Neoclassical architecture
Versailles, France), 1764, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel; Centre: The Brandenburg Gate (Berlin, Germany), 1791, by Carl Gotthard Langhans; Bottom: Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel (Paris), 1806–1808, by Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine | |
Years active | 18th century–mid-20th century |
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Neoclassical architecture, sometimes referred to as Classical Revival architecture, is an
The development of archaeology and published accurate records of surviving classical buildings was crucial in the emergence of Neoclassical architecture. In many countries, there was an initial wave essentially drawing on Roman architecture, followed, from about the start of the 19th century, by a second wave of Greek Revival architecture. This followed increased understanding of Greek survivals. As the 19th century continued, the style tended to lose its original rather austere purity in variants like the French Empire style. The term "neoclassical" is often used very loosely for any building using some of the classical architectural vocabulary.
In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro and maintains separate identities to each of its parts. The style is manifested both in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulae as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of the Late Baroque architectural tradition. Therefore, the style is defined by symmetry, simple geometry, and social demands instead of ornament.[3] In the 21st century, a version of the style continues, sometimes called New Classical architecture or New Classicism.
History
Neoclassical architecture is a specific style and moment in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that was specifically associated with the Enlightenment, empiricism, and the study of sites by early archaeologists.[4] Classical architecture after about 1840 must be classified as one of a series of "revival" styles, such as Greek, Renaissance, or Italianate. Various historians of the 19th century have made this clear since the 1970s. Classical architecture during the 20th century is classified less as a revival, and more a return to a style was decelerated with the advent of Modernism. Yet still Neoclassical architecture is beginning to be practiced again in the 21st century more in the form of New Classical Architecture and even in Gentrification and Historicism Architecture, the Neoclassical architecture or its important elements are still being used, even when the Postmodernist architecture is dominant throughout the world.
Palladianism
A return to more classical architectural forms as a reaction to the Rococo style can be detected in some European architecture of the earlier 18th century, most vividly represented in the Palladian architecture of Georgian Britain and Ireland. The name refers to the designs of the 16th-century Venetian architect Andrea Palladio.
The
At the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect earl",
This classicizing vein was also detectable, to a lesser degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris, such as in the Louvre Colonnade. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran.
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The east façade of Stourhead House, based on Palladio's Villa Emo
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Russborough House (County Wicklow, Ireland) a notable example of Irish Palladianism,[5] 1741–1755, by Richard Cassels
Neoclassicism
By the mid-18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of classical influences, including those from
The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s. It first gained influence in England and France; in England, Sir William Hamilton's excavations at Pompeii and other sites, the influence of the Grand Tour, and the work of William Chambers and Robert Adam, were pivotal in this regard. In France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was also adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and Russia.
International neoclassical architecture was exemplified in
A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the First French Empire. In France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style, and the second in the styles called Directoire and Empire. Its major proponents were Percier and Fontaine, court architects who specialized in interior decoration.[6]
In the decorative arts, neoclassicism is exemplified in French furniture of the Empire style; the English furniture of
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Oratire du Louvre facade (1855)
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The Panthéon (Paris), 1758–1790
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The Rotunda of the University of Virginia (Charlottesville, Virginia, US), by Thomas Jefferson and Stanford White, 1826
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The Academy of Athens, 1859, by Theophil Hansen
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Old Legislative Building, 1918 and rebuilt in 1945 (Manila, Philippines)
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Oudenbosch Basilica, 1892 (Oudenbosch, The Netherlands)
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Concertgebouw, 1886 (Amsterdam, The Netherlands)
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Ripon Building, 1909 (Chennai, India)
Interior design
Indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s, with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of Le Antichità di Ercolano Esposte (The Antiquities of Herculaneum Exposed). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the Baroque, or the most "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes: pedimented window frames turned into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts.
