Pendau language
Pendau | |
---|---|
Umalasa[note 1] | |
Native to | Indonesia |
Region | Central Sulawesi |
Ethnicity | Pendau |
Native speakers | 3940 (2007)[1] |
Austronesian
| |
Latin | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | ums |
Glottolog | pend1242 |
ELP | Pendau |
Pendau (Ndaoe, Ndau), or Umalasa, is a
History
While the history of the Pendau has only been recently documented, a history has been pulled together through folklore and oral traditional, historical documents kept by European explorers, Pendau language developments, and the present situation of the Pendau. In contrast to neighboring groups, older Pendau men hold that the Pendau have never had a king and view themselves as having no class distinctions, although hierarchical roles did exist in decision-making and conflict resolution. The earliest document about the Pendau comes from 1795, when an American crew led by Captain David Woodward was found stranded off the west coast of Sulawesi. Between 1925-1935, Dutch-trained Indonesian evangelists began to arrive, and many of the Pendau today are registered as Christians by the government and practice Christianity (although many features of animism are still practiced). During World War II, the Japanese occupied Indonesia. Some Pendau still recite Japanese phrases and songs, although there are mixed opinions about the occupation with the occupation described as a difficult time by many who remember it. In recent history, many Pendau have made their living in metalsmithing, agriculture, hunting, fishing, and sago making.[4]
Geographic distribution
The Pendau often live in small, often isolated communities in Donggala between Balaesang and Dampal Utara. The Balaesang Peninsula forms its own mountain range that runs north and south, splitting the east and west coast. Most of the Pendau happen to live along the west coast. The Sirenja sub-district is considered the southernmost boundary of the Pendau-speaking area.[5]
Phonology
Vowels
Pendau has five vowel phonemes: two front vowels, /i/ and /e/, one central vowel /a/, and two back vowels, /ɯ/ (orthographic ⟨u⟩) and /o/. Most vowels are
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
High
|
i | ɯ ⟨u⟩ | |
Mid | e | o | |
Low
|
a |
W-glide formation
The high back unrounded vowel (/u/) changes to a
Vowel to Consonant Change and Syllable reduction | Phonetic transcription | English translation |
---|---|---|
u.a.ni → wa.ni | [wan̪i] | 'honey bee' |
ta.u.a.san → ta.wa.san | [t̪aws̪an] | 'unicorn fish' |
Consonants
Pendau has 19
Labial | Dental-Alveolar | Alveo-Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n̪ ⟨n⟩
|
ɲ ⟨ny⟩ | ŋ ⟨ng⟩ | |
Plosive | p | t̪ ⟨t⟩
|
t̪ʃ ⟨c⟩ | k | ʔ ⟨'⟩ |
b | d
|
dʒ ⟨j⟩ | ɡ | ||
Fricative | β ⟨v⟩ | s̪ ⟨s⟩
|
h | ||
Liquid | ɭ ⟨l⟩ | ||||
Trill | r̪ ⟨r⟩
|
||||
Semivowel | (w) | j ⟨y⟩ |
Allophones
In word-final positions, voiceless plosives are pronounced as
/p/ and /p̚/[8] | ||
---|---|---|
api | [api] | 'fire' |
alap | [aɭap̚] | 'take' |
/t̪/ and /t̪̚/[8] | ||
tinting | [t̪int̪iŋ] | 'time' |
udut | [udut̪̚] | 'server' |
/k/ and /k̚/[9] | ||
kareva | [kareβa] | 'news' |
tanduk | [t̪anduk̚] | 'horn' |
/n̪/ and /n̩/[10] | ||
nabo | [n̪aboʔ] | 'roof' |
ndau | [n̩dau] | 'no' |
/ŋ/ and /ŋ̩/[10] | ||
nyaa | [ŋa:] | 'don't' |
ngkaat | [ŋ̩ka:t̪̚] | 'small flame' |
Creaky voice
The glottal stop (/ʔ/) is sometimes realized as creaky voice. It has been observed that "in place of a true stop, a very compressed form of creaky voice or some less extreme form of stiff phonation may be superimposed on the vocalic stream."[11] The creaky voice manifests on one or more of the contiguous vowels where the glottal stop would have been. For example, creaky voice is written with [V̰] in [riV̰uo], where creaky voice appears between [i] and [o] as one vowel transitions into the next vowel.
