User:Evad37/Life sciences

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
  Sandbox: Various [e] S2: [e] S3: major roads Perth [e] S4: Perth hospitals [e] S5: Tourism in WA [e] S6: Great Southern roads [e] S7: PFL sources [e]
Simulations of the fluorescence of different fluorescent proteins.
Part of a series on
Science
Fields (Outline / List)
Intrascientific fields
Extrascientific fields
Scientific integrity
Instruments
This is a subseries on philosophy. In order to explore related topics, please visit navigation.

The life sciences comprise the

interdisciplinary fields.[1]

Some life sciences focus on a specific type of life. For example,

bio-engineering. Another major, though more specific, branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind – neuroscience
.

The life sciences are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life. They have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries.

There is considerable overlap between many of the topics of study in the life sciences.

History

Topics of study

Affective neuroscience

Brain parts involved with a fear amygdala hijack from optical stimulus
Main article: Affective neuroscience

Affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms of emotion. This interdisciplinary field combines neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood.[2]

Anatomy

Sagittal MRI scan of the head
Main article: Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of the

magnetic resonance imaging
.

Astrobiology

Main article: Astrobiology
extrasolar planets

Astrobiology is the study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe: extraterrestrial life and life on Earth, and the search for habitable environments in our Solar System and habitable planets outside our Solar System, the search for prebiotic chemistry, and research into the origins of life.[4][5] Astrobiology makes use of physics, chemistry, astronomy, biology, molecular biology, ecology, planetary science, geography, and geology.[6][7]

Biochemistry

Main article: Biochemistry
A schematic of hemoglobin. The red and blue ribbons represent the protein globin; the green structures are the heme groups.

Biochemistry is the study of

amino acids
.

Biocomputers

Main article:
Biocomputers

Biocomputers use systems of biologically derived molecules, such as

proteins, to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. The development of biocomputers has been made possible by the expanding new science of nanobiotechnology
.

Biocontrol

Main article:
Biocontrol
Encarsia formosa was one of the first biological control agents developed.

Biological control (known as biological control) is a

plant diseases) using other living organisms.[10]

Biodynamics

Main article: Biodynamics

Biodynamic agriculture is a method of organic farming originally developed by Rudolf Steiner that employs what proponents describe as "a holistic understanding of agricultural processes".[11]: 145  One of the first sustainable agriculture movements,[12][13][14]

Bioinformatics

Main article: Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary scientific field that develops methods for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data. A major activity in bioinformatics is to develop software tools to generate useful biological knowledge.

Biology

Main article: Biology

Biology is the parent

genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the synthesis and creation of new species. All organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment.[16]

Biomaterials

Main article:
Biomaterials

A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.

Biomechanics

Main article: Biomechanics

Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as

organs, and cells[17]
by means of the methods of mechanics.[18]

Biomedical science

Main article:
Biomedical science

Healthcare science, also known as biomedical science, is a set of

basic science
.

Biomedicine

Main article: Biomedicine

Biomedicine, or Medical biology, is a branch of

clinical practice.[20]
Biomedicine is related to the ability of humans to cope with environmental stress. The branch especially applies to biology and physiology.[21] Biomedicine also can relate to many other categories in health and biological related fields.

Biomonitoring

Main article: Biomonitoring

In analytical chemistry, biomonitoring is the measurement of the body burden[22] of toxic chemical compounds, elements, or their metabolites, in biological substances.[23][24] Often, these measurements are done in blood and urine.[25]

The two best established biomonitoring programs in representative samples of the general population are those of the United States and Germany, although population-based programs exist in a few other countries.[26] In 2001, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) began to publish its biennial National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals, which reports a statistically representative sample of the U.S. population.[27] The Environmental Working Group has also conducted biomonitoring studies.[28]

Biophysics

Main article: Biophysics
Photosynthetic reaction center.

