Parthenon
Parthenon | |
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Παρθενώνας | |
Iktinos, Callicrates | |
Other designers | Phidias (sculptor) |
The Parthenon (
The Parthenon was built in thanksgiving for the Hellenic victory over Persian Empire invaders during the Greco-Persian Wars.[10] Like most Greek temples, the Parthenon also served as the city treasury.[11][12]
Construction started in 447 BC when the
The Parthenon replaced an older temple of Athena, which historians call the Pre-Parthenon or
Since 1975, numerous large-scale restoration projects have been undertaken to preserve remaining artifacts and ensure its structural integrity.[15][16]
Etymology
The origin of the word "Parthenon" comes from the Greek word parthénos (παρθένος), meaning "maiden, girl" as well as "virgin, unmarried woman". The Liddell–Scott–Jones
In 5th-century BC accounts of the building, the structure is simply called ὁ νᾱός (ho naos; lit. "the temple"). Douglas Frame writes that the name "Parthenon" was a nickname related to the statue of Athena Parthenos, and only appeared a century after construction. He contends that "Athena's temple was never officially called the Parthenon and she herself most likely never had the cult title parthénos".
A 2020 study by Janric van Rookhuijzen supports the idea that the building known today as the Parthenon was originally called the Hekatompedon. Based on literary and historical research, he proposes that "the treasury called the Parthenon should be recognized as the west part of the building now conventionally known as the Erechtheion".[26][27]
Because the Parthenon was dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena it has sometimes been referred to as the Temple of Minerva, the Roman name for Athena, particularly during the 19th century.[28]
Parthénos was also applied to the Virgin Mary (Parthénos Maria) when the Parthenon was converted to a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary in the final decade of the 6th century.[29]
Function
Although the Parthenon is architecturally a temple and is usually called so, some scholars have argued that it is not really a temple in the conventional sense of the word.
The colossal statue of Athena by Phidias was not specifically related to any cult attested by ancient authors[33] and is not known to have inspired any religious fervour.[31] Preserved ancient sources do not associate it with any priestess, altar or cult name.[34]
According to Thucydides, during the Peloponnesian War when Sparta's forces were first preparing to invade Attica, Pericles, in an address to the Athenian people, said that the statue could be used as a gold reserve if that was necessary to preserve Athens, stressing that it "contained forty talents of pure gold and it was all removable", but adding that the gold would afterward have to be restored.[35] The Athenian statesman thus implies that the metal, obtained from contemporary coinage,[36] could be used again if absolutely necessary without any impiety.[34] According to Aristotle, the building also contained golden figures that he described as "Victories".[37] The classicist Harris Rackham noted that eight of those figures were melted down for coinage during the Peloponnesian War.[38] Other Greek writers have claimed that treasures such as Persian swords were also stored inside the temple.[citation needed] Some scholars, therefore, argue that the Parthenon should be viewed as a grand setting for a monumental votive statue rather than as a cult site.[39]
Archaeologist
Older Parthenon
The first endeavour to build a sanctuary for Athena Parthenos on the site of the present Parthenon was begun shortly after the Battle of Marathon (c. 490–488 BC) upon a solid limestone foundation that extended and levelled the southern part of the Acropolis summit. This building replaced a Hekatompedon temple ("hundred-footer") and would have stood beside the archaic temple dedicated to Athena Polias ("of the city"). The Older or Pre-Parthenon, as it is frequently referred to, was still under construction when the Persians sacked the city in 480 BC razing the Acropolis.[51][52]