ri'uo[12] | [riV̰uo] | 'in/by/at there' |
so'uya[12] | [s̪oV̰uja] | 'why' |
Syllable structure
The syllabic template in Pendau is (C)V(C). Pendau is one of the few Sulawesi languages with a full system of final consonants (e.g. the neighboring Kaili languages only allow CV and V, while demonstrated syllable patterns in Pendau include VC and CVC).[13]
Template | Instantiation | Translation |
---|---|---|
V | n.da.u[14] | 'no' |
CV | wa.ni[7] | 'honeybee' |
VC | to.nang.la.it[15] | 'the crippled one' |
CVC | wa.lan.da.no[16] | 'Walandano (village)' |
In the above example, /n/ in ndau behaves as a syllabic consonant.
p | t | c | k | b | d | j | g | m | n | ny | ng | v | s | h | ' | l | r | y | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Onset | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | + | X | X | X | X |
Coda | X | X | - | X | X | X | - | X | X | X | - | X | - | X | - | X | X | X | X |
In the table above, X means that the consonant can occupy the respective position in the syllable and + means that it is a marginal phoneme. In Pendau, /h/ is the sole
Stress
Stress always falls on the penultimate syllable and is unmarked. Words in Pendau require at least two syllables, which reflects this stress pattern. Some have described this process as "pitch accent" because the change in stress is accompanied by a change in pitch (as measured in Hz). However, Phil Quick, author of A Grammar of the Pendau Language, states that "the use of 'pitch accent' should not be confused with languages such as Japanese in which 'pitch accent' is a term used to indicate a lexical contrast similar to tone language ... So technically then there are two types of pitch-accent languages, those such as Japanese where pitch-accent is phonemic, and those such as Pendau where pitch-accent is non-phonemic."[17]
Morphology
Pendau uses
Affixation
Prefixation | ||
---|---|---|
mong- | mongkumung[18] | 'carry' |
Infixation | ||
-um- | molumolon[18] | 'swim' |
Suffixation | ||
-a' | niolla'[18] | 'brought for someone' |
Verb classes
Below is a table that lists all the verb classes in Pendau. All canonical verbs (besides stative verbs) require that the verb is prefixed with either the
Transitivity | Verb Classes | Examples | Stem former (prefix) | Pivot / subject | Irrealis / realis (prefix) | Inverse (non-derived) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TRANSITIVE | Primary | nongkomung 'to carry' |
pong-(pepe-) | A | M- / N- | ni'omung |
Factive | nogabu 'to cook' |
po- | A | nipogabu | ||
MIXED TRANSITIVITY | Dynamic | nelolo 'to search' |
pe- | A~SA | nilolo | |
Denominal | nojala 'to net' |
po- | A~SA | nijala | ||
Locomotion | nol[um]olon 'to swim' |
po- | A~SA | -- | ||
INTRANSITIVE | Postural | nopotundo 'to sit' |
popo- | SA | -- | |
Stative | notou 'to be finished' |
-- | SP | mo-no- | -- |
Clitics
Pendau uses clitics show possession (genitive case), completion, continuation, relative clauses, and location. Clitics are phonologically part of the word (e.g., a word with a clitic adheres to the stress patterns as if the whole unit were one word), but syntactically functions as their own grammatical word.[18]
='u | first personal singular (genitive) |
=to | first person plural inclusive (genitive) |
=mu | second person singular (genitive) |
=nyo | third person singular (genitive) |
=mo | completive aspect |
=po | continuative |
si= | proper noun marker (absolute) |
ni= | poroper noun marker (genitive) |
nu= | common noun marker (genitive) |
to= | relative clause marker |
ri= | general locative oblique |