Biophysics is an

bioengineering, agrophysics, and systems biology
. It has been suggested as a bridge between biology and physics.

Biopolymers

Main article: Biopolymer

Biopolymers are

polysaccharides, which are often linear bonded polymeric carbohydrate structures.[30][31][32][33]

Biotechnology

Main article: Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity, Art. 2).

bioengineering and biomedical engineering
.

For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production, and medicine.

recombinant gene technologies, applied immunology, and development of pharmaceutical therapies and diagnostic tests.[36]

Botany

Main article: Botany
Plants move or grow in a particular direction in response to external stimuli. Here the
Venus fly trap
, Dionaea muscipula, shows dramatic touch sensitivity.

Botany is the science of

environmental management, and the maintenance of biodiversity.[citation needed
]

Cell biology

Main article: Cell biology

Cell biology studies

organisms such as humans, plants, and sponges. Cell biology is fundamental to all biological sciences, especially molecular biology cancer research, and developmental biology
.

Cognitive neuroscience

Main article: Cognitive neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrates underlying cognition,[37] with a specific focus on the neural substrates of mental processes. It addresses the questions of how psychological/cognitive functions are produced by the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both psychology and neuroscience, overlapping with disciplines such as physiological psychology, cognitive psychology and neuropsychology.[38] Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in cognitive science coupled with evidence from neuropsychology, and computational modeling.[38]

Due to its multidisciplinary nature, cognitive neuroscientists may have various backgrounds. Other than the associated disciplines just mentioned, cognitive neuroscientists may have backgrounds in these disciplines: neurobiology,

bioengineering, psychiatry, neurology, physics, computer science, linguistics, philosophy and mathematics
.

Methods employed in cognitive neuroscience include experimental paradigms from

behavioral genetics. Studies of patients with cognitive deficits due to brain lesions constitute an important aspect of cognitive neuroscience (see neuropsychology). Theoretical approaches include computational neuroscience and cognitive psychology
.

Computational neuroscience

Main article: Computational neuroscience

Computational neuroscience is the study of

brain function in terms of the information processing properties of the structures that make up the nervous system.[39] It is an interdisciplinary science that links the diverse fields of neuroscience, cognitive science, and psychology with electrical engineering, computer science, mathematics, and physics
.

Computational neuroscience is distinct from psychological

neural networks, and computational learning theory in that it emphasizes descriptions of functional and biologically realistic neurons (and neural systems) and their physiology and dynamics. These models capture the essential features of the biological system at multiple spatial-temporal scales, from membrane currents, proteins, and chemical coupling to network oscillations
, columnar and topographic architecture, and learning and memory.

These computational models are used to frame hypotheses that can be directly tested by biological and/or psychological experiments.

Conservation biology

Main article: Conservation biology

Conservation biology is the scientific study of the nature and status of

ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.[40][41][42] It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.[43][44][45][46]

Developmental biology

Main article: Developmental biology

Developmental biology is the study of the process by which

aging.[47]

Ecology

Main article: Ecology
sea anemones
.

Ecology is the

adaptations
to the environment.

Ecology is an

basic and applied science, and human social interaction (human ecology
).

Organisms and resources compose

water filtration, soil formation
, erosion control, flood protection and many other natural features of scientific, historical, economic, or intrinsic value.

Environmental science

Main article: Environmental science

Environmental science is a

oceanology, limnology, soil science, geology, atmospheric science, and geography
) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems.

Ethology

Main article: Ethology

Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, and is a sub-topic of

behaviourism, which focuses on behavioural response studies in a laboratory
setting.

Evolutionary biology

Main article: Evolutionary biology

Evolutionary biology is a sub-field of biology concerned with the study of the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth. Someone who studies evolutionary biology is known as an evolutionary biologist. Evolutionary biologists study the descent of species, and the origin of new species.