The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary. Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low
A
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The Agate Pavilion, Tsarskoye Selo, designed by Charles Cameron in "Pompeian" style
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Detail of the ceiling of the Arc de Triomphe from Paris
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Design for a room in the Etruscan or Pompeian style, from 1833, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
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Dining room of the Centralhotel (Berlin), designed in 1881 by von der Hude & Hennicke
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The Reading Room of the Bibliothèque Mazarine (Paris)
Greek Revival
From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism, the
Seen in its wider social context, Greek Revival architecture sounded a new note of sobriety and restraint in public buildings in Britain around 1800 as an assertion of
At the same time the
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British Museum, London, by Robert Smirke, 1823-1847
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Friedrich-von-Thiersch hall of the Kurhaus, Wiesbaden, Germany, 1905-1907, by Friedrich von Thiersch
Characteristics
High neoclassicism was an international movement. Architects reacted against the excesses and profuse ornament used in
Neoclassicism also influenced city planning. The ancient Romans had used a consolidated scheme for city planning for both defence and civil convenience; however, the roots of this scheme go back to even older civilizations. At its most basic, the grid system of streets, a central forum with city services, two main slightly wider boulevards, and the occasional diagonal street were characteristic of the very logical and orderly Roman design. Ancient façades and building layouts were oriented to these city design patterns and they tended to work in proportion with the importance of public buildings.
Many of these
Regional trends
France
The first phase of
Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée and Claude Nicolas Ledoux. The many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullée's ideas and Edmund Burke's conception of the sublime. Ledoux addressed the concept of architectural character, maintaining that a building should immediately communicate its function to the viewer: taken literally, such ideas give rise to architecture parlante ("speaking architecture").
From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism that is called the Greek Revival. Although several European cities – notably Saint Petersburg, Athens, Berlin and Munich – were transformed into veritable museums of Greek revival architecture, the Greek Revival in France was never popular with either the state or the public.
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Boudoir de la Reine of theFontainbleau)
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Stairway of the Grand Theater of Bordeaux, 1780, by Victor Louis
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The Palais de la Légion d'Honneur (Paris), 1782–1787, by Pierre Rousseau
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Cabinet doré ofMarie-Antoinetteat the Palace of Versailles (1783)
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Église de la Madeleine (Paris), 1807–1828, by Pierre-Alexandre Vignon
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Empress's bedroom from the Château de Malmaison, another Empire interior
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The Vendôme Column (Paris), modelled after Trajan's Column, 1810
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The Guimet Museum (Paris), by Jules Chatron
Germany
Neoclassical architecture became a symbol of national pride during the 18th century in Germany, in what was then Prussia. Karl Friedrich Schinkel built many notable buildings in this style, including the Altes Museum in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center.
Schinkel's work is very comparable to Neoclassical architecture in Britain since he drew much of his inspiration from that country. He made trips to observe the buildings and develop his functional style.[3]
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Brandenburg Gate in Berlin (1788–1791) by Carl Gotthard Langhans
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Pyramid (1823–1825) and in City Church (1807–1816) in Karlsruhe by Friedrich Weinbrenner
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Konzerthaus Berlin in Berlin (1818–1821) by Karl Friedrich Schinkel
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Altes Museum in Berlin (1825–1830) by Karl Friedrich Schinkel
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Glyptothek in Munich (1816–1830) by Leo von Klenze
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Walhalla (1830–1842) by Leo von Klenze
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Propylaea in Munich (1854–1862) by Leo von Klenze
Great Britain and Ireland
From the middle of the 18th century, exploration and publication changed the course of British architecture towards a purer vision of the Ancient Greco-Roman ideal.
In Scotland and the north of England, where the Gothic Revival was less strong, architects continued to develop the neoclassical style of William Henry Playfair. The works of Cuthbert Brodrick and Alexander Thomson show that by the end of the 19th century the results could be powerful and eccentric.
In Ireland, where Gothic Revival was also less popular, a refined, restrained form of the neoclassical developed, and can be seen in the works of James Gandon and other architects working at the time. It is particularly evident in Dublin, which is a largely neoclassical and Georgian city.