The existence of both the proto-Parthenon and its destruction were known from Herodotus,[53] and the drums of its columns were visibly built into the curtain wall north of the Erechtheion. Further physical evidence of this structure was revealed with the excavations of Panagiotis Kavvadias of 1885–1890. The findings of this dig allowed Wilhelm Dörpfeld, then director of the German Archaeological Institute, to assert that there existed a distinct substructure to the original Parthenon, called Parthenon I by Dörpfeld, not immediately below the present edifice as previously assumed.[54] Dörpfeld's observation was that the three steps of the first Parthenon consisted of two steps of Poros limestone, the same as the foundations, and a top step of Karrha limestone that was covered by the lowest step of the Periclean Parthenon. This platform was smaller and slightly to the north of the final Parthenon, indicating that it was built for a different building, now completely covered over. This picture was somewhat complicated by the publication of the final report on the 1885–1890 excavations, indicating that the substructure was contemporary with the Kimonian walls, and implying a later date for the first temple.[55]
If the original Parthenon was indeed destroyed in 480, it invites the question of why the site was left as a ruin for thirty-three years. One argument involves the oath sworn by the Greek allies before the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC[56] declaring that the sanctuaries destroyed by the Persians would not be rebuilt, an oath from which the Athenians were only absolved with the Peace of Callias in 450.[57] The cost of reconstructing Athens after the Persian sack is at least as likely a cause. The excavations of Bert Hodge Hill led him to propose the existence of a second Parthenon, begun in the period of Kimon after 468.[58] Hill claimed that the Karrha limestone step Dörpfeld thought was the highest of Parthenon I was the lowest of the three steps of Parthenon II, whose stylobate dimensions Hill calculated at 23.51 by 66.888 metres (77.13 ft × 219.45 ft).
One difficulty in dating the proto-Parthenon is that at the time of the 1885 excavation, the archaeological method of seriation was not fully developed; the careless digging and refilling of the site led to a loss of much valuable information. An attempt to make sense of the potsherds found on the Acropolis came with the two-volume study by Graef and Langlotz published in 1925–1933.[59] This inspired American archaeologist William Bell Dinsmoor to give limiting dates for the temple platform and the five walls hidden under the re-terracing of the Acropolis. Dinsmoor concluded that the latest possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier than 495 BC, contradicting the early date given by Dörpfeld.[60] He denied that there were two proto-Parthenons, and held that the only pre-Periclean temple was what Dörpfeld referred to as Parthenon II. Dinsmoor and Dörpfeld exchanged views in the American Journal of Archaeology in 1935.[61]
Present building
In the mid-5th century BC, when the Athenian Acropolis became the seat of the
The Parthenon was built primarily by men who knew how to work marble. These quarrymen had exceptional skills and were able to cut the blocks of marble to very specific measurements. The quarrymen also knew how to avoid the faults, which were numerous in the
A big project like the Parthenon attracted stonemasons from far and wide who travelled to Athens to assist in the project. Slaves and foreigners worked together with the Athenian citizens in the building of the Parthenon, doing the same jobs for the same pay. Temple building was a specialized craft, and there were not many men in Greece qualified to build temples like the Parthenon, so these men would travel and work where they were needed.[62]
Other craftsmen were necessary for the building of the Parthenon, specifically carpenters and metalworkers. Unskilled labourers also had key roles in the building of the Parthenon. They loaded and unloaded the marble blocks and moved the blocks from place to place. In order to complete a project like the Parthenon, many different labourers were needed.[62]
Architecture
The Parthenon is a
The Parthenon has been described as "the culmination of the development of the Doric order".
Measured at the stylobate, the dimensions of the base of the Parthenon are 69.5 by 30.9 metres (228 by 101 ft). The cella was 29.8 metres long by 19.2 metres wide (97.8 × 63.0 ft). On the exterior, the Doric columns measure 1.9 metres (6.2 ft) in diameter and are 10.4 metres (34 ft) high. The corner columns are slightly larger in diameter. The Parthenon had 46 outer columns and 23 inner columns in total, each column having 20 flutes. (A flute is the concave shaft carved into the column form.) The roof was covered with large overlapping marble tiles known as imbrices and tegulae.[66][67]
The Parthenon is regarded as the finest example of Greek architecture.
