form depends on whether the verb ends with a consonant or a vowel. Suffixed to nouns, these pronouns express possessive.[266][264] Levantine does not have the verb "to have". Instead, possession is expressed using the prepositions عند ʕind, lit. 'at' (meaning "to possess") and مع maʕ, lit. 'with' (meaning "to have on oneself"), followed by personal pronoun suffixes.[267][268]
Singular | Plural | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
after consonant | after vowel | |||
1st person | after verb | ـني -ni | ـنا -na | |
else | ـِي -i | ـي -y | ||
2nd person | m. | ـَك -ak | ـك -k | ـكُن -kun (North) ـكُم -kom ـكو -ku (South) |
f. | ـِك -ik | ـكِ -ki | ||
3rd person | m. | و -u (North) ـُه -o (South) |
ـه (silent)[l] | ـُن -(h/w/y)un (North) ـهُم -hom (South) |
f. | ـا -a (North) ـها -ha (South) |
ـا -(h/w/y)a (North) ـها -ha (South) |
Indirect object pronouns (dative) are suffixed to the conjugated verb. They are formed by adding an ل (-l) and then the possessive suffix to the verb.[265] They precede object pronouns if present:[265]
- جاب الجريدة لأبوي jāb il-jarīde la-ʔabūy ⓘ, 'he brought the newspaper to my father',
- جابها لأبوي jāb-ha la-ʔabūy ⓘ, 'he brought it to my father',
- جابله الجريدة jab-lo il-jarīde ⓘ, 'he brought him the newspaper',
- جابله ياها jab-lo yyā-ha ⓘ, 'he brought it to him'.[269]
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
1st person (m./f.) | ـلي -li | ـلنا -lna | |
2nd person | m. | لَك -lak | ـلكُن -lkun (North) ـلكُم -lkom, ـلكو -lku (South) |
f. | ـِلك -lik | ||
3rd person | m. | لو -lu (North) لُه -lo (South) |
ـلُن -lun (North) ـلهُم -lhom (South) |
f. | ـلا -la (North) ـلها -lha (South) |
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
Proximal (this, these) |
m. | هادا hāda / هاد hād (South, Syria) هيدا hayda (Lebanon) |
هدول hadōl (South, Syria) هيدول haydōl / هودي hawdi (Lebanon) |
f. | هادي hādi / هاي hāy (South) هيّ hayy (Syria) هيدي haydi (Lebanon) | ||
Distal (that, those) |
m. | هداك hadāk (South, Syria) هيداك haydāk (Lebanon) |
هدولاك hadōlāk (South) هدوليك hadōlīk (Syria) هيدوليك haydōlīk (Lebanon) |
f. | هديك hadīk (South, Syria) هيديك haydīk (Lebanon) |
Verbs and verb phrases
Root and verb forms
Most Levantine verbs are based on a triliteral root (also called radical or Semitic root) made of three consonants. The set of consonants communicates the basic meaning of a verb, e.g. ك ت ب k-t-b ('write'), ق ر ء q-r-ʼ ('read'), ء ك ل ʼ-k-l ('eat'). Changes to the vowels in between the consonants, along with prefixes or suffixes, specify grammatical functions such as tense, person, and number, in addition to changes in the meaning of the verb that embody grammatical concepts such as mood (e.g., indicative, subjunctive, imperative), voice (active or passive), and functions such as causative, intensive, or reflexive.[273] Quadriliteral roots are less common but often used to coin new vocabulary or Arabicize foreign words.[274][275] The base form is the third-person masculine singular of the perfect (also called past) tense.[276]
Almost all Levantine verbs belong to one of ten verb forms (also called verb measures,[277] stems,[278] patterns,[279] or types[280]). Form I, the most common one, serves as a base for the other nine forms. Each form carries a different verbal idea relative to the meaning of its root. Technically, ten verbs can be constructed from any given triconsonantal root, although not all of these forms are used.[273] After Form I, Forms II, V, VII, and X are the most common.[278] Some irregular verbs do not fit into any of the verb forms.[277]
