Paestum
Ποσειδωνία | |
Location | Paestum, Province of Salerno, Campania, Italy |
---|---|
Region | Magna Graecia |
Coordinates | 40°25′20″N 15°0′19″E / 40.42222°N 15.00528°E |
Type | Settlement |
History | |
Builder | Colonists from Sybaris and/or Troezen |
Founded | Around 600 BC; 2624 years ago |
Periods | Archaic Greece to Middle Ages |
Site notes | |
Management | Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici di Salerno, Avellino, Benevento e Caserta |
Website | www |
Europe and North America |
Paestum (
Paestum was established around 600 BC by settlers from
Today the remains of the city are found in the modern frazione of Paestum, which is part of the comune of Capaccio Paestum in the Province of Salerno in the region of Campania, Italy. The modern settlement, directly to the south of the archaeological site, is a popular seaside resort with long sandy beaches. The Paestum railway station on the Naples-Salerno-Reggio Calabria railway line is directly to the east of the ancient city walls.
Name
The Greek settlers who founded the city originally named it Poseidonia (
Ancient ruins and features
Much of the most celebrated features of the site today are the three large temples in the Archaic version of the Greek
These were dedicated to Hera and Athena (Juno and Minerva to the Romans), although previously they often have been identified otherwise, following eighteenth-century arguments. The two temples of Hera are right next to each other, while the Temple of Athena is on the other side of the town center. There were other temples, both Greek and Roman, which are far less well preserved.
Paestum is far from any sources of good marble. Unsurprisingly, the three main temples had few stone reliefs, perhaps using painting instead. Painted terracotta was used for some detailed parts of the structure. The large pieces of terracotta that have survived are in the museum.
The whole ancient city of Paestum covered an area of approximately 120 hectares. Only the 25 hectares that contain the three main temples and the other main buildings have been excavated. The other 95 hectares remain on private land and have not been studied.
The ancient city was surrounded by defensive walls, which are largely intact. The walls are approximately 4.75 km (3 mi) long in its polygonal perimeter, typically 15 m (49 ft) high, and 5–7 m (16–23 ft) thick. Corresponding with the cardinal points, there were four main openings in the wall: Porta Sirena (east to the hills); Porta Giustizia (south, now to the modern village Paestum); Porta Marina (west to the sea); and Porta Aurea (north), which was later destroyed. Positioned along the wall were 24 square or round towers. There may have been as many as 28, but some of them (and Porta Aurea) were destroyed during the construction of a highway during the 18th century that effectively cut the ancient site in two.
The central area is completely clear of modern buildings and always has been largely so, since the Middle Ages. Although much stone has been stripped from the site, large numbers of buildings remain detectable by their footings or the lower parts of their walls, and the main roads remain paved. A low-built
The three Greek Temples
The first Temple of Hera, built around 550 BC by the Greek colonists, is the oldest surviving temple in Paestum and the one farthest south. 18th-century archaeologists named it "the Basilica" because some mistakenly believed it to be a Roman building. (The original Roman basilica was essentially a civic form of building, before the basilica plan was adopted by the Early Christians for churches.)
Inscriptions and terracotta statuettes revealed that the goddess worshiped here was Hera. Later, an altar was unearthed in front of the temple, in the open-air site usual for a Greek altar. The faithful could attend rites and sacrifices without entering the cella or inner sanctuary.
The columns have a very strong entasis or curvature down their length, an indication of an early date of construction. Some of the capitals still retain visible traces of their original paint.[7] The temple is wider than most Greek temples, probably because there are two doors and a row of seven columns running centrally inside the cella, an unusual feature.[8] This may reflect a dual dedication of the temple. Having an odd number of columns, here nine, across the shorter sides also is very unusual; there are eighteen columns along the longer sides. This was possible, or necessary, because of the two doors, so that neither has a view blocked by a column.