Evolutionary genetics

Main article:
Evolutionary genetics

The modern evolutionary synthesis is a 20th-century union of ideas from several biological specialties which provides a widely accepted account of evolution. It is also referred to as the new synthesis, the modern synthesis, the evolutionary synthesis, millennium synthesis and the neo-Darwinian synthesis.

The synthesis, produced between 1936 and 1947, reflects the consensus about how evolution proceeds.[49] The previous development of population genetics, between 1918 and 1932, was a stimulus, as it showed that Mendelian genetics was consistent with natural selection and gradual evolution. The synthesis is still, to a large extent, the current paradigm in evolutionary biology.[50]

The modern synthesis solved difficulties and confusions caused by the specialisation and poor communication between biologists in the early years of the 20th century. At its heart was the question of whether Mendelian genetics could be reconciled with gradual evolution by means of natural selection. A second issue was whether the broad-scale changes (macroevolution) seen by palaeontologists could be explained by changes seen in local populations (microevolution).

The synthesis included evidence from biologists, trained in genetics, who studied populations in the field and in the laboratory. These studies were crucial to evolutionary theory. The synthesis drew together ideas from several branches of biology which had become separated, particularly genetics, cytology, systematics, botany, morphology, ecology and paleontology.

Food science

Main article: Food science

panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological, physical (texture and rheology) and chemical testing.[51][52][53][54]

Genetics

Main article: Genetics
Morgan's observation of sex-linked inheritance of a mutation causing white eyes in Drosophila led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes.

Genetics, a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms.[55][56]

Genetics is the process of trait inheritance from parents to offspring, including the

molecular structure and function of genes, gene behavior in the context of a cell or organism (e.g. dominance and epigenetics), gene distribution, and variation and change in populations. Given that genes are universal to living organisms, genetics can be applied to the study of all living systems, including bacteria, plants, animals, and humans. The observation that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding.[57] The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century.[58]

Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of a gene. A more modern working definition of a gene is a portion (or sequence) of DNA that codes for a known cellular function. This portion of DNA is variable, it may be small or large, have a few subregions or many subregions. The word "Gene" refers to portions of DNA that are required for a single cellular process or single function, more than the word refers to a single tangible item. A quick idiom that is often used (but not always true) is "one gene, one protein" meaning a singular gene codes for a singular protein type in a cell. Another analogy is that a "gene" is like a "sentence" and "nucleotides" are like "letters". A series of nucleotides can be put together without forming a gene (non-coding regions of DNA), like a string of letters can be put together without forming a sentence (babble). Nonetheless, all sentences must have letters, like all genes must have nucleotides.

The sequence of nucleotides in a gene is read and

sickle cell anemia). When a gene change occurs, it is referred to as a mutation
.

Genetics acts in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior. Genes may be activated or inactivated, as determined by a cell's or organism's intra- or extra-cellular environment. For example, while genes play a role in determining human height, an individual's nutrition and health during childhood also have a large effect.

Genomics

Main article: Genomics

Genomics is a discipline in

genetic mapping. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis, pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome.[61] In contrast, the investigation of the roles and functions of single genes is a primary focus of molecular biology or genetics and is a common topic of modern medical and biological research. Research of single genes does not fall into the definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks.[62][63]

Health Sciences

Main article:
Health Sciences

The

health sciences
are a key branch of the life sciences, comprising all divisions of medicine and medical sciences.

Immunogenetics

Main article: Immunogenetics

Immunogenetics or immungenetics is the branch of medical research that explores the relationship between the immune system and genetics.

Autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes, are complex genetic traits which result from defects in the immune system. Identification of genes defining the immune defects may identify new target genes for therapeutic approaches. Alternatively, genetic variations can also help to define the immunological pathway leading to disease.