In addition to its form, each verb has a "quality":
- Sound (or regular): 3 distinct radicals, neither the second nor the third is 'w' or 'y',
- Verbs containing the radicals 'w' or 'y' are called weak. They are either:
- Hollow: verbs with 'w' or 'y' as the second radical, which becomes a long 'a' in some forms, or
- Defective: verbs with 'w' or 'y' as the third radical, treated as a vowel,
- Geminate (or doubled): the second and third radicals are identical, remaining together as a double consonant.[277]
Regular verb conjugation
The Levantine verb has only two tenses: past (perfect) and present (also called imperfect, b-imperfect, or bi-imperfect). The present tense is formed by adding the prefix b- or m- to the verb root. The future tense is an extension of the present tense. The negative imperative is the same as the negative present with helping verb (imperfect). Various prefixes and suffixes designate the grammatical person and number as well as the mood. The following table shows the paradigm of a sound Form I verb, كتب katab, 'to write'.[273] There is no copula in the present tense in Levantine. In other tenses, the verb كان kān is used. Its present tense form is used in the future tense.[281]
The b-imperfect is usually used for the indicative mood (non-past present, habitual/general present, narrative present, planned future actions, or potential). The prefix b- is deleted in the subjunctive mood, usually after modal verbs, auxiliary verbs, pseudo-verbs, prepositions, and particles.[72][92][59][209] The future can also be expressed by the imperfect preceded by the particle رح raḥ or by the prefixed particle حـ ḥa-.[282] The present continuous is formed with the progressive particle عم ʕam followed by the imperfect, with or without the initial b/m depending on the speaker.[283]
The active participle, also called present participle, is grammatically an adjective derived from a verb. Depending on the context, it can express the present or present continuous (with verbs of motion, location, or mental state), the near future, or the present perfect (past action with a present result).[284] It can also serve as a noun or an adjective.[285] The passive participle, also called past participle,[15] has a similar meaning as in English (i.e., sent, written). It is mainly used as an adjective and sometimes as a noun. It is inflected from the verb based on its verb form.[286] However, passive participles are largely limited to verb forms I (CvCvC) and II (CvCCvC), becoming maCCūC for the former and mCaCCaC for the latter.[239]
Singular | Dual/Plural | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | ||
Past[n] | m. | -it | -it | ∅ (base form) | -na | -tu | -u |
f. | -ti | -it (North) -at (South) | |||||
Present[o] | m. | bi- (North) ba- (South) |
bti- | byi- (North) bi- (South) |
mni- | bti- -u | byi- -u (North) bi- -u (South) |
f. | bti- -i | bti- | |||||
Present with helping verb[p] | m. | i- (North) a- (South) |
ti- | yi- | ni- | ti- -u | yi- -u |
f. | ti- -i | ti- | |||||
Positive imperative[q] | m. | — | ∅ (Lengthening the present tense vowel, North) i- (Subjunctive without initial consonant, South) |
— | — | -u (Stressed vowel u becomes i, North) i- -u (South) |
— |
f. | -i (Stressed vowel u becomes i, North) i- -i (South) | ||||||
Active participle[r] | m. | -ē- (North) or -ā- (South) after the first consonant | -īn (added to the masculine form) | ||||
f. | -e/i or -a (added to the masculine form) | ||||||