On the highest point of the town, some way from the Hera Temples and north of the center of the ancient settlement, is the Temple of Athena. It was built around 500 BC, and was for some time incorrectly thought to have been dedicated to Ceres.[9] The architecture is transitional, being mainly built in early Doric style and partially Ionic. Three medieval Christian tombs in the floor show that the temple was at one time used as a Christian church.[citation needed]
The
External videos | |
---|---|
smARThistory – Ancient Greek Temples at Paestum, Italy[10] |
Other archaeological features
In the central part of the complex is the Roman
.To the north-east of the forum is the
The heroön, close to the forum and the Temple of Athena, probably celebrated the founder of the city, though constructed around a century after the death of this unnamed figure. It was a low tumulus with a walled rectangular enclosure faced with large stones around it. When it was excavated in 1954 a low stone chamber with a pitched roof was discovered at the centre, half below the surrounding ground level and half above. This contained several large, rare, and splendid bronze vessels, perhaps not locally-made, and a large Athenian pottery black-figure amphora of about 520–500 BC. The bronze vessels had traces of honey inside. These are all now in the museum.[12]
Just south of the city walls, at a site still called Santa Venera, a series of small
Inscriptions make clear that during Roman times the cult was reserved to Venus.
-
The roof of theheroonchamber, after the tumulus was removed
-
The ekklesiasterion or council chamber
-
A ruined tower on the city wall
-
The Via Sacra, main street of the Roman city
Painted tombs
Paestum also is renowned for its painted tombs, mainly belonging to the
The remaining four walls of the tomb are occupied by
Sele complex
A few kilometres from Paestum there was a temple complex at the mouth of the
Art from Paestum
The
In the case of painted pottery, a number of individual artists, especially from the fourth century BC, have been identified and given notnames whose work has been found in tombs around the city and the region, and sometimes farther afield. It has been presumed that these artists were based in the city.
-
Krater of about 360 BC, now Getty Villa, California
-
bell krater, painted by Python, c. 330 BC, now at the Antikensammlung Berlin
-
Bell krater with an elderly satyr followed by young Dionysos, by Python, c. 350–325 BC, Los Angeles County Museum of Art
-
Statues ofNational Archaeological Museum of Spain
National Archaeological Museum
The highlights of the National Archaeological Museum of Paestum are mentioned above: the Sele metopes, the Tomb of the Diver, and the contents of the Heroon. The displays also show a number of large painted terracotta architectural fragments from the temples and other buildings, many Greek terracotta figurines, and incomplete larger terracotta statues, and pottery including painted vases.
-
Sele metope with Heracles killing the giant Alcyoneus, 6th century BC
-
Head of a lioness in polychromed terracotta finish, Temple of Hera, second half of the 6th century BC
-
Painted terracotta from the Temple of Athena, c. 500 BC
-
Hellenistic Greek terracotta figurines
History
Foundation
According to Strabo, the city was founded as Poseidonia (named after the Greek deity of the sea) by Greek Achaeans from Sybaris. The colonists had built fortifications close to the sea, but then decided to found the city farther inland at a higher elevation.[16] Solinus wrote that it was established by Dorians.[17] The fortifications might have been built to the south of Poseidonia on the promontory where Agropoli is now. According to the historical tradition the sanctuary to Poseidon was located there, after which the city would have been named. The date of Poseidonia's founding is not given by ancient sources, but the archaeological evidence gives a date of approximately 600 BC.[18]
Alternatively in fact, the Sybarites may have been Troezenians. Aristotle wrote that a group of Troezenians was expelled from Sybaris by the Achaeans after their joint founding of that city.[19] Gaius Julius Solinus calls Paestum a Dorian colony[20] and Strabo mentions that Troezen once was called Poseidonia.[21] As a consequence it has been argued that Paestum was founded by the Troezenians referred to by Aristotle.[22] Another hypothesis is that the Sybarites were aided by Dorians in their founding of Poseidonia.[18]
Greek period
Archaeological evidence from Paestum's first centuries indicates the building of roads, temples, and other features of a growing city. Coinage, architecture, and molded votive figurines all attest to close relations maintained with Metaponto in the sixth and fifth centuries.[23]
It is presumed that Poseidonia harbored refugees from its mother city, Sybaris, when that city was conquered by Croton in 510 BC. In the early fifth century, Poseidonia's coins adopted the Achaean weight standard and the bull seen on Sybarite coins. A. J. Graham thinks it was plausible that the number of refugees was large enough for some kind of
Poseidonia might have had a major share in a new foundation of Sybaris, which lasted from 452/1 BC until 446/5 BC. This is suggested by the great resemblance of the coins of Sybaris to those of Poseidonia during this period. Possibly a treaty of friendship between Sybaris, its allies, and the Serdaioi (an unknown people) dates to this new foundation, because Poseidonia was the guarantor of this treaty.[25][26]
Lucanian period
It is not until the end of the fifth century BC that the city is mentioned, when according to Strabo, the city was conquered by the Lucanians. From the archaeological evidence it appears that the two cultures, Greek and Oscan, were able to thrive alongside one another.