It is not universally agreed what the intended effect of these "optical refinements" was. They may serve as a sort of "reverse optical illusion".[72] As the Greeks may have been aware, two parallel lines appear to bow, or curve outward, when intersected by converging lines. In this case, the ceiling and floor of the temple may seem to bow in the presence of the surrounding angles of the building. Striving for perfection, the designers may have added these curves, compensating for the illusion by creating their own curves, thus negating this effect and allowing the temple to be seen as they intended. It is also suggested that it was to enliven what might have appeared an inert mass in the case of a building without curves. But the comparison ought to be, according to Smithsonian historian Evan Hadingham, with the Parthenon's more obviously curved predecessors than with a notional rectilinear temple.[73]
Some studies of the Acropolis, including of the Parthenon and its facade, have conjectured that many of its proportions approximate the golden ratio.[74] More recent studies have shown that the proportions of the Parthenon do not match the golden proportion.[75][76]
Sculpture
The cella of the Parthenon housed the chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos sculpted by Phidias and dedicated in 439 or 438 BC. The appearance of this is known from other images. The decorative stonework was originally highly coloured.[77] The temple was dedicated to Athena at that time, though construction continued until almost the beginning of the Peloponnesian War in 432. By the year 438, the Doric metopes on the frieze above the exterior colonnade and the Ionic frieze around the upper portion of the walls of the cella had been completed.[citation needed]
Only a small number of the original sculptures remain in situ. Most of the surviving sculptures are at the Acropolis Museum in Athens and (controversially) at the British Museum in London (see Elgin Marbles). Additional pieces are at the Louvre, the National Museum of Denmark, and Vienna.[78]
In March 2022, the Acropolis Museum launched a new website with "photographs of all the frieze blocks preserved today in the Acropolis Museum, the British Museum and the Louvre".[79]
Metopes
The frieze of the Parthenon's entablature contained 92
The mythological figures of the metopes of the East, North, and West sides of the Parthenon had been deliberately mutilated by Christian iconoclasts in late antiquity.[82]
The metopes present examples of the
In March 2011, archaeologists announced that they had discovered five
Frieze
The most characteristic feature in the architecture and decoration of the temple is the Ionic frieze running around the exterior of the cella walls. The bas-relief frieze was carved in situ and is dated to 442–438.[citation needed]
One interpretation is that it depicts an idealized version of the
Pediments
Two pediments rise above the portals of the Parthenon, one on the east front, one on the west. The triangular sections once contained massive sculptures that, according to the second-century geographer Pausanias, recounted the birth of Athena and the mythological battle between Athena and Poseidon for control of Athens.[89]
East pediment
The east pediment originally contained 10 to 12 sculptures depicting the Birth of Athena. Most of those pieces were removed and lost during renovations in either the eighth or the twelfth century.[90] Only two corners remain today with figures depicting the passage of time over the course of a full day. Tethrippa of Helios is in the left corner and Selene is on the right. The horses of Helios's chariot are shown with livid expressions as they ascend into the sky at the start of the day. Selene's horses struggle to stay on the pediment scene as the day comes to an end.[91][92]
West pediment
The supporters of Athena are extensively illustrated at the back of the left chariot, while the defenders of Poseidon are shown trailing behind the right chariot. It is believed that the corners of the pediment are filled by Athenian water deities, such as the
Every statue on the west pediment has a fully completed back, which would have been impossible to see when the sculpture was on the temple; this indicates that the sculptors put great effort into accurately portraying the human body.[94]
Athena Parthenos
The only piece of sculpture from the Parthenon known to be from the hand of Phidias[96] was the statue of Athena housed in the naos. This massive chryselephantine sculpture is now lost and known only from copies, vase painting, gems, literary descriptions, and coins.[97]
Later history
Late antiquity
A major fire broke out in the Parthenon shortly after the middle of the third century AD.