Passive participle[s] | m. | ma- and -ū- after the second consonant | |||||
f. | -a (added to the masculine form) |
Compound tenses
The verb كان kān, followed by another verb, forms compound tenses. Both verbs are conjugated with their subject.[289]
kān in the past tense | kān in the present tense | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Followed by | Levantine | English | Levantine | English |
Past tense | كان عمل kān ʕimel | he had done | بكون عمل bikūn ʕimel | he will have done |
Active participle | كان عامل kān ʕāmel | he had done | بكون عامل bikūn ʕāmel | he will have done |
Subjunctive | كان يعمل kān yiʕmel | he used to do / he was doing | بكون يعمل bikūn yiʕmel | he will be doing |
Progressive | كان عم يعمل kān ʕam yiʕmel | he was doing | بكون عم يعمل bikūn ʕam yiʕmel | he will be doing |
Future tense | كان رح يعمل kān raḥ yiʕmel كان حيعمل kān ḥa-yiʕmel |
he was going to do | — | |
Present tense | كان بعمل kān biʕmel | he would do |
Passive voice
Form I verbs often correspond to an equivalent passive form VII verb, with the prefix n-. Form II and form III verbs usually correspond to an equivalent passive in forms V and VI, respectively, with the prefix t-.[277] While the verb forms V, VI and VII are common in the simple past and compound tenses, the passive participle (past participle) is preferred in the present tense.[291]
Active | Passive | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Verb form | Levantine | English | Verb form | Levantine | English |
I | مسك masak | to catch | VII | انمسك inmasak | to be caught |
II | غيّر ḡayyar | to change | V | تغيّر tḡayyar | to be changed |
III | فاجأ fājaʾ | to surprise | VI | تفاجأ tfājaʾ | to be surprised |
Negation
Verbs and prepositional phrases are negated by the particle ما mā / ma either on its own or, in the south, together with the suffix ـش -iš at the end of the verb or prepositional phrase. In Palestinian, it is also common to negate verbs by the suffix ـش -iš only.[262]
Without -š | With -š | English | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | |
ما كتب. | mā katab. ⓘ | ما كتبش. | ma katab-š. ⓘ | He didn't write. |
ما بحكي إنكليزي. | mā baḥki ʾinglīzi. ⓘ | ما بحكيش إنكليزي. | ma baḥkī-š ʾinglīzi. ⓘ | I don't speak English. |
ما تنسى! | mā tinsa! ⓘ | ما تنساش! | ma tinsā-š! ⓘ | Don't forget! |
ما بده ييجي عالحفلة. | mā biddo yīji ʕa-l-ḥafle. ⓘ | — | He doesn't want to come to the party. |
Vocabulary
The lexicon of Levantine is overwhelmingly Arabic,[132] and a large number of Levantine words are shared with at least another vernacular Arabic variety outside the Levant, especially with Egyptian.[292] Many words, such as verbal nouns (also called gerunds or masdar[15]), are derived from a Semitic root. For instance, درس dars, 'a lesson' is derived from درس daras, 'to study, to learn'.[293] Levantine also includes layers of ancient languages: Aramaic (mainly Western Aramaic), Canaanite, classical Hebrew (Biblical and Mishnaic), Persian, Greek, and Latin.[294]
Aramaic influence is significant, especially in vocabulary and in rural areas. Aramaic words underwent
Since the early modern period, Levantine has borrowed from Turkish and European languages, mainly English (particularly in technology and entertainment[297]), French (especially in Lebanese due to the French Mandate[95]), German, and Italian.[294] Modern Hebrew significantly influences the Palestinian dialect spoken by Arab Israelis.[135][298] Loanwords are gradually replaced with words of Arabic root. For instance, borrowings from Ottoman Turkish that were common in the 20th century have been largely replaced by Arabic words after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.[132] Arabic-speaking minorities in Turkey (mainly in Hatay) are still influenced by Turkish.[130][131]