Many tomb paintings show horses and horse-racing, a passion of the Lucanian elites.
Roman period and abandonment
It became the Roman city of Paestum in 273 BC in the aftermath of the Pyrrhic War, in which the Graeco-Italian Poseidonians sided with king Pyrrhus of Epirus against the Roman Republic.
During the Carthaginian invasion of Italy by Hannibal, the city remained faithful to Rome and afterward, was granted special favours such as the minting of its own coinage. The city continued to prosper during the Roman imperial period and became a bishopric as the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pesto around 400 AD.
It started to go into decline between the fourth and seventh centuries AD, and was abandoned during the Middle Ages. The bishopric was suppressed in 1100. Like Naples and most of the surrounding region, the inhabitants presumably spoke a Greek dialect throughout its history. The decline and desertion were probably due to changes in local land drainage patterns, leading to swampy malarial conditions. Raids by "Saracen" pirates and slavers also may have been a deciding factor. The remaining population seems to have moved to the more easily defended cliff-top settlement at Agropoli (i.e. "acropolis" or "citadel" in Greek), a few kilometres away, although this settlement became a base for Muslim raiders for a period. The Paestum site became overgrown and largely forgotten, although some stone spolia were collected and used in Salerno Cathedral by Robert Guiscard (d. 1085).
Rediscovery
Despite stray mentions such as that in the history of Pietro Summonte in 1524, who correctly identified the three Doric temples as such, its ruins only came to wide notice again in the eighteenth century,[27] following the rediscovery of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and during the construction of a new coastal road south from Naples. The modern settlement had begun to revive by at least the sixteenth century, to the side of the ancient ruins. After a complicated start, the rediscovery of the three relatively easily accessible, and early, Greek temples created huge interest throughout Europe.
Giovanni Battista Piranesi visited to make a book of highly atmospheric but also accurate etchings, published in 1778; these and other prints were widely circulated.[28] The complete and relatively simple form of the temples became influential in early Greek Revival architecture.