Immunology

Main article: Immunology

Immunology is a branch of

immune deficiency, transplant rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro, in situ, and in vivo
. Immunology has applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

Even before the concept of

immunity (from immunis, Latin for "exempt") was developed, numerous early physicians characterized organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system are the thymus and bone marrow, and secondary lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, and skin and liver. When health conditions warrant, immune system organs including the thymus, spleen, portions of bone marrow, lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be surgically
excised for examination while patients are still alive.

Many components of the immune system are actually

tissues
located throughout the body.

Immunotherapy

Main article: Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is a medical term defined as the "treatment of disease by inducing, enhancing, or suppressing an immune response".[65] Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as activation immunotherapies, while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as suppression immunotherapies.

Kinesiology

Main article: Kinesiology

Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of

orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise.[66] Individuals who have earned degrees in kinesiology can work in research, the fitness industry, clinical settings, and in industrial environments.[67] Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques.[68][69]

Marine biology

Coral reefs form complex marine ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity.
Main article: Marine biology

Marine biology is the scientific study of organisms in the

environment rather than on taxonomy. Marine biology differs from marine ecology as marine ecology is focused on how organisms interact with each other and the environment, and biology
is the study of the organisms themselves.

A large proportion of all

cetaceans
(whales) 30 meters (98 feet) in length.

Medical devices

Main article: Medical device

A medical device is an instrument, apparatus, implant, in vitro reagent, or similar or related article that is used to diagnose, prevent, or treat disease or other conditions, and does not achieve its purposes through chemical action within or on the body (which would make it a drug).[71] Whereas medicinal products (also called pharmaceuticals) achieve their principal action by pharmacological, metabolic or immunological means, medical devices act by other means like physical, mechanical, or thermal means.

Medical devices vary greatly in complexity and application. Examples range from simple devices such as

prostheses. The design of medical devices constitutes a major segment of the field of biomedical engineering
.

The global medical device market reached roughly 209 billion US Dollars in 2006.[72]

Medical imaging

Main article: Medical imaging
MRI of the head, with aliasing
artifacts (nose and forehead appear at the back of the head)

Medical imaging is the technique and process used to create images of the human body (or parts and function thereof) for clinical purposes (medical procedures seeking to reveal, diagnose, or examine disease) or medical science (including the study of normal

organs and tissues can be performed for medical reasons, such procedures are not usually referred to as medical imaging, but rather are a part of pathology.[73] Examples of medical imaging include:[74]

Medical Social Work

Main article: Medical social work

Medical social work is a sub-discipline of

hospice
, have a graduate degree in the field, and work with patients and their families in need of psychosocial help. Medical social workers assess the psychosocial functioning of patients and families and intervene as necessary. Interventions may include connecting patients and families to necessary resources and supports in the community; providing psychotherapy, supportive counselling, or grief counselling; or helping a patient to expand and strengthen their network of social supports.

Medical social workers typically work on an interdisciplinary team with professionals of other disciplines (such as medicine, nursing, physical, occupational, speech and recreational therapy).

Microbiology

Main article: Microbiology
An agar plate streaked with microorganisms

Microbiology is the study of

acellular (lacking cells).[75] Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, mycology, parasitology, and bacteriology
.

Molecular biology

Main article: Molecular biology

Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between the different types of DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis as well as learning how these interactions are regulated.

Neuroethology

Main article: Neuroethology

Neuroethology is the evolutionary and comparative approach study of animal behavior and the understanding of an animal's nervous system. [76]

Neuroscience

Main article: Neuroscience
Illustration from Gray's Anatomy (1918) of a lateral view of the human brain, featuring the hippocampus among other neuroanatomical features

Neuroscience is a branch of biology that deals with the study of the

interdisciplinary science that collaborates with other fields such as chemistry, computer science, engineering, linguistics, mathematics, medicine and allied disciplines, philosophy, physics, and psychology. It also exerts influence on other fields, such as neuroeducation[78] and neurolaw
.