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Kedleston Hall (Kedleston, Derbyshire, England) based on the Arch of Constantine in Rome, the 1760s, by Robert Adam
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Interior of Syon House (London) with Ionic columns and gilded statues, 1767–1775, by Robert Adam
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Dining room of Syon House, with a complex ceiling
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Buildings in Lower O'Connell Street (Dublin) constructed between 1918 and 1923 in the highly refined and aesthetically restrained style typical of the Irish capital
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The central courtyard of Somerset House (London), 1776, by Sir William Chambers
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Ionic Temple at the Chiswick House (London), an example of English landscape garden
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The Greek hexastyle portico of the General Post Office (Dublin) completed in 1818
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Dublin's Custom House
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Parliament Buildings, Northern Ireland (1933)
Greece
After the establishment of the
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The Old Royal Palace, completed in 1843
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The National Library of Greece designed by Theophil von Hansen (1888)
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The main building of the Academy of Athens, one of Theophil Hansen's "Trilogy" in central Athens (1859)
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TheNational and Capodistrian University of Athens(1843)
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The Zappeion (1888)
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The Numismatic Museum of Athens or Iliou Melathron built for Heinrich Schliemann by Ernst Ziller (1880)
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The Presidential Mansion (formerly the Crown Prince's Palace) in Athens built by Ernst Ziller
Hungary
The earliest examples of neoclassical architecture in Hungary may be found in Vác. In this town the triumphal arch and the neoclassical façade of the Baroque Cathedral were designed by the French architect Isidor Marcellus Amandus Ganneval (Isidore Canevale) in the 1760s. Also the work of a French architect, Charles Moreau, is the garden façade of the Esterházy Palace (1797–1805) in Kismarton (today Eisenstadt in Austria).
The two principal architects of Neoclassicism in Hungary were
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Reformed Great Church of Debrecen (1805–1824)
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Esztergom Basilica (1822–1869)
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Cathedral Basilica of Eger (1831–1837)
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Hungarian National Museum (1837–1844)
Japan
Although not a western country, due to Western influence Japan has had neoclassical architecture produced in it. This includes the unique
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Hiko Shrine (1915)
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Osaka Exchange (1949)
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Ministry of Justice Japan
Malta
Neoclassical architecture was introduced in Malta in the late 18th century, during the final years of
Neoclassicism gave way to other architectural styles by the late 19th century. Few buildings were built in the neoclassical style during the 20th century, such as the Domvs Romana museum (1922),[21] and the Courts of Justice building in Valletta (1965–1971).[22]
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The Rotunda of Mosta, built between 1833 and 1860
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St Paul's Anglican Pro-Cathedral in Valletta, built between 1839 and 1844
Mexico
As part of the
Neoclassicism in Mexican architecture was directly linked to crown policies that sought to rein in the exuberance of the Mexican Baroque, and to create public buildings of "good taste" funded by the crown, such as the Palacio de Minería in Mexico City, the Hospicio Cabañas in Guadalajara, and the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato, all built in the late colonial era.[25]
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The Palacio del Marqués del Apartado in Mexico City, built 1795–1805 also by Manuel Tolsá
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San José Iturbide parish, built in 1866 by Ramón Ramírez y Arangoiti[26]
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Hospicio Cabañas (Guadalajara), built between 1805–1845, is one of the oldest and largest hospital complexes in the Americas.
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The drawings for the unfinished Palacio Legislativo Federal by Henri Jean Émile Bénard
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The Museo Nacional de Arte with the equestrian statue in forefront
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The courtyard of the Museo Nacional de Arte
Rest of Latin America
The Neoclassical style arrived in the American empires of Spain and Portugal through projects designed in Europe or carried out locally by European or Criollo architects trained in the academies of the metropolis. There are also examples of the adaptation to the local architectural language, which during previous centuries had made a synthesis or syncretism of European and pre-Columbian elements in the so-called Colonial Baroque.
Two more Classical criteria belong, in
Argentina is another of the countries that seeks to shed its colonial past, but in the context of the reorganization of the country after independence in 1810, an aspect of power is sought that transmits the presence of the State, inspiring respect and devotion, including of course the architecture. However, an image of its own is not conceived, but the Classical canon is introduced, not in the form of a replica of buildings from Antiquity, but with a classical predominance and a lot of influence from French Classicism; which will last until the 20th century.