With about 50% of common words, Levantine (especially Palestinian) is the closest colloquial variety to MSA in terms of
Sample text
Lebanese (Arabic)[302] | Lebanese (Romanized)[302] | Palestinian (Arabic)[t][303][190] | Palestinian (Romanized)[u][303][190] | MSA[304] | MSA (Romanized)[304] | English[305] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
الأمير الزغير |
l amir l z8ir | الأمير الصغير |
il-ʼamir le-zġīr | الأمير الصغير |
Al-amīr al-ṣaghīr | The Little Prince |
وهيك يا إميري الزغير، |
w hek, ya amire l z8ir, | أخ، يا أميري الصغير! |
ʼᾱꜧ̄, yā ʼamīri le-zġīr! | آه أيها الأمير الصغير ، |
Āh ayyuhā al-amīr al-ṣaghīr, | Oh, little prince! |
ونتفي نتفي، فهمت حياتك المتواضعة الكئيبي. |
w netfe netfe, fhemet 7ayetak l metwad3a l ka2ibe. | شوي شوي عرفت عن سر حياتك الكئبة. |
šwayy ešwayy eCrifet Can sirr ḥayātak il-kaʼībe. | لقد أدركت شيئا فشيئا أبعاد حياتك الصغيرة المحزنة ، |
laqad adrakat shayʼan fashaiʼā abʻād ḥayātik al-ṣaghīrah almuhzinat, | Bit by bit I came to understand the secrets of your sad little life. |
إنت يلّلي ضلّيت عَ مِدّة طويلي ما عندك شي يسلّيك إلاّ عزوبة التطليع بغياب الشمس. |
enta yalli dallet 3a medde tawile ma 3andak shi ysallik illa 3uzubet l tutli3 bi 8iyeb l shames. | وما كانش إلك ملاذ تاني غير غروب الشمس. |
u-ma kan-š ʼilak malād tāni ġēr ġurūb iš-šams. | لم تكن تملك من الوقت للتفكير والتأمل غير تلك اللحظات التي كنت تسرح فيها مع غروب الشمس. |
lam takun tamalluk min al-waqt lil-tafkīr wa-al-taʼammul ghayr tilka al-laḥaẓāt allatī kuntu tasrah fīhā maʻa ghurūb al-shams. | For a long time you had found your only entertainment in the quiet pleasure of looking at the sunset. |
هالشي الجزئي، وجديد، عرفتو رابع يوم من عبكرا، لِمّن قلتلّي: |
hal shi ljez2e, w jdid, 3arefto rabe3 yom men 3abokra, lamman eltelle: | وهدا الإشي عرفته بصباح اليوم الرابع لما قلت لي: |
u-hāda l-ʼiši Crifto bi-ṣαbᾱḥ il-yōm ir-rᾱbeC lamma qultelli: | لقد عرفت بهذا الأمر الجديد في صباح اليوم الرابع من لقائنا، عندما قلت لي: |
Laqad ʻaraftu bi-hādhā al-amīr al-jadīd fī ṣabāḥ al-yawm al-rābiʻ min liqāʼnā, ʻindamā qultu lī: | I learned that new detail on the morning of the fourth day, when you said to me: |
أنا بحب غياب الشمس. |
ana b7eb 8yeb l shames. | – بحب كتير غروب الشمس. |
– baḥebb ektīr ġurūb iš-šams. | إنني مغرم بغروب الشمس. |
Innanī mughram bighuruwb al-shams. | I am very fond of sunsets. |
Notes
- ^ In a broader meaning, "Eastern Arabic" refers to Mashriqi Arabic, to which Levantine belongs, one of the two main varieties of Arabic, as opposed to Western Arabic, also called Maghrebi Arabic.[19]
- ^ Native speakers of Arabic generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and Classical Arabic and refer to both as العربية الفصحى al-ʻArabīyah al-Fuṣḥā, lit. 'the eloquent Arabic'.[26]
- ^ Ethnologue classifies Cypriot Arabic as a hybrid language between Levantine and North Mesopotamian.[54] Pr. Jonathan Owens classifies it in North Mesopotamian Arabic.[55]
- ^ Most Christian and Muslim Lebanese people in Israel do not consider themselves Arabs, claiming to be Phoenicians.[89][90]
- ^ Only countries with at least 100,000 speakers are shown.
- ^ Including 3 million Syrian refugees.[4]
- ^ Youth, especially teenagers, are considered the most active initiators of language change.[140]
- ^ a b In loanwords only.