The Parthenon survived as a temple dedicated to Athena for nearly 1,000 years until
At some point in the fifth century, Athena's great
Christian church
The Parthenon was converted into a
The Parthenon became the fourth most important Christian pilgrimage destination in the
At the time of the
The rediscovery of the Parthenon as an ancient monument dates back to the period of Humanism; Cyriacus of Ancona was the first after antiquity to describe the Parthenon, of which he had read many times in ancient texts. Thanks to him, Western Europe was able to have the first design of the monument, which Ciriaco called "temple of the goddess Athena", unlike previous travellers, who had called it "church of Virgin Mary":[112]
...mirabile Palladis Divae marmoreum templum, divum quippe opus Phidiae ("...the wonderful temple of the goddess Athena, a divine work of Phidias").
Islamic mosque
In 1456,
The precise circumstances under which the Turks appropriated it for use as a mosque are unclear; one account states that Mehmed II ordered its conversion as punishment for an Athenian plot against Ottoman rule.[117] The apse was repurposed into a mihrab,[118] the tower previously constructed during the Roman Catholic occupation of the Parthenon was extended upwards to become a minaret,[119] a minbar was installed,[107] the Christian altar and iconostasis were removed, and the walls were whitewashed to cover icons of Christian saints and other Christian imagery.[120]
Despite the alterations accompanying the Parthenon's conversion into a church and subsequently a mosque, its structure had remained basically intact.[121] In 1667, the Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi expressed marvel at the Parthenon's sculptures and figuratively described the building as "like some impregnable fortress not made by human agency".[122] He composed a poetic supplication stating that, as "a work less of human hands than of Heaven itself, [it] should remain standing for all time".[123] The French artist Jacques Carrey in 1674 visited the Acropolis and sketched the Parthenon's sculptural decorations.[124] Early in 1687, an engineer named Plantier sketched the Parthenon for the Frenchman Graviers d'Ortières.[100] These depictions, particularly Carrey's, provide important, and sometimes the only, evidence of the condition of the Parthenon and its various sculptures prior to the devastation it suffered in late 1687 and the subsequent looting of its art objects.[124]
Destruction
As part of the
On 26 September 1687 a Venetian mortar round, fired from the Hill of Philopappos, blew up the magazine.[102][126] The explosion blew out the building's central portion and caused the cella's walls to crumble into rubble.[121] According to Greek architect and archaeologist Kornilia Chatziaslani:[100]
...three of the sanctuary's four walls nearly collapsed and three-fifths of the sculptures from the frieze fell. Nothing of the roof apparently remained in place. Six columns from the south side fell, eight from the north, as well as whatever remained from the eastern porch, except for one column. The columns brought down with them the enormous marble architraves, triglyphs, and metopes.
About three hundred people were killed in the explosion, which showered marble fragments over nearby Turkish defenders[125] and sparked fires that destroyed many homes.[100]
Accounts written at the time conflict over whether this destruction was deliberate or accidental; one such account, written by the German officer Sobievolski, states that a Turkish deserter revealed to Morosini the use to which the Turks had put the Parthenon; expecting that the Venetians would not target a building of such historic importance. Morosini was said to have responded by directing his artillery to aim at the Parthenon.[100][125] Subsequently, Morosini sought to loot sculptures from the ruin and caused further damage in the process. Sculptures of Poseidon and Athena's horses fell to the ground and smashed as his soldiers tried to detach them from the building's west pediment.[108][127]
In 1688 the Venetians abandoned Athens to avoid a confrontation with a large force the Turks had assembled at Chalcis; at that time, the Venetians had considered blowing up what remained of the Parthenon along with the rest of the Acropolis to deny its further use as a fortification to the Turks, but that idea was not pursued.[125]
Once the Turks had recaptured the Acropolis, they used some of the rubble produced by this explosion to erect a smaller mosque within the shell of the ruined Parthenon.[128] For the next century and a half, parts of the remaining structure were looted for building material and especially valuable objects.[129]