Oncology

Main article: Oncology

Oncology is the study of medicine that deals with cancer, including a person's diagnosis and therapy of cancer.[79]

Optogenetics

Main article: Optogenetics

Optogenetics is a neuromodulation technique employed in neuroscience that uses a combination of techniques from optics and genetics to control and monitor the activities of individual neurons in living tissue—even within freely-moving animals—and to precisely measure the effects of those manipulations in real-time.[80] The key reagents used in optogenetics are light-sensitive proteins. Spatially-precise neuronal control is achieved using optogenetic actuators like channelrhodopsin, halorhodopsin, and archaerhodopsin, while temporally-precise recordings can be made with the help of optogenetic sensors like Clomeleon, Mermaid, and SuperClomeleon.[81]

The earliest approaches were developed and applied in the lab of Gero Miesenböck,[82][83] now Waynflete Professor of Physiology at the University of Oxford,[84] and Richard Kramer and Ehud Isacoff at the University of California, Berkeley; these methods conferred light sensitivity but were never reported to be useful by other laboratories due to the multiple components these approaches required. A distinct single-component approach involving microbial opsin genes introduced in 2005 turned out to be widely applied, as described below. Optogenetics is known for the high spatial and temporal resolution that it provides in altering the activity of specific types of neurons within defined brain areas to control a subject's behavior.

Optometry

Main article: Optometry

Optometry is a

health care profession concerned with the health of the eyes and related structures, as well as vision, visual systems, and vision information processing
in humans.

Parasitology

Main article: Parasitology
Adult black fly (Simulium yahense) with (Onchocerca volvulus) emerging from the insect's antenna. The parasite is responsible for the disease known as river blindness in Africa.

'Parasitology is the study of

biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question, but by their way of life. This means it forms a synthesis of other disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields such as cell biology, bioinformatics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, genetics, evolution and ecology
.

Pathology

Main article: Pathology

Pathology is the precise study and

psychological (e.g. psychopathy) or physical disease (e.g. cardiomyopathy).[85] A physician
practicing pathology is called a pathologist.

Pathology addresses four components of disease: cause/etiology, mechanisms of development (pathogenesis), structural alterations of cells (morphologic changes), and the consequences of changes (clinical manifestations).[86]

Pathology is further separated into divisions, based on either the system being studied (e.g. dermatopathology) or the focus of the examination (e.g. forensic pathology and determining the cause of death).

Pharmacogenomics

Main article: Pharmacogenomics

Pharmacogenomics (a portmanteau of pharmacology and genomics) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs.[87] It deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's efficacy or toxicity.[88]

Pharmaceutical sciences

Main article:
Pharmaceutical sciences

The pharmaceutical sciences are a group of

interdisciplinary areas of study concerned with the design, action, delivery, disposition, inorganic, physical, biochemical and analytical biology (anatomy and physiology, biochemistry, cell biology, and molecular biology), epidemiology, statistics, chemometrics, mathematics, physics, and chemical engineering
, and applies their principles to the study of drugs.

Pharmacology

Main article: Pharmacology
A variety of topics involved with pharmacology, including neuropharmacology, renal pharmacology, human metabolism, intracellular metabolism, and intracellular regulation

Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and

pharmaceuticals
.

Physiology

Main article: Physiology

Physiology is the scientific study of

organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
.

Population dynamics

Main article: Population dynamics

Population dynamics is the study of short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of

ageing populations or population decline
.

Proteomics

Main article: Proteomics

Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions.[91][92]

Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological

cells. The proteome is the entire set of proteins,[93]
produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes.

Psychiatric social work

Psychiatric social work is one of the oldest

mental illness.[95]

Psychology

Main article: Psychology

Psychology is an academic and

mental functions and behaviors.[96][97] Psychology has the immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases,[98][99] and by many accounts it ultimately aims to benefit society.[100][101] In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist
.