In 1740 a proposal was made, but not executed, to remove columns for the new Palace of Capodimonte in Naples. Initially, eighteenth-century savants doubted that the structures had been temples, and it was suggested variously, that they included a gymnasium, a public basilica or hall, or a "portico".[27] There also was controversy and misunderstanding of their cultural background. Alessio Simmaco Mazzocchi, a clergyman and antiquarian, "the founder of the modern study of Magna Graecia" (the ancient Greeks in Italy),[29] thought they were Etruscan, in line with his theories that Greek colonists merely had joined existing cultures in Italy, founded by peoples from farther east.[30] He derived the etymology of "Poseidonia" from an invented Phoenician sea deity.[31]
The first modern published account of the ruins was Les Ruines de Paestum in 1764, by G. P. M. Dumont, who had been taken to the site in 1750, along with the architect Jacques-Germain Soufflot, by Count Gazzola, an engineer for the government in Naples. Gazzola had drawn or commissioned measured drawings, to which Dumont added his own, as well as, more artistic plates. There was an expanded edition in 1769, the same year when a still more extensive account was published by the Englishman Thomas Major. By 1774 there were nine different illustrated publications on the site.[32]
Second World War
On September 9, 1943, Paestum was the location of the landing beaches of the
Recent developments
In 2024, the Italian Ministry of Culture announced that two Doric style temples were uncovered at Paestum.[34]
Coins
The coins of Paestum begin about 550 BC. These early issues were perhaps all festival coins. They usually have Poseidon with upraised trident. Issues continue until the reign of Tiberius. For unknown reasons Paestum alone of all the smaller Italian mints, was allowed to continue minting bronze coins by a Senatorial decree of about 89 BC, after this had been centralized. Later coins carry "P. S. S. C.", standing for "Paesti Signatum Senatus Consulto" to reflect this.[35]
In fiction
- In his partially fictionalized travelogue, The Innocents Abroad (1869), Mark Twain includes Paestum in the itinerary in Chapter 1 of the "great pleasure excursion to Europe and the Holy Land." The itinerary includes: "Rome [by rail], Herculaneum, Pompeii, Vesuvius, Vergil’s tomb, and possibly the ruins of Paestum can be visited..."[36]
- In the novel My Ántonia (1918) by Willa Cather, the professor Gaston Cleric contracts a fever after spending the night outdoors admiring "the sea temples at Paestum".
- In the film Mare Nostrum (1926) by Rex Ingram, they visit Paestum.
- Gate to the Sea, a historical novel by Bryher published in 1958, portrays the flight of Harmonia, a Greek high priestess, from Poseidonia (Paestum), where the Greek inhabitants have been enslaved and culturally dominated by the Lucani since the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC.
- Scenes in the 1963 film Jason and the Argonauts (1963) were filmed here – notably when the Argonauts assist King Phineus (Patrick Troughton), who has been blinded and is tormented by harpies for his transgressions against the gods. In return for his advice on how to reach Colchis, the Argonauts render the harpies harmless by caging them.
- Scenes in the 1981 film Clash of the Titans (where Perseus fights and kills Medusa's guardian, a two-headed dog) take place in Paestum.
- In the 2007 video game Medal of Honor: Airborne, the second mission set during Operation Avalanche takes place in Paestum.
See also
- Architecture of Ancient Greece
- Roman Catholic Diocese of Pesto
- List of ancient Greek temples
- List of Greco-Roman roofs
- List of archaeological sites sorted by country
References
- ^ "Paestum". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
- ^ "Paestum". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
- ^ "Paestum". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
- ISBN 978-0-203-83057-4.
- ^ Lesky, Michael (Tübingen); Muggia, Anna (Pavia) (October 2006). Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.). "Poseidonia, Paistos, Paestum". Brill's New Pauly. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
- ^ Indeed, they very often are used to illustrate the style in architectural books.
- ^ "Le meraviglie di Paestum, 1:32-1:38"
- ^ ""The early temple of Hera, known as the 'Basilica'"". Archived from the original on 2019-03-07. Retrieved 2016-02-26.
- ^ ""The temple of Athena"". Archived from the original on 2019-02-25. Retrieved 2016-02-26.
- ^ "Ancient Greek Temples at Paestum, Italy". smARThistory at Khan Academy. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved December 18, 2012.
- ^ Two possible reconstructions here
- ^ a b ""The Greek town at Paestum"". Archived from the original on 2019-08-23. Retrieved 2016-02-26.
- ^ a b Rebecca Miller Ammerman, "The Naked Standing Goddess: A Group of Archaic Terracotta Figurines from Paestum", American Journal of Archaeology 95.2 (April 1991), pp. 203–230.
- S2CID 191633025.