The 18th century was a period of
Independent Greece
When independent Greece gained control of Athens in 1832, the visible section of the minaret was demolished; only its base and spiral staircase up to the level of the
Dispute over the marbles
The dispute centres around those of the Parthenon Marbles removed by Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, from 1801 to 1803, which are in the British Museum.[14] A few sculptures from the Parthenon are also in the Louvre in Paris, in Copenhagen, and elsewhere, while more than half are in the Acropolis Museum in Athens.[19][134] A few can still be seen on the building itself. The Greek government has campaigned since 1983 for the British Museum to return the sculptures to Greece.[134] The British Museum has consistently refused to return the sculptures,[135] and successive British governments have been unwilling to force the museum to do so (which would require legislation). Talks between senior representatives from Greek and British cultural ministries and their legal advisors took place in London on 4 May 2007. These were the first serious negotiations for several years, and there were hopes that the two sides might move a step closer to a resolution.[136]
In December 2022, the British newspaper The Guardian published a story with quotes from Greek government officials that suggested negotiations to return the marbles were underway and a "credible" solution was being discussed.[137]
Four pieces of the sculptures have been repatriated to Greece: 3 from the Vatican, and 1 from a museum in Sicily.[138]
Restoration
An organized effort to preserve and restore buildings on the Acropolis began in 1975, when the Greek government established the Committee for the Conservation of the Acropolis Monuments (ESMA). That group of interdisciplinary specialist scholars oversees the academic understanding of the site to guide restoration efforts.
A crane was installed for moving marble blocks; the crane was designed to fold away beneath the roofline when not in use.[140] In some cases, prior re-constructions were found to be incorrect. These were dismantled, and a careful process of restoration began.[141]
Originally, various blocks were held together by elongated iron H pins that were completely coated in lead, which protected the iron from corrosion. Stabilizing pins added in the 19th century were not so coated, and corroded. Since the corrosion product (rust) is expansive, the expansion caused further damage by cracking the marble.[142]
In 2019, Greece's Central Archaeological Council approved a restoration of the interior cella's north wall (along with parts of others). The project will reinstate as many as 360 ancient stones, and install 90 new pieces of
See also
- Ancient Greek architecture
- Knossos
- List of Ancient Greek temples
- National Monument of Scotland, Edinburgh
- Palermo Fragment
- Parthenon, Nashville – Full-scale replica
- Stripped Classicism
- Temple of Hephaestus
- Walhalla temple Regensburg– Exterior modelled on the Parthenon, but the interior is a hall of fame for distinguished Germans
References
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The Parthenon (Plate 1, Fig. 17) is probably the most celebrated of all Greek temples.
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According to one authority, John Travlos, this occurred when Athens was sacked by the Heruli in AD 267, at which time the two-tiered colonnade in the cella was destroyed.
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- ISBN 978-1-85043-595-2.
- ISBN 978-90-04-27677-2.
- ISBN 978-0-7112-2822-1.
- ISBN 9780674659629. Archived from the originalon 22 October 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-85043-595-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8050-8785-7.
- ISBN 978-0-521-42834-7.
- ^ a b c Kaldellis, Anthony (2007). "A Heretical (Orthodox) History of the Parthenon" (PDF). University of Michigan. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2009.
- ISBN 9780521417860– via Google Books.
- ^ E.W. Bodnar, Cyriacus of Ancona and Athens, Brussels-Berchem, 1960.
- ISBN 978-0-691-01078-6.
- ^ Tomkinson, John L. "Ottoman Athens I: Early Ottoman Athens (1456–1689)". Anagnosis Books. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012. "In 1466 the Parthenon was referred to as a church, so it seems likely that for some time at least, it continued to function as a cathedral, being restored to the use of the Greek archbishop."
- ^ Tomkinson, John L. "Ottoman Athens I: Early Ottoman Athens (1456–1689)". Anagnosis Books. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012. "Some time later – we do not know exactly when – the Parthenon was itself converted into a mosque."