Sports science

Main article: Sports science

Sport science is a discipline that studies the application of treatment and prevention of injuries related to sports medicine. The study of sport science traditionally incorporates areas of physiology, psychology, and biomechanics but also includes other topics such as nutrition and diet,

Sport scientists and performance consultants are growing in demand and employment numbers, with the ever-increasing focus within the sporting world on achieving the best results possible. Through the study of science and sport, researchers have developed a greater understanding on how the human body reacts to exercise, training, different environments and many other stimuli.

Structural biology

Main article: Structural biology

Structural biology is a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules, especially proteins and nucleic acids, how they acquire the structures they have, and how alterations in their structures affect their function. This subject is of great interest to biologists because macromolecules carry out most of the functions of cells, and because it is only by coiling into specific three-dimensional shapes that they are able to perform these functions.

sequences
that give rise to particular shapes.

Systems biology

Main article: Systems biology

Systems biology is a

metabolic networks or cell signaling networks.[102]

Zoology

Main article: Zoology

Zoology is the branch of

Animal physiology, Behavioral ecology, Ethology, Invertebrate Zoology, Vertebrate Zoology and Comparative Zoology. Taxonomically oriented disciplines such as mammalogy, herpetology, ornithology and entomology identify and classify species
and study aspects specific to those groups.