- ^ http://www.paestum.org.uk Archived 2019-05-01 at the Wayback Machine "The Sanctuary at the mouth of the River Sele"
- ^ Strabo, Geographica 5.4.13
- ^ Solinus, Polyhistor, 2.10
- ^ a b Cerchiai, Jannelli & Longo 2004, p. 62.
- ^ Aristotle, Politics, 5.1303a.20
- ^ Gaius Julius Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi 2.10
- ^ Strabo, Geographica 8.6.14
- ISBN 978-90-04-15576-3.
- ISBN 978-0472108992.
- ISBN 978-0-7190-5739-7.
- ISBN 978-0-292-71277-5.
- S2CID 163611919.
- ^ a b Ceserani, 60
- ^ Piranesi's full title was Differentes vues de quelques restes de trois grands édifices qui subsistent encore dans le milieu de l'ancienne ville de Pesto autrement Possidonia, et qui est située dans la Lucanie, 1778
- ^ Ceserani, 49–66, 49 quoted
- ^ Ceserani, 52–59, 62
- ^ Ceserani, 62
- ^ Wilton-Ely, 118; Ceserani, 60–65
- ^ "Photo: American Red Cross ambulances by the Temple of Hera II at Paestum". Archived from the original on 2019-05-04. Retrieved 2016-01-18.
- ^ "Archaeologists uncover Doric style temples at ancient Poseidonia". 15 January 2024.
- ^ "Poseidonia" in Historia Numorum
- ^ "Chapter I - The Innocents Abroad - Mark Twain, Book, etext". www.telelib.com. Retrieved 2023-03-25.
Sources
- Cerchiai, Luca; Jannelli, Lorena; Longo, Fausto, eds. (2004). The Greek Cities of Magna Graecia and Sicily. Translated from Italian by the J. Paul Getty Trust. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-751-1.
- Ceserani, Giovanna, Italy's Lost Greece: Magna Graecia and the Making of Modern Archaeology, 2012, Oxford University Press,
- Wilton-Ely, John, The Mind and Art of Giovanni Battista Piranesi, 1978, Thames & Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-09122-6
Further reading
- Amato, Vincenzo (2009). "Geomorphology and geoarchaeology of the Paestum area: modifications of the physical environment in historical times". Méditerranée (112): 129–135. .
- Bunbury, Edward Herbert (1854). "Paestum". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.
- Cipriani, Marina (1996). The Lucanians in Paestum. Sirene. Vol. 1. Paestum: Fondazione Paestum. ISBN 978-88-86884-02-0.
- Greco, Emanuele (2006). Archaeological and Historical Guide to the Excavations, the Museum and the Antiquities of Poseidonia and Paestum. Taranto: Scorpione editrice.
- Greco, Emanuele (1993). Paestum: A Guide with Reconstructions of Ancient Monuments. Past & Present (in Italian). Vol. 171. Vision SRL. ISBN 978-88-8162-016-6.
- Higginbotham, James (2012). "Paestum (Poseidonia)". The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4443-3838-6.
- Horsnaes, Helle W. (2002). The Cultural Development in North Western Lucania c. 600–273 BC. Analecta Romana Instituti Danici Supplementum. Vol. 28. Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider. ISBN 978-88-8265-194-7.
- Pedley, John Griffiths (1990). Paestum: Greek and Romans in Southern Italy. New Aspects of Antiquity. London, England: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-39027-6.
- Strabo, Geographica 6.1
- Wonder, John W. (2002). "What Happened to the Greeks in Lucanian-Occupied Paestum? Multiculturalism in Southern Italy". Phoenix. 56 (1/2): 40–55. JSTOR 1192469.
External links
- Official website of the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum (in Italian and English)
- Information on Paestum given by the website of the archaeological superintendece (in Italian)
- Information on the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum given by the website of the archaeological superintendece (in Italian)
- Comprehensive account of site and museum Archived 2019-08-15 at the Wayback Machine