- ^ D'Ooge, Martin Luther (1909). The acropolis of Athens. Robarts – University of Toronto. New York: Macmillan. p. 317.
The conversion of the Parthenon into a mosque is first mentioned by another anonymous writer, the Paris Anonymous, whose manuscript dating from the latter half of the fifteenth century was discovered in the library of Paris in 1862.
- JSTOR 495887.
- ISBN 978-0-8050-8785-7.
- ISBN 978-0-393-31440-3.
- ^ D'Ooge, Martin Luther (1909). The acropolis of Athens. Robarts - University of Toronto. New York: Macmillan. p. 317.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-111-83695-5.
- ISBN 978-1-56656-533-2.
- Saudi Aramco World. 59 (6): 36–41. Archived from the originalon 1 August 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
- ^ a b T. Bowie, D. Thimme, The Carrey Drawings of the Parthenon Sculptures, 1971
- ^ a b c d Tomkinson, John L. "Venetian Athens: Venetian Interlude (1684–1689)". Anagnosis Books. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
- ^ Theodor E. Mommsen, The Venetians in Athens and the Destruction of the Parthenon in 1687, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 45, No. 4 (October – December 1941), pp. 544–556
- ISBN 978-90-04-11198-1. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
- ^ Tomkinson, John L. "Ottoman Athens II: Later Ottoman Athens (1689–1821)". Anagnosis Books. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0.
- ^ Murray, John (1884). Handbook for travellers in Greece, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. p. 317.
- ^ Neils, The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present, 336– the picture was taken in October 1839
- ISBN 978-0521385404.
- ^ "Collection: Ruins of the Parthenon". National Gallery of Art. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
- ^ a b Greek Premier Says New Acropolis Museum to Boost Bid for Parthenon Sculptures Archived 21 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine, International Herald Tribune
- ^ "The Parthenon sculptures: The Trustees' statement". The British Museum. Retrieved 24 January 2020.
- ^ "Talks held on Elgin Marbles row". 10 May 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
- ^ Smith, Helena (3 December 2022). "Greece in 'preliminary' talks with British Museum about Parthenon marbles". The Observer.
- ^ "Pope returns Greece's Parthenon Sculptures in ecumenical nod". ICT News. Associated Press. 16 December 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
- ^ "Acropolis Restoration Service". YSMA. Retrieved 18 July 2022.
- ^ "Crane Shifts Masonry of Ancient Parthenon in Restoration Program". AP NEWS. Archived from the original on 14 May 2022. Retrieved 14 May 2022.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "The Surface Conservation Project" (pdf file). Once they had been conserved, the West Frieze blocks were moved to the museum, and copies cast in artificial stone were reinstalled in their places.
- Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 22 February 2008.
- ^ Sakis, Ioannidis (5 May 2019). "Parthenon's Inner Sanctum to be Restored". Greece Is. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
Sources
Printed sources
- ISBN 978-0-674-36281-9.
- S2CID 41120274. Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 August 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-307-47659-3.
- D'Ooge, Martin Luther (1909). The Acropolis of Athens. Macmillan.
- Frazer, Sir James George (1998). "The King of the Woods". The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283541-3.
- Freely, John (2004). Strolling Through Athens: Fourteen Unforgettable Walks through Europe's Oldest City (2 ed.). Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 978-1-85043-595-2.
- Hollis, Edward (2009). The Secret Lives of Buildings: From the Ruins of the Parthenon to the Vegas Strip in Thirteen Stories. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-8050-8785-7.
- Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (2000). The Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archeology from the Neolithic Era to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42834-7.
- Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (2005). "The Parthenon and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia". In Judith M. Barringer; Jeffrey M. Hurwit; Jerome Jordan Pollitt (eds.). Periklean Athens and Its Legacy: Problems and Perspectives. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-70622-4.
- Neils, Jenifer (2005). The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82093-6.
- "Parthenon". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002.