Education and degrees

Scientific societies

See also

References

  1. ^ "Life Sciences". Empire State Development Corporation. Government of New York. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
  2. ISBN 0-7923-0682-1
    .
  3. ^ "Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918". Archived from the original on 16 March 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
  4. ^ Cockell, Charles S. (4 October 2012). "How the search for aliens can help sustain life on Earth". CNN News. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
  5. ^ "About Astrobiology". NASA Astrobiology Institute. NASA. 21 January 2008. Archived from the original on 11 October 2008. Retrieved 20 October 2008.
  6. ^ "Scientists will look for alien life, but Where and How?". ITWire. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  7. ISBN 0-8050-7512-7
    .
  8. ^ [1][dead link]
  9. ^ "scientific term 'biochemistry'".
  10. ISBN 9780520218017. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help
    )
  11. ^ Florian Leiber, Nikolai Fuchs and Hartmut Spieß, "Biodynamic agriculture today", in Paul Kristiansen, Acram Taji, and John Reganold (2006), Organic Agriculture: A global perspective, Collingwood, AU: CSIRO Publishing
  12. ^ Paull, John (2011). "Attending the First Organic Agriculture Course: Rudolf Steiner's Agriculture Course at Koberwitz, 1924" (PDF). European Journal of Social Sciences'. 21 (1): 64–70.
  13. ^ Lotter, D.W. 2003."Organic agriculture" J. Sustainable Agriculture 21(4)
  14. ^ Richard Harwood, former C.S. Mott Chair for Sustainable Agriculture at Michigan State University, calls the biodynamic movement the "first organized and well-defined movement of growers and philosophies [in sustainable agriculture] (Harwood 1990; p.6).
  15. ^ Based on definition from: "Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms". Texas State University at San Marcos. Archived from the original on 2004-06-08.
  16. ^ "Life Science, Weber State Museum of Natural Science". Community.weber.edu. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
  17. ^ R. McNeill Alexander (2005) Mechanics of animal movement, Current Biology Volume 15, Issue 16, 23 August 2005, Pages R616-R619.
  18. ^ Hatze, Herbert (1974). "The meaning of the term biomechanics". Journal of Biomechanics. 7 (2): 189–190.
    PMID 4837555
    .
  19. ^ "The Future of the Healthcare Science Workforce. Modernising Scientific Careers: The Next Steps". 26 Nov 2008. p. 2. Retrieved 1 June 2011.
  20. ^ "biomedicine (applies biological, physiological) - Memidex dictionary/thesaurus". memidex.com. 2012-10-08. Retrieved 2012-10-20.
  21. ^ "biomedicine - The Free Dictionary". 2013. Retrieved 2013-05-15.
  22. ^ "What is body burden?". Chemicalbodyburden.org. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  23. ^ "Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – National Center for Environmental Health. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
  24. ^ "What is Biomonitoring?" (PDF). American Chemistry Council. Retrieved 11 January 2009.
  25. PMID 17376741
    .
  26. ^ Porta M, et al. Monitoring concentrations of persistent organic pollutants in the general population: the international experience. Environment International 2008; 34: 546–561.
  27. ^ "About the Program". cdc.gov. Centers for Disease Control. 3 April 2008. Retrieved 25 May 2009.
  28. ^ "About the Human Toxome Project". Human Toxome Project. Environmental Working Group. Retrieved 30 September 2009.
  29. ^ https://www.biophysics.org/Portals/1/PDFs/Career%20Center/Careers%20In%20Biophysics.pdf
  30. ^ Mohanty, A.K., et al., Natural Fibers, Biopolymers, and Biocomposites (CRC Press, 2005)
  31. ^ Chandra, R., and Rustgi, R., "Biodegradable Polymers", Progress in Polymer Science, Vol. 23, p. 1273 (1998)
  32. ^ Meyers, M.A., et al., "Biological Materials: Structure & Mechanical Properties", Progress in Materials Science, Vol. 53, p. 1 (2008)
  33. ^ Kumar, A., et al., "Smart Polymers: Physical Forms & Bioengineering Applications", Progress in Polymer Science, Vol. 32, p.1205 (2007)
  34. ^ Text of the CBD. Cbd.int. Retrieved on 2013-03-20.
  35. ^ "Incorporating Biotechnology into the Classroom What is Biotechnology?", from the curricula of the 'Incorporating Biotechnology into the High School Classroom through Arizona State University's BioREACH PROGRAM', accessed on October 16, 2012. Public.asu.edu. Retrieved on 2013-03-20.
  36. ^ Incorporating Biotechnology into the Classroom – What is Biotechnology?, from Incorporating Biotechnology into the High School Classroom through Arizona State University's BioREACH PROGRAM, Arizona State University, Microbiology Department, retrieved October 16, 2012. Public.asu.edu. Retrieved on 2013-03-20.
  37. ^ Gazzaniga, Ivry and Mangun 2002, cf. title
  38. ^ a b Gazzaniga 2002, p. xv
  39. ^ What is computational neuroscience? Patricia S. Churchland, Christof Koch, Terrence J. Sejnowski. in Computational Neuroscience pp.46-55. Edited by Eric L. Schwartz. 1993. MIT Press [2]
  40. PMID 18198148.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  41. ISBN 0-87893-800-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  42. JSTOR 1310054
    .
  43. ISBN 978-0-87893-795-0
    .
  44. ISBN 0-86542-371-7
    .
  45. ISBN 0-87893-518-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  46. ISBN 978-1-4020-6890-4
    .