Reduplication
Reduplication in Pendau is classified as either
Grammatical Number[21] | |||
---|---|---|---|
unga | 'child' | unga-unga | 'children' |
odo | 'monkey' | odo-odo | 'monkeys' |
sapa | 'what' | sapa-sapa | 'whatever' |
Nominalization[22] | |||
tinjo' | 'plant w/ stick' | titinjo' | 'planting stick, post, pole' |
pangki | 'hit, pound' | papangki | 'sago pounder' |
Emphasis[23] | |||
eleo | 'day' | seseleo | 'every day' |
souya | 'how many?' | sosouya | 'several' |
Agreement
Subject agreement only occurs with two abilitative verbs (i.e., verbs that show the ability of doing the action): ma'ule 'able' and matua 'capable.' These verbs themselves are prefixed with either the irrealis or realis mood.[24]
Irrealis | Realis | |
---|---|---|
matua[25] | natua | 'able' |
ma'ule[25] | na'ule | 'capable' |
The examples below show matua with first person subject agreement.
A’u
1SG/ABS
matua'u
capable/IRR=1SG/GEN
mengkani
IRR-AUG/DYN-eat
bau
fish
'I am capable of eating fish'
Syntax
Basic word order
The
Siama’u
PR/ABS=Father=1SG/GEN
nonuju
REAL-AUG/TR=send
siina’u
PR/ABS=mother=1SG/GEN
'MY FATHER sent my mother'
Siama’u
PR/ABS=Father=1SG/GEN
nituju
INV/REAL-send
niina’u
PR/GEN=mother=1SG/GEN
'My mother sent MY FATHER'
Inverse voice
The inverse voice (VOS) can only be used with transitive verbs, and all transitive verbs can be inflected for the inverse voice. Intransitive verbs need to become transitive verbs through derivation before they can be in the inverse voice. Otherwise, the word order in Pendau (and the word order for all intransitive sentences) is SVO.[28]
Prepositions
Pendau is a
Preposition (ila) functioning as an independent word
Preposition (ri=) functioning as a proclitic
Nenburamo
REAL-AUG-speak=COMPL
panganganta
flesh-eater
uo
yonder
sono
COM
riLatoadu
LOC=Latoadu
'The flesh-eater spoke to Latoadu'
Notes
References
- ^ "Pendau". Ethnologue. Retrieved 25 March 2019.
- ^ : 113 Pendau is listed as a 6b* (Threatened) by Ethnologue. "Pendau". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
- ^ Quick 2007, pp. 16–17.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 1-5.
- ^ "Did you know Pendau is threatened?". Endangered Languages. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
- ^ a b c Quick 2007, pp. 22–27.
- ^ a b Quick 2007, pp. 27, 68–69.
- ^ a b Quick 2007, p. 23.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 24.
- ^ a b Quick 2007, p. 26.
- ^ Quick 2007, pp. 19, 25, 47–50.
- ^ a b Quick 2007, p. 25.
- ^ Quick 2007, pp. 28–30.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 39.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 51.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 69.
- ^ Quick 2007, pp. 22, 42–46.
- ^ a b c d e Quick 2007, p. 98.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 228.
- ^ Quick 2007, pp. 162–165.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 163.
- ^ Quick 2007, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 165.
- ^ Quick 2007, pp. 18–476.
- ^ a b c Quick 2007, pp. 18, 476.
- ^ Quick 2007, pp. 19, 569.
- ^ a b Quick 2007, p. 124.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 227.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 20.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 113.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 214.
- ^ Quick 2007, p. 122.
Bibliography
- Quick, Phil (2007). A grammar of the Pendau language of central Sulawesi, Indonesia (PDF). Pacific Linguistics 590. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. OCLC 314374225.