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Santiago de Chile (1784-1805) by Joaquín Toesca
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Metropolitan Cathedral of Santiago (Chile) (1748-1906) by Joaquín Toesca and Ignacio Cremonesi
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Palacio de Carondelet (Quito, Ecuador) built between (1611–1801 by Antonio García)
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Primatial Cathedral of Bogotá (Bogotá, Colombia) (1807–1823 by Friar Domingo de Petrés)
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Palace of Justice (Lima, Peru) (1939 by Bruno Paprowsky)
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Palácio Imperial de Petrópolis (Petrópolis, Brazil) (1845–1862 by Julius Friedrich Koeler)
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Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral (1754–1823 by Antonio Masella and Prosper Catelin) (Buenos Aires, Argentina)
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Palacio del Congreso de Nación Argentina (1896–1906 by Vittorio Meano)
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El Capitolio (Havana, Cuba) (1926–1929 by Eugenio Rayneri Piedra)
Philippines
Like most western tradition, it arrived in the Pacific Archipelagos via rule from New Spain (Mexico) during the period of governance by Mexico City as one of the best preferred architecture in the Spanish east indies, manifested in Churches, Civic buildings and one of the popular architectural ornament for newer styled Bahay na bato and Bahay kubo. When the power over the archipelago was transferred from Spain to the United States of America, the style became more popular and developed from slightly simple approach during the Spanish era, to a more ornamented style of the Beaux-Arts architecture sparked by the return of massive number of architectural students to the islands from the western schools. It also became a symbol of democracy and the approaching republic during the commonwealth.
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The centre of Polish Neoclassicism was
The best-known architects and artists, who worked in
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Królikarnia in Warsaw (by Domenico Merlini, 1782–86)
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Lutheran Holy Trinity Church in Warsaw (by Szymon Bogumił Zug, 1777–82)
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Vilnius Cathedral (by Wawrzyniec Gucewicz, 1777-1801)
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Grand Theatre in Warsaw (by Antonio Corazzi, 1825–33)
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Piotr Aigner, 1798-1801)
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Piotr Aigner, 1818–25)
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Belvedere Palace in Warsaw (by Jakub Kubicki, 1819–22)
Russia
In the Russian Empire at the end of the 19th century, neoclassical architecture was equal to Saint Petersburg architecture because this style was specific for a huge number of buildings in the city. Catherine the Great adopted the style during her reign by allowing the architect Jean-Baptiste Vallin de la Mothe to build the Old Hermitage and the Academy of Fine Arts in Saint Petersburg.[3]
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The Marble Bridge, 1772, by Vasily Neyolov
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Tauride Palace, 1783-1789, by Ivan Starov
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Marble Palace, 1768-1785, by Antonio Rinaldi
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General Staff Building, 1819-1829, by Carlo Rossi
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Main building of the Pulkovo Observatory, 1837, by Alexander Brullov
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An interior of Kazan Cathedral, Saint Petersburg, by Andrey Voronikhin
Spain
Spanish Neoclassicism was exemplified by the work of Juan de Villanueva, who adapted Burke's theories of beauty and the sublime to the requirements of Spanish climate and history. He built the Museo del Prado, which combined three functions: an academy, an auditorium, and a museum in one building with three separate entrances.
This was part of the ambitious program of Charles III, who intended to make Madrid the Capital of the Arts and Sciences. Very close to the museum, Villanueva built the Royal Observatory of Madrid. He also designed several summer houses for the kings in El Escorial and Aranjuez and reconstructed the Plaza Mayor, Madrid, among other important works. Villanueva's pupils expanded the Neoclassical style in Spain.
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The Museo del Prado in Madrid, by Juan de Villanueva
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Palau del Parlament de Catalunya in Barcelona, Catalonia, built between 1716 and 1748 by Marquis of Verboom
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Colegio Mayor de San Bartolomé in Salamanca, Castile and León, built in 1760
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The Neoclassical facade of the Lugo Cathedral in Lugo, Galicia, by Julián Sánchez Bort
United States
In the new republic,
Another notable American architect who identified with Federal architecture was
A second neoclassical manner found in the United States during the 19th century was called Greek Revival architecture. It differs from Federal architecture as it strictly follows the Greek idiom, however it was used to describe all buildings of the Neoclassicism period that display classical orders.[27]
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The University of Virginia Rotunda, an example of the Neoclassical architecture Thomas Jefferson built on campus.