- ^ Mainly in words from Classical Arabic and in Druze, rural, and Bedouin dialects.
- ^ Only in loanwords, except in Jordanian Arabic.
- ^ The accent moves to the last vowel.
- ^ Depending on regions and accents, the -u can be pronounced -o and the -i can be pronounced -é.[288]
- ^ Also called perfect.
- ^ Also called bi-imperfect, b-imperfect, or standard imperfect.
- ^ Also called Ø-imperfect, imperfect, or subjunctive.
- ^ Also called imperative or command.
- ^ Also called present participle. Not all active participles are used and their meaning varies.
- ^ Also called past participle, mostly used as an adjective. Not all passive participles are used and their meaning varies.
- ^ According to the authors: "we decided to adopt a flexible approach and use a form of transcription that reflects the spelling used by native Arabic speakers when they write brief colloquial texts on computer, table or smartphone."
- ^ Transcription follows Elihay 's convention.
References
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- ^ a b c d Cowell 1964, pp. vii–x.
- ^ a b c Al-Wer 2006, pp. 1920–1921.
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- ^ a b c d e f "Glottolog 4.6 – Levantine Arabic". glottolog.org. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
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- ^ a b Schmitt 2020, p. 1391.
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Further reading
- Barthélemy, Adrien (1935). Dictionnaire Arabe-Français : Dialectes de Syrie, Alep, Damas, Liban, Jerusalem (in French). Geuthner. OCLC 957299135.
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- Bergsträsser, Gotthelf (1915). Sprachatlas von Syrien und Palästina (in German). Hinrichs. OCLC 977749134.
- Brustad, Kristen (2000). The Syntax of Spoken Arabic: A Comparative Study of Moroccan, Egyptian, Syrian, and Kuwaiti Dialects. Georgetown University Press. OCLC 43657105.
- Cantineau, Jean (1946). Les parlers arabes du Ḥōrān (in French). Klincksieck. OCLC 1222340236.
- Cleveland, Ray L. (1963). "A Classification for the Arabic Dialects of Jordan". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (171). American Schools of Oriental Research: 56–63. S2CID 164036536.
- Durand, Olivier; Ventura, Annamaria (2020). Grammatica di arabo mediorientale : La lingua šami (in Italian). OCLC 1191246670.
- Feghali, Michel (1919). Le parler de Kfár'abîda (Liban-Syrie) : Essai linguistique sur la phonétique et la morphologie d'un parler arabe moderne (PDF) (in French). Leroux. OCLC 1073658250.
- Grotzfeld, Heinz (1965). Syrisch-Arabische Grammatik: Dialekt von Damaskus (in German). Harrassowitz Verlag. OCLC 906325563.
- Halloun, Moïn (2011). A Practical Dictionary of the Standard Dialect Spoken in Palestine: English-Arabic. Bethlehem University. OCLC 992166708.
- Omar, Margaret K. (1974). From Eastern to Western Arabic (PDF). OCLC 1122633742.
- Omar, Margaret K. (1976). Levantine & Egyptian Arabic: Comparative Study (PDF). Foreign Service Institute, Department of State. OCLC 2577627.
- Palva, Heikki (1984). "A General Classification for the Arabic Dialects Spoken in Palestine and Transjordan". Studia Orientalia Electronica. 55. Finnish Oriental Society: 357–376. ISSN 2323-5209.
- Pimsleur, Paul (1998). Arabic (Eastern) (Audiobook on cassette). OCLC 70174556.
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External links
- "Currasat: Arabic Dialects Corpora". Birzeit University. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- "Dictionaries for Classical Arabic and dialects". The Living Arabic Project. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
- "The Open Palestinian Arabic Lexicon "Maknuune"". CAMeL Lab, New York University Abu Dhabi.
- "Microsoft Translator launches Levantine Arabic as a new speech translation language". Microsoft Translator Blog. 27 June 2018. Retrieved 17 July 2021.