- Pelling, Christopher (1997). "Tragedy and Religion: Constructs and Readings". Greek Tragedy and the Historian. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814987-3.
- Tarbell, F.B. A History of Ancient Greek Art.
- Whitley, James (2001). "The Archaeology of Democracy: Classical Athens". The Archaeology of Ancient Greece. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62733-7.
Online sources
- "Greek Premier Says New Acropolis Museum to Boost Bid for Parthenon Sculptures". International Herald Tribune. 9 October 2006. Archived from the original on 21 February 2007. Retrieved 23 April 2007.
- "Parthenon". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 5 May 2007.
- Ioanna Venieri. "Acropolis of Athens – History". Acropolis of Athens. Οδυσσεύς. Archived from the original on 24 October 2019. Retrieved 4 May 2007.
- Nova – PBS. "Secrets of the Parthenon – History". Acropolis of Athens. PBS. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
Further reading
- ISBN 0-674-01085-X.
- ISBN 978-3-7319-0300-0.
- Connelly, Joan Breton Connelly. "The Parthenon Enigma: A New Understanding of the West's Most Iconic Building and the People Who Made It." Archived 28 July 2020 at the ISBN 0-307-47659-6.
- Cosmopoulos, Michael (editor). The Parthenon and its Sculptures. Cambridge University: 2004. ISBN 0-521-83673-5.
- Holtzman, Bernard (2003). L'Acropole d'Athènes : Monuments, Cultes et Histoire du sanctuaire d'Athèna Polias (in French). Paris: Picard. ISBN 978-2-7084-0687-2.
- King, Dorothy "The Elgin Marbles" Hutchinson / Random House, 2006. ISBN 0-09-180013-7
- Osada, T. (ed.) The Parthenon Frieze. The Ritual Communication between the Goddess and the Polis. Parthenon Project Japan 2011–2014 Phoibos Verlag, Wien 2016, ISBN 978-3-85161-124-3.
- Queyrel, François (2008). Le Parthénon: un monument dans l'histoire. Bartillat. ISBN 978-2-84100-435-5..
- Papachatzis, Nikolaos D. Pausaniou Ellados Periegesis – Attika Athens, 1974.
- Tournikio, Panayotis. Parthenon. Abrams: 1996. ISBN 0-8109-6314-0.
- Traulos, Ioannis N. I Poleodomike ekselikses ton Athinon Athens, 1960 ISBN 960-7254-01-5
- Woodford, Susan. The Parthenon. Cambridge University, 1981. ISBN 0-521-22629-5
- Catharine Titi, The Parthenon Marbles and International Law, Springer, 2023, ISBN 978-3-031-26356-9.
External links
- The Acropolis of Athens: The Parthenon Archived 18 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine (official site with a schedule of its opening hours, tickets, and contact information)
- (Hellenic Ministry of Culture) The Acropolis Restoration Project Archived 24 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- (Hellenic Ministry of Culture) The Parthenon Frieze (in Greek)
- UNESCO World Heritage Centre – Acropolis, Athens
- Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County – The Parthenon Archived 28 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- The Athenian Acropolis by Livio C. Stecchini (Takes the heterodox view of the date of the proto-Parthenon, but a useful summary of the scholarship.) (archived)
- The Friends of the Acropolis
- Illustrated Parthenon Marbles – Janice Siegel, Department of Classics, Hampden–Sydney College, Virginia
- Parthenon:description, photo album
- View a digital reconstruction of the Parthenon in virtual reality from Sketchfab
Videos
- A Wikimedia video of the main sights of the Athenian Acropolis
- Secrets of the Parthenon video by Public Broadcasting Service, on YouTube
- Parthenon by Costas Gavras
- The history of Acropolis and Parthenon from the Greek tv show Η Μηχανή του Χρόνου (Time machine) (in Greek), on YouTube
- The Acropolis of Athens in ancient Greece – Dimensions and proportions of Parthenon on Youtube
- Institute for Advanced Study: The Parthenon Sculptures