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Butler Library at Columbia University in New York City (finished in 1934)
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The United States Capitol (finished in 1800)
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Federal Hall National Memorial
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Jefferson Memorial in Washington D.C (1939-1943)
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The north and south sides of the White House (completed in 1800)
See also
- New classical architecture
- Neoclassical architecture in Milan
- Outline of classical architecture
- Federal architecture
- Nordic Classicism
- John Carr (architect)
- William Chambers (architect)
- List of architectural styles
References
- ^ "Western architecture - German Gothic, Baroque, Renaissance | Britannica".
- ^ "Neoclassical architecture". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
- ^ OCLC 444534819.
- ^ See, for instance, Joseph Rykwert, The First Moderns: the architects of the eighteenth century (Cambridge, MIT Press: 1980) and Alberto Perez Gomez, Architecture and the Crisis of Modern Science, (Cambridge, MIT Press: 1983)
- ^ "Andrea Palladio 1508–1580". Irish Architectural Archive. 2010. Retrieved 23 September 2018.
- ^ Barry Bergdoll, Ed., The Complete Works of Percier and Fontaine, (New York, Princeton Architectural Press: 2018)
- ^ "Neoclassical Architecture (1640–1850)". www.visual-arts-cork.com. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
- ^ Honour, 110–111, 110 quoted
- ^ Though Giles Worsley detects the first Grecian influenced architectural element in the windows of Nuneham Park from 1756, see Giles Worsley, "The First Greek Revival Architecture", The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 127, No. 985 (April 1985), pp. 226–229.
- ^ Joseph Mordant Crook, The Greek Revival: neoclassical attitudes in British architecture, 1760–1870 (London, John Murray: 1972)
- ^ Honour, 171–184, 171 quoted
- ^ Robin Middleton and David Watkin, NeoClassical and Nineteenth Century Architecture2 vols. (New York, Electa/Rizzoli: 1987)
- ISBN 978-1-317-62637-4.
- ISBN 978-0-226-41227-6.
- ^ Satō, Yoshiaki (2006). "Chapter 5 Appendix: 帝冠様式について" [About Imperial Crown Style]. 神奈川県庁本庁舎と大正昭和初期の神奈川県技術者に関する建築史的研究 [Architecture Historical Research of the Kanagawa Prefecture Main Office Building and the early Taishō Shōwa Kanagawa Prefecture Engineers] (in Japanese).
- ^ Morohashi, Kaz (Winter 2015). "Museums in Japan". e-magazine. Norwich,UK: Sainsbury Institute for the Study of Japanese Arts and Culture. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
- ^ "Bibliotheca" (PDF). National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands. 28 December 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 December 2015.
- ^ "Rohan Gate, Żebbuġ". Times of Malta. 11 December 2012. Archived from the original on 4 December 2015.
- ISBN 9788860407818.
- ^ "Architecture in Malta under the British". culturemalta.org. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015.
- ^ "Domvs Romana". Heritage Malta. Archived from the original on 5 January 2015.
- ^ "The Courts". The Judiciary – Malta. Archived from the original on 6 January 2015.
- ^ Jean Charlot, Mexican Art and the Academy of San Carlos, 1785–1915. Austin: University of Texas Press 1962, p. 25
- ^ https://read.dukeupress.edu/hahr/article/54/3/525/151178/Los-origenes-del-nacionalismo-mexicano
- ^ James Oles, Art and Architecture in Mexico. London: Thames and Hudson 2013, pp.132–33, 150.
- ^ "Datos curiosos de la Parroquia de San José Iturbide". iturbide.travel (in Spanish). 10 July 2019.
- OCLC 605187550.
Further reading
- Détournelle, Athanase, Recueil d'architecture nouvelle, A Paris : Chez l'auteur, 1805
- Groth, Håkan, Neoclassicism in the North: Swedish Furniture and Interiors, 1770–1850
- Honour, Hugh, Neoclassicism
- Irwin, David, Neoclassicism (in series Art and Ideas) Phaidon, paperback, 1997
- Lorentz, Stanislaw, Neoclassicism in Poland (Series History of art in Poland)
- McCormick, Thomas, Charles-Louis Clérisseau and the Genesis of Neoclassicism Architectural History Foundation, 1991
- Praz, Mario. On Neoclassicism
External links
- Institute of Classical Architecture and Art (official website)
- Traditional Architecture Group (archived 9 June 2013)
- OpenSource Classicism – project for free educational content about neoclassical architecture