  47. ^ Wolpert L, Beddington R, Jessell T, Lawrence P, Meyerowitz E, Smith J (1998). Principles of development (1st ed.). Oxford university press. p. 437.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ^ "Definition of ETHOLOGY". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 7 February 2014. 2 : the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour especially under natural conditions
  49. ISBN -0-309-06406-6
    . Retrieved September 24, 2009. The scientific consensus around evolution is overwhelming.
  50. ^ Mayr 2002, p. 270
  51. ^ Geller, Martinne (22 January 2014). "Nestle teams up with Singapore for food science research". Reuters. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  52. ^ "Food science to fight obesity". Euronews. 9 December 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  53. ^ Wood, David (31 August 2007). "Nothing Simple about Food Dating, Expiration Dates or 'Use-By' Dates". ConsumerAffairs. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  54. Wired
    . Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  55. ISBN 0-7167-3520-2
    .
  56. ^ Hartl D, Jones E (2005)
  57. ISBN 978-0-7566-6490-9
    .
  58. PMID 1887835
    .
  59. ^ National Human Genome Research Institute (2010-11-08). "A Brief Guide to Genomics". Genome.gov. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
  60. ISBN 9780321724120
    .
  61. ISBN 9780470085851
    .
  62. ^ National Human Genome Research Institute (2010-11-08). "FAQ About Genetic and Genomic Science". Genome.gov. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
  63. ISBN 0028656067. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |editor= has generic name (help
    )
  64. ^ Janeway's Immunobiology textbook Searchable free online version at the National Center for Biotechnology Information
  65. ^ "immunotherapies definition". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2009-06-02.
  66. ^ "Welcome to the Ontario Kinesiology Association". Oka.on.ca. Retrieved 2009-07-25.
  67. ^ "CKA - Canadian Kinesiology Alliance - Alliance Canadienne de Kinésiologie". Cka.ca. Retrieved 2009-07-25.
  68. ^ Bodo Rosenhahn, Reinhard Klette and Dimitris Metaxas (eds.). Human Motion - Understanding, Modelling, Capture and Animation. Volume 36 in 'Computational Imaging and Vision', Springer, Dordrecht, 2007
  69. ^ Ahmed Elgammal, Bodo Rosenhahn, and Reinhard Klette (eds.) Human Motion - Understanding, Modelling, Capture and Animation. 2nd Workshop, in conjunction with ICCV 2007, Rio de Janeiro, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, LNCS 4814, Springer, Berlin, 2007
  70. ^ Oceanographic and Bathymetric Features Marine Conservation Institute. Uploaded 18 September 2013.
  71. ^ Summarised from the FDA's definition as per http://www.fda.gov/medicaldevices/deviceregulationandguidance/overview/classifyyourdevice/ucm051512.htm
  72. ^ "Market Report: Wt". Acmite Market Intelligence. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  73. ^ "Imaging". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
  74. ^ "Diagnostic Imaging". National Institutes of Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
  75. ISBN 0-321-73551-X. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help
    )
  76. ^ Hoyle, G. (1984) The scope of Neuroethology. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 7:367-412.
  77. ^ "Medical Dictionary". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
  78. ^ Zull, J. (2002). The art of changing the brain: Enriching the practice of teaching by exploring the biology of learning. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, L.L.C.
  79. ^ "NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms - oncology". Cancer.gov. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  80. PMID 17035522
    .
  81. S2CID 206367530
    .
  82. S2CID 16391269
    .
  83. S2CID 14608546
    .
  84. ^ "Gero Miesenböck's Official Website". Retrieved 29 May 2013.
  85. ^ "Definition of -path in English". Oxford English Dictionary. OED. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
  86. ISBN 978-1-4160-3121-5
    .
  87. ^ Ermak G., Modern Science & Future Medicine (second edition), 164 p., 2013
  88. PMID 20836007
    .
  89. PMID 16402118
    .
  90. ISBN 0-471-85767-X
    .
  91. S2CID 28933890
    .
  92. PMID 10189717
    .
  93. S2CID 25320181.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  94. S2CID 9479496
    .
  95. ^ "Psychiatric Social Workers and How to Become One". SocialWorkLicensure.org. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  96. ^ "How does the APA define "psychology"?". Retrieved 15 November 2011.
  97. ^ "Definition of "Psychology (APA's Index Page)"". Retrieved 20 December 2011.
  98. ^ Fernald LD (2008). Psychology: Six perspectives (pp. 12–15). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
  99. ^ Hockenbury & Hockenbury. Psychology. Worth Publishers, 2010.
  100. ^ O'Neil, H.F.; cited in Coon, D.; Mitterer, J.O. (2008). Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind and behavior (12th ed., pp. 15–16). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.
  101. ^ "The mission of the APA [American Psychological Association] is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people’s lives"; APA (2010). About APA. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
  102. PMID 21570668. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help
    )

Further reading

External links

Category:Life

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Evad37/Life_sciences&oldid=1092226912"